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in the flow of heat through a pipe to air it was seen that the passage of heat into the air was not accomplished solely by conduction. instead, it occurred partly by radiation and partly by free convection. a temperature difference existed between the pipe surface and the average temperature of the air. since the distance from the pipe surface to the region of average air temperature is indefinite, the resistance cannot be computed from Ra = La/kaA, using k for air. instead the resistance must be determined experimentally by appropriately measuring the surface temperature of the pipe, the temperature of the air, and the heat transferred from the pipe as evidenced by the quantity of steam condensed in it. the resistance for the entire surface was then computed from if desired, La can also be calculated from this value of Ra, and would be the length of a fictitious conduction film of air equivalent to the combined resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiation. the length of the film is of little significance, although the concept of the fictitious film finds numerous applications. instead it is preferable to deal directly with the reciprocal of the unit resistance h, which has an experimental origin. because the use of the unit resistance L/k is so much more common than the use of the total surface resistance L/kA, the letter R will now be used to designate L/k (hr)(ft2)(oF)/Btu and it will simply be called the resistance. not all effects other than conduction are necessarily combinations of two effects. particularly in the case of free or forced convection to liquids and, in fact, to most gases at moderate temperatures and temperature differences the influence of radiation may be neglected and the experimental

In the Flow of Heat Through a Pipe to Air It Was Seen That the Passage of Heat Into the Air Was Not Accomplished Solely by Conduction

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in the flow of heat through a pipe to air it was seen that the passage of heat into the air was not accomplished solely by conduction. instead, it occurred partly by radiation and partly by free convection. a temperature difference existed between the pipe surface and the average temperature of the air. since the distance from the pipe surface to the region of average air temperature is indefinite, the resistance cannot be computed from Ra = La/kaA, using k for air. instead the resistance must be determined experimentally by appropriately measuring the surface temperature of the pipe, the temperature of the air, and the heat transferred from the pipe as evidenced by the quantity of steam condensed in it. the resistance for the entire surface was then computed from

if desired, La can also be calculated from this value of Ra, and would be the length of a fictitious conduction film of air equivalent to the combined resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiation. the length of the film is of little significance, although the concept of the fictitious film finds numerous applications. instead it is preferable to deal directly with the reciprocal of the unit resistance h, which has an experimental origin. because the use of the unit resistance L/k is so much more common than the use of the total surface resistance L/kA, the letter R will now be used to designate L/k (hr)(ft2)(oF)/Btu and it will simply be called the resistance.

not all effects other than conduction are necessarily combinations of two effects. particularly in the case of free or forced convection to liquids and, in fact, to most gases at moderate temperatures and temperature differences the influence of radiation may be neglected and the experimental resistance corresponds to forced or free convection alone as the case may be.consider a pipe wall with forced convection of different magnitudes on both sides of the pipe as shown in Fig. 3.1. on the inside, heat is deposited by a hot flowing liquid, and on the outside, heat is received by a cold flowing liquid. either resistance cab be measured independently by obtaining the temperature difference between the pipe surface and the average temperature of the liquid. the heat transfer can be determined from the sensible-heat change in either fluid over the length of the pipe in which the heat transfer occurs.

Koefisien Film, dalam aliran panas melalui pipa ke udara terlihat bahwa bagian dari panas ke udara tidak tercapai hanya dengan konduksi. Sebaliknya, hal itu terjadi sebagian oleh radiasi dan sebagian oleh konveksi bebas. Perbedaan suhu antara permukaan pada pipa dan suhu rata-rata udara. Karena jarak dari permukaan pipa ke daerah rata-rata suhu udara terbatas, perlawanan tidak dapat dihitung dari Ra = La / kaA, menggunakan k untuk udara. Bukan perlawanan harus ditentukan secara eksperimental dengan tepat mengukur suhu permukaan pipa, suhu udara, dan panas yang ditransfer dari pipa yang dibuktikan dengan jumlah uap kental di dalamnya. Perlawanan untuk seluruh permukaan kemudian dihitung dari:Ra = (hr)(oF)/BtuJika diinginkan , La juga dapat dihitung dari nilai ini dari Ra, dan akan menjadi panjang film konduksi fiktif setara udara ke resistensi gabungan dari konduksi, konveksi bebas, dan radiasi. Panjang film tidaklah penting, meskipun konsep film fiktif menemukan berbagai aplikasi. Sebaliknya adalah lebih baik untuk berhubungan langsung dengan kebalikan dari unit perlawanan h, yang memiliki asal eksperimental. Karena penggunaan perlawanan satuan L / k jauh lebih umum daripada penggunaan total permukaan tahan L / kA, huruf R sekarang akan digunakan untuk menunjuk L / k (hr ) ( ft2 ) ( oF ) / Btu dan itu hanya akan disebut perlawanan.Tidak semua efek selain konduksi yang tentu kombinasi dari dua efek. Terutama dalam kasus bebas atau dipaksa konveksi cairan dan, pada kenyataannya, untuk sebagian besar gas pada suhu moderat dan perbedaan suhu pengaruh radiasi dapat diabaikan dan perlawanan eksperimental sesuai dengan konveksi paksa atau bebas sendirian sebagai kasus.Mempertimbangkan dinding pipa dengan konveksi paksa besaran yang berbeda di kedua sisi pipa seperti ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.1, panas yang disimpan oleh cairan mengalir panas, dan di luar, panas diterima oleh cairan mengalir dingin. Baik taksi resistensi diukur secara independen dengan mendapatkan perbedaan suhu antara permukaan pipa dan suhu rata-rata cairan. Perpindahan panas dapat ditentukan dari perubahan yang masuk akal - panas baik cairan lebih panjang dari pipa di mana terjadi perpindahan panas.