In Search of Moral Knowledge by R. Scott Smith - EXCERPT

8122019 In Search of Moral Knowledge by R Scott Smith - EXCERPT

httpslidepdfcomreaderfullin-search-of-moral-knowledge-by-r-scott-smith-excerpt 138

In Search of

Moral Knowledgeovercming the fact-Value dichtmy

r Scott SMIth





IN SEARCH OF

MORAL KNOWLEDGE

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copy983090983088983089983092 by R Scott Smith

All rights reserved No part o this book may be reproduced in any orm without written permission rom

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All Scripture quotations unless otherwise indicated are taken rom the New American Standard Biblereg copyright

983089983097983094983088 983089983097983094983090 983089983097983094983091 983089983097983094983096 983089983097983095983089 983089983097983095983090 983089983097983095983091 983089983097983095983093 983089983097983095983095 983089983097983097983093 by Te Lockman Foundation Used by permission

Scripture quotations marked 983150983145983158 are taken rom HE HOLY BIBLE NEW INERNAIONAL VERSIONreg

NIVreg Copyright copy 983089983097983095983091 983089983097983095983096 983089983097983096983092 983090983088983089983089 by Biblica Inctrade Used by permission All rights reserved worldwide

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ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983088983091983096-983088 (print)

ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983096983088983090983089-983096 (digital)

Printed in the United States o America infin

InterVarsity Press is committed to protecting the environment and to the responsible use o naturalresources As a member o Green Press Initiative we use recycled paper whenever possible o learnmore about the Green Press Initiative visit wwwgreenpressinitiativeorg

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record or this book is available rom the Library o Congress

P 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089

Y 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092




CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 983097

Introduction 983089983089

P983137983154983156 O983150983141 A S983144983151983154983156 H983145983155983156983151983154983161 983151983142 W983141983155983156983141983154983150 E983156983144983145983139983155

983089 Christian Biblical Ethics 983090983091

983090 Ancient Ethics 983092983091

Plato and Aristotle on Moral Knowledge

983091 Moral Knowledge rom Augustine through Aquinas 983093983093

983092 Moral Knowledge in the Reormation andthe Enlightenment Shit 983095983091

P983137983154983156 T983159983151 N983137983156983157983154983137983148983145983155983149 R983141983148983137983156983145983158983145983155983149 983137983150983140 P983151983155983156983149983151983140983141983154983150983145983155983149

U983150983140983141983154983155983156983137983150983140983145983150983143 983137983150983140 A983155983155983141983155983155983145983150983143 T983151983140983137983161rsquo983155 D983151983149983145983150983137983150983156

M983151983154983137983148 P983137983154983137983140983145983143983149983155

983093 Options or Naturalistic Ethics 983089983088983095

983094 Naturalism Knowledge and the Fact-Value Split 983089983091983093

983095 More Modern Options 983089983093983095

Ethical Relativism Rawlsrsquos Political Liberalism and

Korsgaardrsquos Constructivism

983096 Introduction to the Postmodern Period 983089983095983097

A Plurality o Dierent Voices

983097 MacIntyrersquos Recovered homistic Ethics 983090983088983093

983089983088 Hauerwasrsquos Narrative Christian Ethics 983090983091983091




983089983089 Assessing MacIntyrersquos and Hauerwasrsquos Projects 983090983094983089

P983137983154983156 T983144983154983141983141 T983151983159983137983154983140 983137 T983144983141983151983154983161 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

983089983090 Moral Realism and Addressing the

Crisis o (Moral) Knowledge 983090983096983091

983089983091 Religiously Based Moral Knowledgemdashand Final Issues 983091983090983095

Index 983091983093983097






10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

sciences In light o such a mindset it is only fitting that we have a vast

plurality o moral opinions

For those immersed in such cultures it is easy to see how people (especiallyemerging adults) would take or granted this plurality and biurcation o acts

rom values as simply the way things are morally speaking Western cultures

such as the United States deeply reinorce the notion that morality is in the

eye o the beholder something Allan Bloom noted decades ago1048626 Indeed de-

scriptively we are very pluralistic morally However morality involves more

than just whatever is the case at its core it is a normative enterprise

But should morality be seen as being ldquoup to usrdquo and thereore deeplypluralistic Is it true that morality is basically a human construct I so

to what extent and in what way(s) Alternatively could it be that some

older ethical views that maintained that morals are not human constructs

are perhaps true afer all even though such views have been marginalized

or ldquodiscreditedrdquo

Other kinds o questions traditionally have also been part o ethics For

example what is the nature o morality and what kind o things are morals

Moreover what is their grounding ontologically Why do moral principles

or virtues have anything to do with us How does that answer relate to what

kind o thing we are How do we know what morals are How do we know

what is right or wrong or good or bad How does our ability to know these

things relate to what kind o thing we are

O course these ldquootherrdquo kinds o questions belong primarily to the

domain o two undamental philosophical branches metaphysics and epis-

temology and as they bear upon ethics In addition other disciplines have

their own contributions to ethics such as theology religion sociology and

anthropology Disciplines such as business medicine sports or politics are

subjects o ethical reflection as well Ethics simply does not seem to be an

isolated discipline

But since at least the rise o both empiricism in Western philosophy and

Kantrsquos noumenal-phenomenal distinction there have been major changes

in peoplersquos metaphysical and epistemological views Now all disciplines

2Allan Bloom ldquoIntroductionrdquo to Te Closing o the American Mind 983090983093th Anniversary Edition (New

York Simon amp Schuster 1048625983097983096983095) O course his claim was broader than just morality it was that

people see even truth as being relativistic





need implicitly or explicitly a metaphysic and an epistemology What is the

nature o what is being studied and how can we know them are core issues

or any discipline No matter what answers are given to these questions theyinvolve metaphysical and epistemological reflection and implications

Ethics is not immune to these implications Despite major shifs in ethical

theories that have been offered over the last 1048626104862910486241048624 or so years they all involve

metaphysical and epistemological implications Accordingly it should be no

surprise that we would find explicit metaphysical and epistemological in-

sights among many early ethical theorists especially until several key turns

in philosophy such as the turn to language or the turn to interpretation983091

Whether they were right or wrong in these earlier views they still worked out

their ethical theories in close conjunction with their metaphysics and episte-

mology As a ew quick examples Plato and Aristotle held core metaphysical

and epistemological views that intertwine closely with their ethics So did

Aquinas (who also incorporated theological insights) and many others

But even beore the linguistic turn there had been other major shifs in

philosophy and they affected both metaphysics and epistemology Te rise

o the importance o empiricism rationalism and materialism occurred

largely during the Enlightenment Te legacy o these shifs and others since

has been considerable such that in epistemology alone our received epis-

temic assumption starting at least with Hume is largely that the mindrsquos

contact with its objects is not one that matches up with them but makes

them Dallas Willard (1048625104863310486271048629ndash1048626104862410486251048627) calls this a ldquoMidas ouch epistemologyrdquo

such that we simply cannot know reality as it is in itsel or the very act o

epistemically accessing these objects somehow does something to what they

are thereby erecting a barrier over which the mind simply cannot reach to

access the things as they are in themselves1048628 Tis assumption leaves us with

a number o competing epistemologies yet due to this received heritage we

3In the linguistic turn philosophers seemed to have become tired o trying to show how their

metaphysical claims about reality could indeed match up with it Instead philosophers made a

shif to look into the workings o our language or we can and do talk about reality Te linguis-

tic turn represents a shif away rom the importance o doing metaphysics to that o philosophyo language See my Virtue Ethics and Moral Knowledge Philosophy o Language Afer MacIntyre

and Hauerwas (Aldershot England Ashgate 9830909830889830881048627) pp 983090983090-983090983094 I see the turn to interpretation to

be a urther move or the same kind o reason4See Dallas Willard ldquoHow Concepts Relate the Mind to Its Objects Te Godrsquos Eye View Vindi-

catedrdquo Philosophia Christi 1048625 no 983090 (1048625983097983097983097) 983093-983090983088




10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

have no way to decide which one among them should be embraced over and

against its competitors Moreover ontological shifs have helped precipitate

these epistemic ones Or so Willard and I each have argued elsewhere1048629Just as these shifs had significant impacts in metaphysics and episte-

mology broadly speaking so also they had corresponding impacts specifically

in moral ontology and moral epistemology as these philosophies were being

worked out For instance historically we have shifed in the West rom

thinking o morals largely as being real universal properties that all humans

can know (and or whom they were appropriate due to their respective na-

tures) Now people ofen conceive o morals as human products that weknow rom historically limited contingent and particular (and thereore ir-

reducibly pluralistic) vantage points Alternatively even i there were such

universal moral truths we could never know them as such because o the

more general epistemological position that no one has direct access to reality

a view that in turn trades upon key metaphysical moves As Willard once

remarked to me i people on a major university campus were to claim to

know objective truth they very well could be branded ascists In short we

largely have given up on morals as universal transcendent and objective in

their being and we have rejected them as something that all people can know

But now many ethical thinkers seem to believe they can do their theo-

rizing without regard or metaphysical epistemological or even theological

considerations Nevertheless they write and make their claims as though

they know what is the case with morals including what they are and how

we know this Yet as I will try to show our having knowledge is not indi-

erent to ontology I correct the ontological and epistemological views one

holds will make all the difference or onersquos moral theories

Indeed I believe we have reached our present moral situation due to the

moves people have made in metaphysics and epistemology (and theology)

But were these metaphysical epistemological and moral moves justified

afer all I believe we need to rethink our current ethical mindsetsmdashand the

dominant philosophical theories o today that influence themmdashto see i

rationally we really should give them our allegiance However to do that

5Eg see my Virtue Ethics and Moral Knowledge and my Naturalism and Our Knowledge o Reality

esting Religious ruth-claims (Farnham England Ashgate 9830909830881048625983090) See also Dallas Willardrsquos ldquoA

Crucial Error in Epistemologyrdquo Mind 983095983094 (1048625983097983094983095) 98309310486251048627-9830901048627





most effectively we need to understand how in the West we got to the

present moral mindsets Otherwise we may overlook any wisdom ound

in the past and we may not understand the moves others made that haveled us to the present I we do not understand those moves we will tend to

just accept our present moral mindsets as axiomatic as given Nor will we

will be able to assess rationally whether they were indeed ones that people

should have accepted

My goal will be to examine these thinkersrsquo ethics so that we can under-

stand and see i their ethical views themselves can withstand scrutiny and

make sense We also need to understand and assess their major metaphysicaland epistemological views (even i just at the level o assumptions) and how

these relate to their ethics I pertinent I also will try to show how their

theological views influence their ethics

In order to look at any given viewrsquos prospects or moral knowledge I must

examine the epistemological credentials o that moral theory I will do that

in two main ways For one i a view claims (even implicitly) to offer us

knowledge o how morality (and the rest o reality) really is but cannot

make good on that claim due to various epistemological or metaphysical

positions then that will count against the theoryrsquos rational acceptance For

another knowledge is more or less justified (or warranted) true belie1048630

Tereore we need to see i a given moral theory even on its particular

merits morally can give us justification or believing it or even to see that it

is true For instance i a moral theory could justiy such actions as murder

as right or even obligatory then it seems something has gone wrong with

that theory So I will be looking at various ethical theories in terms o moral

knowledge rom both these standpoints Can they make good epistemo-

logically on their claims about what reality is including their view o the

ldquonaturerdquo o morality And can they give good reasons why we should believe

them Alternatively do they have various problems (o whatever sort) that

undermine their rational acceptance

6I say ldquomore or lessrdquo in light o the suggested deficiencies posed by Gettier counterexamples Yeteven though he is motivated by them and thereby finds ault with the tripartite definition o

justified true belie as knowledge even Alvin Plantinga lands on a tripartite definition war-

ranted true belie as knowledge He himsel does not seem to think he needs to find additional

criteria to molliy Gettier See Plantingarsquos Warrant Te Current Debate (New York Oxord Uni-

versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

Te need to survey historically how we have arrived at the present orms

the basis or part 1048625 which encompasses chapters 1048625 through 1048628 In chapter 1048625

I will start with Christian biblical ethics since Western ethics has been in-fluenced strongly by Christianity I place it first because o its strength o

influence at least historically and because at least the oldest Old estament

writers predate the ancient Greeks Ten in chapter 1048626 I will explore the views

o Plato and Aristotle Chapter 1048627 represents a significant jump up to the

times o Augustine and then the period known as the Middle Ages We will

study his views as well as those o other religious and philosophical influ-

ences including the Jewish philosopher Maimonides the Islamic ethicistso that period and Tomas Aquinas In chapter 1048628 we will look at several

shifs that took place with the Reormers Luther and Calvin Nevertheless

when we turn to the Enlightenment we will see a significant break away

rom a largely realist line o thought Tere I will start with an examination

o Tomas Hobbes David Hume and Immanuel Kant Ten we will look at

the nineteenth-century utilitarians Bentham and Mill

While I do not intend or this historical survey to give us a detailed history

o ethics I will use it to give us understanding o how we have arrived at the

present1048631 My goal in part 1048625 is to get to the present so that we can dig in more

deeply thereafer and assess the dominant contemporary ethical views we have

inherited especially in terms o their moral epistemology and their moral on-

tology Tat is the burden o part 1048626 which spans chapters 1048629 through 10486251048625 Tere I

engage and assess more in depth the ethical views o naturalism relativism and

postmodernism probably the most deeply held amilies o ethical views today

For a number o reasons I will find them deeply unworthy o rational accep-

tance and argue that the ldquoactrdquo side o the act-value split is utterly mistaken

In chapter 1048629 I introduce naturalism as a worldview and explain how

naturalists have developed various approaches to ethics I will discuss these

mainly in terms o metaethics and then some particular emphases they have

contributed to important ethical topics such as human dignity meaning and

purpose I will try to make connections between particular views and their

implications or moral knowledge but my chie goal in this chapter is or usto understand these naturalistic views

7For that there are many other good works to consult For instance see erence Irwinrsquos three-volume

work Development o Ethics A Historical and Critical Study (New York Oxord University Press 983090983088983088983095)





However in chapter 1048630 I will turn to scrutinize one o naturalismrsquos greatest

perceived strengthsmdashour ability to know reality on its ontological basis

However I will argue that i the ontology o naturalism were true we couldnot know anything Since there are many things we do know naturalism is

alse Tis means at least that the ldquoactrdquo side o the deeply entrenched act-

value split is alse and must be rejected or it depends upon naturalism

Beore leaving views that have developed more in the modern period I

examine three more sets o ethical views in chapter 1048631 in terms o their ra-

tional acceptance as well as the prospects or moral knowledge on their

bases First is Ethical Relativism (ER) which I contend developed philo-sophically in light o empiricismrsquos and naturalismrsquos influences I will describe

and assess ER Despite its glaring rational deficiencies ER nonetheless is

attractive to many people including Christians so I believe we need to try

to understand that phenomenon Second is the social contract view o John

Rawls and third is the ldquoKantian constructivismrdquo o Christine Korsgaard

In chapters 1048632 through 10486251048625 we will explore another contemporary set o

ethical viewsmdashthose that have been influenced by the postmodern milieu

Perhaps claims to have knowledge o universal moral truths really are just

disguised assertions o a will to power or o oppression We also have today

a widely acknowledged diversity o moral ldquovoicesrdquo and it ofen seems that

there is no way to adjudicate between them1048632 Tis is a main eature o ethics

in postmodern times

Tus in chapter 1048632 I will survey a sampling o ethical voices who write in

light o the ldquopostmodern turnrdquo including not just philosophical but also

religious views I will explore the eminist views o Bev Harrison the lib-

eration theology o Gustavo Gutieacuterrez and then the communicative dis-

course ethics o Juumlrgen Habermas Finally we will touch on the more prag-

matist views o Jeffrey Stout

Having surveyed these kinds o views I will give two urther specific

case studies in order to delve into postmodern ethics in more depth Tese

views happen to be developed by two ethicists who write broadly speaking

as Christians In chapter 1048633 I ocus on the views o Alasdair MacIntyre one

8For instance I think the dominant assumption in religious ethics programs today is that we all

construct our moral views and we are lef with an irreducible plurality o moral viewpoints and

discourses (not to mention religious ones too)




10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

o the most significant thinkers in ethics today whether in philosophical

religious or theological circles Chapter 10486251048624 will look closely at the ethics o

Stanley Hauerwas who is perhaps the most influential Christian theologicalethicist today making him a key figure in religious ethics In both o their

cases I will reconsider their ethics in light o developments in my under-

standing and in chapter 10486251048625 I will offer a new critical assessment1048633

In part 1048627 I engage in my own constructive task o developing a theory to

see whether we can have moral knowledge Since much conusion exists in

epistemology in general in chapter 10486251048626 I first need to develop a theory o

knowledge that will overcome the problems we will have seen in other viewsand then I will need to apply it to ethics I will argue that knowledge o re-

ality requires a radically different ontology than most philosophers have

been willing to countenance one with the existence o immaterial sub-

stances properties that are universals and essences Not just any ontology

will work to allow us to have knowledge

Applied to morals I will argue there are at least a ew moral truths we

simply do know which means that strictly speaking the value side o the

act-value split is alse Ten I will show that the best explanation or these

ew morals is that they are metaphysically objective and universal Tese

findings will support some o the earlier ethical views we have studied

However this resultant morally realist ontology and epistemology have

urther implications how do we best explain these findings In addition

could there exist more such morals that we can know So in chapter 10486251048627 I

will argue that their best explanation is that they are grounded not just in

God but in the Christian God (and specifically in Godrsquos character) and that

means there may well be more such objective morals that we can know

through revelation In a sense then this book also supplies an extended

moral argument or the Christian Godrsquos existence

Despite my argumentation that leads to this conclusion as the most ra-

tional one to believe that finding still will not sit well with many today

9Earlier in Virtue Ethics and Moral Knowledge I criticized MacIntyrersquos and Hauerwasrsquos views dueto several problems with how they seem to understand the language-world relationship How-

ever MacIntyre has responded to those criticisms arguing that I had misinterpreted him in a

key respect By examining their views once again I will attempt to show how and to what extent

my first interpretation was mistaken and then I will offer a revised interpretation and assessment

o their projects





Tereore I consider urther contemporary objectionsmdashparticularly rom

evilmdashagainst my conclusion that the best explanation or moral knowledge

is its being grounded in the Christian God In sum I aim to show that con-trary to our received wisdom morals are best explained as being (a) meta-

physically objective and universal (b) something that we can know as such

and (c) grounded in the Christian God We can have moral knowledge and

we need to reject the many alse views that have led us to conceive o mo-

rality as merely a human construct







PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1

CHRISTIAN BIBLICAL ETHICS

To help us understand how and why we have our current moral

mindsets we need to understand how we got to our present moral con-

dition I will begin our historical survey with Christian ethics rather than

with Plato and Aristotle since the Old estament authors arguably predate

them Historically Christianity has been one o the most significant influ-

ences on Western ethics So any historically ocused account o Westernethics should consider its impact In this chapter I will concern mysel

mainly with major contours o Christian ethics rom a biblical standpoint

and its implications or moral knowledge983089 In addition I will begin to ex-

plore objections to and issues with biblical ethics1048626

O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155

Old estament ethics utilizes a mixture o different kinds o ethical rea-soning While the Law o Moses is certainly a dominant component and it

is composed o deontological commands there is much room or appeals to

other kinds o ethical reasoning too In the Old estament actions are right

or wrong in and o themselves and not necessarily because o the conse-

quences they have However there also is room or utility and consequences

For example consider the wisdom literature especially Proverbs which

1Tere are various ways to approach Christian ethics and later we will look at the views o Augustine

Aquinas Beverly Harrison Gustavo Gutieacuterrez and Stanley Hauerwas in their respective periods2Later in chapter 10486251048627 I will return to address two urther objections to situate them in a more ap-

propriate context Tose will include the objections to Godrsquos order or Israel to destroy the Canaanites

and the widely held view that Christianity is a significant root o injustice and oppression




10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

contains a measure o utilitarian reasoning Many proverbs contain explicit

descriptions o the consequences o certain actions and character traits For

instance the ool behaves in a certain way and reaps accordingly and thisappeals to a consequentialist line o thought not just deontological prin-

ciples However ultimately the Law is the ground or principles in the

wisdom literature Tereore these principles are not some reestanding

kind o system Rather than a sel-sufficient system or discovering morality

they are a supplement to the laws or principles ound in the Law

Tere is also a measure o appeal to sel-interest In Deuteronomy 104862610486321048625-1048631

Moses is charging IsraelNow it shall be i you diligently obey the L983151983154983140 your God being careul to do

all His commandments which I command you today the L983151983154983140 your God will

set you high above all the nations o the earth All these blessings will come

upon you and overtake you i you obey the L983151983154983140 your God Blessed shall you

be in the city and blessed shall you be in the country Te L983151983154983140 shall cause

your enemies who rise up against you to be deeated beore you

However in verse 10486251048629 Moses says ldquoit shall come about i you do not obey theL983151983154983140 your God to observe to do all His commandments and His statutes

with which I charge you today that all these curses will come upon you and

overtake yourdquo

What is the basis o the ethical appeal Tese are principles but the point

is to do them and you shall live or that is in your best interests Why be

cursed God does not want to destroy Israel instead Jehovah calls on them

to obey so that they may live and prosper Tereore Old estament ethicsincludes some appeal to sel-interest and utility even though the appeal to

commands and deontological principles is the overarching moti

Tere is another kind o ethical appeal in the Old estament which

people tend to call natural moral law I we look at the wisdom literature like

Proverbs observations o nature define wisdom and olly Te appeals claim

that i we do these certain things we will be blessed whereas the ool sits by

idly and becomes poor

Moreover different oracles are given to the nations by the minor prophets

and charges are made against them that they have done specific wrongs For

instance Amos addresses specific charges against nations and peoples sur-




Christian Biblical Ethics 10486261048629

rounding Israel such as Ammon (104862510486251048627-10486251048629) Tey are condemned or ripping

ldquoopen the pregnant women o Gilead in order to enlarge their bordersrdquo Tey

savagely attacked these women and their unborn simply or territorial gainIn general these peoples have committed injustice oppressed the poor and

committed wanton violence What is the implied basis or their moral re-

sponsibility In other words how were they to know not to do these things

Tough God gave Israel the Law these Gentiles should not have done these

things Te implication is that they also knew better Tereore there must

be some ldquotrue universally binding moral principlesrdquo that are knowable by

all people and are ldquorooted in creation and the way things are maderdquo whichpeople tend to call natural moral law983091

Let us turn now to examine the Law more closely So ar I have been

reerring to the Law o Moses generally but we can distinguish the moral

civil and ceremonial laws As or the moral law I will ocus especially on the

en Commandments Te civil law concerned social institutions and social

relationshipsmdashhow Israelites were supposed to treat each other Te cere-

monial law ocused on the proper worship o God

Moreover God gave the Law to the people o Israel who were supposed

to live it out individually and corporately in a theocracy Accordingly as

Scott Rae notes there is no significant distinction between a personal ethic

and a social ethic1048628 Clearly this approach differs rom our common Western

stress upon the autonomous individual

Holiness is another major theme o Old estament ethics Sanctificationmdash

being set apart as holy or Godmdashis a critical theme that also resonates closely

with the New estament Israel was to be a witness to the nations and there

were different ways or that to happen For instance God gave guidelines or

how Israelrsquos king was to behave in Deuteronomy 1048625104863110486251048630-10486251048631 ldquoMoreover he shall

not multiply horses or himsel nor shall he cause the people to return to

Egypt to multiply horses since the L983151983154983140 has said to you lsquoYou shall never

again return that wayrsquordquo1048629 God also gave prohibitions against having multiple

wives or greatly increasing silver or gold again in contrast to the other

3J P Moreland and William Lane Craig Philosophical Foundations or a Christian Worldview

(Downers Grove IL InterVarsity Press 9830909830889830881048627) p 9830921048625983088 Later in chapter 983092 we will look at what

one o the most significant Reormers John Calvin had to say about natural moral law4Scott B Rae Moral Choices 983090nd ed (Grand Rapids Zondervan 983090983088983088983088) p 98309010486255Tus some o the basic limitations were in place long beore Israel demanded a king in 1048625 Samuel 983096




10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

nationsrsquo kings even though Israelrsquos kings violated these commands1048630

ake also or example the treatment o women Israel was supposed to

treat well those women taken captive in battle whereas i other nations tookwomen captive they ofen became slaves who were mistreated or raped

However that was not to be the case with Israel For them ldquoslavesrdquo (or

better ldquotemporarily indentured servants within Israelrdquo) were all to be treated

in the same humane way Furthermore Paul Copan has argued that Israel

was not to return runaway slaves rom neighboring countries to their

masters instead they were to be protected as aliens who were vulnerable

Within Israel indentured servitude was voluntary and prompted by severeeconomic need1048631 Tus Israel was to be set apart and very different rom the

surrounding nations including in its worship o the one true God

Another major theme in Old estament ethics is obedience Tere

however obedience is never just or dutyrsquos sake as Kant would claim later

Obedience is not an end in itsel it is to cultivate and demonstrate personal

loyalty to a personal God

Notice too that God gave the Law afer he had provided or Israel afer

Jehovah had brought them out o the land o Egypt God did not give them

statutes and ordinances up ront and require obedience Instead Jehovah de-

livered them rom Egypt all the way on their journey to Mount Sinai Tere

God provided a covenant to make Israel the people o the Lord Tereore

obedience enters into ethics afer God has provided and cared or them

As a last significant theme let us examine the social dimension o Old

estament ethics Te very structure o Israelrsquos society was to reflect Godrsquos

character For one people were to practice justice (Mic 10486301048632) but the prophets

brought messages o condemnation when people had perverted it Te Year

o Jubilee also prevented injustice by prohibiting people rom becoming

dispossessed permanently rom their homeland (Lev 10486261048629) God was the ul-

timate owner o the land yet he had apportioned sections to the tribes and

the amilies within tribes held property I people became poor and could

not pay their debts they could sell their land or a time but it would revert

6Eg see 1048625 Kings 10486251048625 or the report on the results rom Solomonrsquos having many wives and concu-

bines 1048625 Kings 10486259830881048625983092-983090983097 comments on the riches he multiplied7Paul Copan Is God a Moral Monster Making Sense o the Old estament God (Grand Rapids

Baker 98309098308810486251048625)





to the original owners at the jubilee Otherwise there could be people living

permanently in poverty For another aspect the people were to trust God

such that in the sabbatical year they did not plant crops but had to trust himto provide again in the ollowing year

Consider also the law o redemption as exemplified in Boazrsquos redemption

o Ruth and her land God had provided different ways to care or the people

in society who like Ruth had lost their husbands and were vulnerable Rae

points out that the law o gleaning is a kind o ldquoworkarerdquo as opposed to

welare where the needs o the poor were provided because the landholders

were not to glean every bit o the crops1048632

Tey were to leave some crops orthe poor who had to gather them

Does this mean that Israel and Judah lived out consistently these ideals

and commands No they repeatedly strayed rom Godrsquos principles and

heartrsquos desire which became the basis or many prophetic calls to repentance

and eventually or Godrsquos judgment upon them

N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155

Te Old estament ocused on Israel as the people o God In the New es-

tament however the stress is more on morality or the church or or Chris-

tians as the body o Christ As part o New estament ethics Godrsquos people

are not under the Lawmdashthat is the ceremonial or the civil lawmdashbut the

moral law still applies Tere is the same broad objective toomdashto gloriy

God by bearing witness to his rule over the earthmdashonly now there are di-

erent means It is not through Israel as a theocratic nation but now through

the church which has a different institutional ramework or this task

Deontology remains a major emphasis in the New estament Jesus did

not nulliy the Law he came to ulfill it Still he reinterprets it by placing a

crucial emphasis not only upon actions but also intentions Christians are

not to merely go through the motions o orgiving their brother or sister

they are to orgive him or her rom the heart While deontological this

approach is not a callous rigid commitment to principles Tere is much

room or compassion as modeled by JesusIn contrast the Pharisees seem to have an unbalanced deontology with

8Rae Moral Choices p 983090983094




10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

an overemphasis on a rigid adherence to rules (including their own) and

insensitivity to people and their needs Consider Matthew 104862510486261048633-10486251048628 where

Jesus heals a man with a withered hand on the sabbath According to thePhariseesrsquo laws people were not to do any work on that day and clearly they

considered this act to be work He is grieved at the Phariseesrsquo blind ad-

herence to rules and resulting lack o compassion or the man Moreover he

is not rejecting the sabbath command but rather how the Pharisees had

misread it and lacked compassion or the person

Consider also Mark 10486311048633-10486251048627 where we have the account o the Phariseesrsquo

view o ldquoCorbanrdquo (things dedicated to God) According to them those itemscould not be used to help people in need Again Jesus condemns their

teaching and practice since a rigid adherence to laws replaced compassion

or people Tey misinterpreted the spirit o the principle and then used it

to harm people

Te primary audience o New estament ethics is Jesusrsquo ollowers Ethics

seem to flow rom the requirements or membership in the kingdom Tis

does not mean that ethical living is the same thing as membership Being a

good person does not make one a Christian and get that person into the

kingdom o heaven But Christrsquos ollowers are to live out the kingdomrsquos

values Tus obedience is very important as a consistent mark o Jesusrsquo ol-

lowers Tere is a close relationship between the moral aspects o lie in re-

lation to spiritual ones

Obviously another key aspect o New estament ethics is that it is an

ethic o love Jesus taught that the two greatest commandments are to love

the Lord with all onersquos heart soul and mind and to love onersquos neighbor as

onesel (Mt 1048626104862610486271048630-10486271048633) We are to live in utter dependence upon the Spirit in

deep heart and mind unity with God which is to counteract our deault

attitude o usurping Godrsquos throne (Gen 10486271048629) Clearly these commands are

interested in onersquos heart attitude and not merely onersquos outward behavior

As in Old estament ethics there is a special place or the poor and Jesus

models that too In Luke 1048625104862810486251048630-10486261048628 Jesus tells the parable about the people

invited to a large banquet When the invitees excuse themselves romcoming immediately the man orders his slave to bring in the poor crippled

blind and lame off the street Te man is going to throw a party and he

shows great compassion to the hurting and marginalized Likewise Jesus





shows a special place or the poor and needy in Godrsquos heart because that

shows Godrsquos unconditional love

How are Christians to live this kind o ethic Tey cannot live it out justby education and sel-discipline Instead they can live it out only in utter

dependence upon the indwelling power o the Spirit o Christ Tus the

Holy Spirit is necessary or the moral lie or a kingdom member and this

is where the virtues enter into our discussion Indeed the New estament

places a very strong emphasis on the virtues with the goal o becoming like

Jesus Yet the virtues are not divorced rom commands and principles Tey

work together such that the moral lie is not just doing the right thing oravoiding doing wrong It is about becoming like Jesus and that should issue

orth in certain kinds o actions

Te virtues are the ruit o the Spirit Tese virtues are not limited to just

the list rom Galatians 104862910486261048626-10486261048627 or many other books in the New estament

express other normative character qualities For instance in Colossians

104862710486251048626-10486251048627 Paul tells the Colossians to ldquoput on a heart o compassion kindness

humility gentleness and patience bearing with one another and orgiving

each otherrdquo Te Holy Spirit produces these virtues in Christians Yes there

are things believers are to do to cultivate them but the Holy Spirit is nec-

essary or their realization

Te virtues characterize our goal or telos o becoming like Jesus in char-

acter In contrast vices (to use Aristotlersquos term) are the ldquodeeds o the fleshrdquo

Let me examine some verses to illustrate the New estament usage o the

word telos and related word orms In Colossians 104862510486261048632 Paul writes ldquoHe is the

one we proclaim admonishing and teaching everyone with all wisdom so

that we may present everyone ully mature in Christrdquo (983150983145983158) Te goal is that

all believers reach maturity (perection or completeness) in Christ

Ephesians 104862810486251048626-10486251048627 is another example Paul is discussing the role o spir-

itual gifs in Christians which are given ldquoor the equipping o the saints or

the work o service to the building up o the body o Christ until we all

attain to the unity o the aith and o the knowledge o the Son o God to a

mature man to the measure o the stature which belongs to the ullness oChristrdquo (emphasis mine) Maturity in the New estament involves knowledge

o who Jesus is and it closely involves growing up into the ldquoullnessrdquo (or

completeness) o Christ It also involves building up the body o Christ and




10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

thus it is not a solitary individual growth process Paul continues or Chris-

tians are to grow up into all aspects into Christ in order to reach their telos

which is Christ himselo help accomplish these goals the New estament emphasis is on living

morally in community (ie the church) In his writings Paul does not have

in mind the rugged individual Rather he addresses the body o believers

as do the other apostles Christians are to love one another even as Jesus

loved them (Jn 1048625104862710486271048628-10486271048629) which cannot be done in isolation

A natural question might arise at this point Which is primary in the New

estament virtues or principles Tat is is the primary emphasis o Newestament ethics on cultivating the character o Jesus or on obedience to

commands In one sense commands are subordinate to virtues in that the

purpose o principles is to enable us to obey and cultivate the character o

Jesus Unlike Kantrsquos theory deontological commands in the Bible are not to

be obeyed in some disinterested way We are not to be disinterested about

the good1048633 Yet in another sense which we already have examined virtues

are subordinate in that Christians need principles and commands to guide

them in how the good Christian is to live Another point is that believers are

not to do their duty (ie obey New estament commands) simply or dutyrsquos

sake Rather Christians gloriy and please God by their aith and obedience

and by their becoming more like Jesus Moreover in the Old estament

obedience to God is good in itsel but God gave the laws or the peoplersquos

good In another crucial respect both principles and virtues are subordinate

to the overarching goal o bringing glory to God and living in a manner

pleasing to him Te ultimate goal thereore is not to make Christians into

rule keepers but lovers and ollowers o Jesus

One other insight to bring up about the virtues is the corollary emphasis

that they place upon human flourishing Te idea is not simply to do what

is right but to aim at our chie purpose in lie We will see how Aristotle

understands this notion but here it is worth noting that the New estament

writers see our chie end as loving and gloriying God and Godrsquos purpose

9Here I am drawing on insights given by David Horner in his paper ldquoTe Pursuit o Happiness

Why Christian Ethics Should be Eudaimonisticrdquo given at the Evangelical Philosophical Society

national meeting Atlanta November 9830901048625 9830909830889830881048627 (unpublished) See also his ldquoTe Pursuit o Hap-

piness C S Lewisrsquo Eudaimonistic Understanding o Ethicsrdquo April 9830901048625 983090983088983088983097 in the online journal

In Pursuit o ruth A Journal o Christian Scholarship wwwcslewisorgjournalp=1048625983094983097





or our lives is to make us like Jesus in our character So why should a person

be moral Because it glorifies God and is appropriate or us due to our nature

as Godrsquos image bearersIn summary biblical ethics whether in the Old or New estaments

clearly presupposes that people have knowledge o moral truths that are

what they are independently o how we think eel or even talk about them

Tat is they exist objectively and we can know them as such whether

through general revelation (using reason) or special revelation (which also

o course appeals to the use o reason)

A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155

Besides our consideration o the major ethical motis in the Old and New es-

taments there also are specific kinds o issues and objections that have been

raised against Christian biblical ethics o some o these issues we now turn

Te Euthyphro dilemma Arguably a major emphasis in biblical ethics is

on obedience to divine commands Tis raises some issues a key one o

which is the ldquoEuthyphro dilemmardquo Plato first raised this issue and others

such as the atheist philosopher Michael Martin (1048625104863310486271048626ndash) have used it since

then9830891048624 Te dilemma has two ldquohornsrdquo Is something good because God com-

mands it or does God command it because it is good

Tis issue relates keenly to divine command theory According to William

Alston (1048625104863310486261048625ndash1048626104862410486241048633) that view holds the thesis that ldquodivine commands are con-

stitutive o moral obligationrdquo983089983089 Alston is developing the work o Robert Adams

who argues that ldquoethical wrongness is (ie is identical with) the property o

being contrary to the commands o a loving Godrdquo9830891048626 Now with Euthyphro i

something is good or right because God commands it then it seems his com-

manding it makes it right It would not be right in and o itsel Or does God

command it because it is good I so then God seems subject to some external

10See Michael Martin ldquoAtheism Christian Teism and Raperdquo July 9830901048627 1048625983097983097983095 on ldquoTe Secular

Webrdquo Internet Infidels website wwwinfidelsorglibrarymodernmichael_martinrapehtml11See William P Alston ldquoWhat Euthyphro Should Have Saidrdquo in Philosophy o Religion A Reader

and Guide gen ed William Lane Craig (New Brunswick NJ Rutgers University Press 983090983088983088983090)

p 983090983096983092 Alston acknowledges that he is ollowing and developing the work o Robert Adams12Robert Adams ldquoDivine Command Metaethics Modified Againrdquo Journal o Religious Ethics 983095 no 1048625

(1048625983097983095983097) 983095983094 cited in Alston ldquoWhat Euthyphro Should Have Saidrdquo p 983090983096983092 See also Adamsrsquos chapter

10486251048625 ldquoDivine Commandsrdquo in his Finite and Infinite Goods (New York Oxord University Press 1048625983097983097983097)




10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

moral standards that he must consult beore commanding anything Tese

moral standards would exist apart rom Godrsquos creative activity Moreover Godrsquos

commanding something seems redundant and unnecessary I so why wouldGod bother to issue a commandment Would we not already know it

Let us explore the first horn o the dilemma more closely According to

it theoretically God could command something that seems clearly wrong

to us Yet because God commanded it that would make it good God could

command people to fly airplanes into the infidelrsquos buildings and that

command would make that act right Call this view theistic voluntarism

something is right because God willed it to be so Te concern here is thatthe reason why something is morally right seems arbitrary depending on

whatever God happens to will

As an initial reply we may note first that Plato is not talking about the

same God as the Christian one He was living in the time o belie in the

pantheon o Greek gods whom he did not want the rulers o the polis to

study or the gods were immoral Plato did not think seriously that these

gods even existed but even i they did they would have very different char-

acter qualities than the Christian God

However that reply does not alleviate the problem when posed against the

Christian God More importantly Christians maintain that Godrsquos character and

essence are good and that provides our standard or what good is Tereore

God cannot command just any action because Godrsquos character sets the bound-

aries on what God can do However just how successul is this reply

Alston argues that the first horn not only presents the challenge that

Godrsquos commands (and morality itsel ) are arbitrary but the theist has no way

to construe adequately the goodness o God o see this we should distin-

guish between metaphysical goodness and moral goodness Alston reminds

us that while we may be able to construe God as metaphysically good (that

is in realizing the ullness o being) this horn prevents our construing Godrsquos

moral goodness as anything but Godrsquos own obedience to his commands

However that result is not what Christian theists mean when they speak o

Godrsquos goodness Rather they have in mind Godrsquos moral perection (under-stood or instance that God is loving merciul and just)983089983091

13Alston ldquoWhat Euthyphro Should Have Saidrdquo p 983090983096983093





Alston considers a strategy or the divine command theorist that would

limit the area constituted by divine commands to creatures alone so that we

still can maintain that God is essentially good I that is possible then ldquotherewill be nothing arbitrary about his commands indeed it will be metaphysi-

cally necessary that he issue those commands or the bestrdquo9830891048628 Alstonrsquos move

involves denying that moral obligation attaches to God o help see this he

explores the meaning o the terms moral ldquoobligationrdquo and moral ldquooughtnessrdquo

For his purposes he understands them as alternative ormulations9830891048629 He

grants that when we use ldquooughtrdquo we do not merely express imperatives He

also grants or sake o argument that there are objective moral acts9830891048630

Alston proceeds to investigate whether there are any such objective moral

acts o the sort that God ought to do some action What kind o acts would

they be When we think o God as perectly good in terms o his actions

Alston contends that we think it is supremely good that God acts as he does

What is at stake he observes is what is added by claiming that this is how

God ought to act As Alston points out ldquoI it adds nothing there can be no

objection to speaking o how God ought to actrdquo9830891048631

However in terms o analogies with ourselves there is clear a difference

between what is a good thing to do and what we ought to do For instance

Alston considers how it would be a good thing to learn Sanskrit but he

would not be under an obligation to do so Tis suggests that one re-

quirement or an ldquooughtrdquo statement is that general practical principles or

rules apply and set orth the conditions in which an action is required

merely permitted or altogether orbidden9830891048632 Tese rules he argues are in

orce only with respect to agents with whom there is ldquoa possibility o their

playing a governing or regulative unctionrdquo and that possibility can occur

only with agents who can violate them Accordingly social mechanisms can

reinorce appropriate behavior as well as sanction inappropriate actions9830891048633

Importantly then moral principles as a kind o these practical prin-

ciples apply only to agents who can violate them However in the case o an

14Ibid15Ibid p 98309098309698309216Ibid p 98309098309698309517Ibid18Ibid19Ibid pp 983090983096983095-983096983096




10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

agent who necessarily will act in accordance with them it is hard to see how

there is any sense in which we can say that that agent ought to do some

action A Tat is ldquothere is no oothold or the lsquooughtrsquo there is nothing tomake the ought-principle true rather than or in addition to a actual

statement that S will (necessarily) act in this wayrdquo10486261048624

Now Alston applies these findings to the first horn o the Euthyphro di-

lemma Te divine command theorist may maintain consistently that divine

commands are constitutive o the acts o moral obligations In addition

these acts do not apply to God or the reasons seen above Since God is

essentially good he necessarily will act in accordance those acts and so hisgoodness does not consist o obedience to his own commands Moreover

ldquoGodrsquos commands to us are an expression o his perect goodnessrdquo1048626983089 Accord-

ingly it seems Alston has rebutted successully the first hornrsquos objections to

divine command ethics

Let us now address the second hornrsquos issues Tey were (1048625) God seems

subject to some urther standard Tat is to call God good seems to require

some prior notion o goodness In addition (1048626) Godrsquos commanding some-

thing seems redundant since we would know it already Regarding the first

just because we may need various ways to know that God is good it does not

ollow that God is not the ground or goodness itsel

On the second point while it is true that we probably can figure out some

natural moral truths through our reason (eg intentionally flying airplanes

into buildings in order to terrorize and murder people is wrong) it seems

we can suppress what we know to be true Alternatively we can sear our

consciences by deliberate choices to pursue what is wrong In addition

sometimes we do disagree morally with each other Tereore it does not

seem to be the case that even i we already know some moral truth Godrsquos

commanding it would be redundant

Still Martin objects that appealing to Godrsquos character simply postpones

the problem in two ways For one ldquoi Godrsquos character is the way it is because

it is good then there is an independent standard o goodness by which to

evaluate Godrsquos characterrdquo10486261048626 Moreover

20Ibid p 98309098309698309621Ibid p 98309098309798308822Martin ldquoAtheism Christian Teism and Raperdquo p 983093





Suppose Godrsquos character is good simply because it is Godrsquos character Ten i

Godrsquos character were cruel and unjust these attributes would be good But

could not one reply that God could not be cruel and unjust since by necessityGod must be good It is true that by necessity God must be good But unless

we have some independent standard o goodness then whatever attributes

God has would by definition be good1048626983091

Nevertheless as we have seen this argument is wrongheaded As we saw

with Alston Paul Copan argues ldquoGod does not say keep promises because

he ought to (which would imply some external moral standard) Rather the

theist claims that God will keep promisesrdquo since it is impossible or God notto act morally10486261048628

For another Martin argues that we do not need God or there to be moral

goodness even i moral goodness is part o his essence Consider benevo-

lence as an essential attribute o moral saints Even i there were no saints it

does not ollow he claims that benevolence would not be a property o

anything Similarly i we do not need moral saints to have benevolence then

we also do not need God or there to be moral goodness even i moral

goodness is part o his essential nature10486261048629

For now let me reply simply that the theist need not claim that morality

would be impossible without God Tat is there are some moral truths

people just know whether theists atheists or something else and Martin

has given us several such examples However there is another significant

issue involved with answering his second objection and that is to give an

adequate explanation o what moral properties are At this stage in our

historical sketch we have yet to see other options people have suggested

or the metaphysical status o morals including Martinrsquos own ontology

which is naturalistically based But surveying and assessing the various

options metaphysically is what we will do as we progress through the

coming chapters

Now let us turn to a second set o preliminary issues or Christian bib-

lical ethics which involve considerations o natural law

23Ibid p 98309424Paul Copan ldquoCan Michael Martin Be a Moral Realistrdquo Philosophia Christi 1048625 no 983090 (1048625983097983097983097) 98309498309225Michael Martin ldquoA Response to Paul Copanrsquos Critique o Atheistic Objective Moralityrdquo Philoso-

phia Christi 983090 no 1048625 (983090983088983088983088) 983095983093-983096983097 See also Copanrsquos rejoinder ldquoAtheistic Goodness Revisited A

Personal Reply to Michael Martinrdquo Philosophia Christi 983090 no 1048625 (983090983088983088983088) 9830971048625-1048625983088983092




10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

Various issues with natural law First some Christians have regarded

natural law as useless I so then why bother appealing to it Second does

our knowledge o natural moral laws come rom culture andor our up-bringing Tird does natural law commit the is-ought (or naturalistic)

allacy Fourth i natural moral laws are grounded in creation and known

by reason should we not all agree on what counts as morally natural Yet

people have disagreed on such matters such as the morality o slavery that

Americans in the southern states practiced How do we account or that

First on some Christiansrsquo views natural moral law is in effect useless

because people are so radically allen Tat is sin has corrupted us such thatwe cannot know without special revelation what is wrong or right I think a

view that natural law is in effect useless due to the extent o the allrsquos impact

upon us goes too ar I it were useless then I should not be able to appeal to

peoplersquos reasoning to know that there are moral principles (eg murder is

wrong rape is wrong) that are true However on many occasions I have been

able to do so and people have understood and agreed While we will never

get a long list o detailed moral commands and virtues rom natural law

nevertheless it does seem that different peoples are able to know some basic

moral truths Moreover biblical passages such as Romans 104862510486251048632-10486261048624 and 104862610486251048628-10486251048629

show that Paul expected people even without the revealed Law o Moses to

know enough about Godrsquos character and attributes rom creation to be ac-

countable or their actions

On the other hand according to biblical ethics to say that we do not need

deontological principles given to us by God also goes too ar It presupposes

that there is no problem with our knowing these things Yet we all have

much capacity to rationalize away what we know to be good and not do it

especially when we have a strong sel-interested desire to do otherwise

Furthermore on Christian ethics what God commands ought to have a

strong relationship to natural law Tey should not be so radically dichot-

omous to have no relationship with each other For instance our reason tells

us that murder is wrong but suppose that all o a sudden God willed us to

murder and thus made it right Tere would be a radical disconnect betweenwhat we know by reason and what (allegedly) would have been given by

special revelation It should not be that way especially i Godrsquos character is

good and i God acts consistently with his character





I people are not so radically allen as to make natural moral law useless

then it can provide a basis or appealing to reason and revelation as ways

to know moral truth and so biblical ethics has a way to apply to all peoplenot just to believers By reason and intuition all people can know moral

truths which God has revealed in nature Moreover biblically specially

revealed moral truths act as a consistent supplement and specification o

natural law

As a second issue does such knowledge o natural moral laws come rom

training Tat is is our knowledge o such truths due to our upbringing and

or our culture Certainly different cultures may have even radically differentethical views For example they may practice treachery as a virtue I so it

seems they are not going to be able to see treacherous actions as being

wrong For instance Don Richardson talks about the Sawi tribe and his

amilyrsquos work among them as a missionary in his book Peace Child10486261048630 Te

Sawi in one tribe treacherously would invite people rom another tribe to

eat a meal with them However afer eating they would kill and eat their

guests including their brains in order to show their total domination over

them Tus when he first explained the story o Jesus they greatly esteemed

Judas who treacherously had betrayed Jesus unto death or money

He also explains that the Sawi people highly valued the Richardsonsrsquo help

as they brought important technology (or example saws) to help them

build their homes and medicine that preserved their lives rom devastating

diseases When intense fighting broke out with neighboring villages and

Richardson thought that its continuation was due to their presence there he

made it known that they must leave However that occasion gave an op-

portunity or another important Sawi moral principle to surace Te Sawi

told him that i their violence would drive him and his amily away then

they would make peace with their neighbors

Tey did this by exchanging a child a peace child rom each tribe which

the other tribe raised and cared or more careully than even its own children

Obviously this required a tremendous heart-wrenching sacrifice by a amily

rom each tribe but the importance o making peace with each other out-weighed their value o treachery and continued violence and death For the

26Don Richardson Peace Child (Ventura CA Regal Books 1048625983097983095983093)







As a third issue does natural moral law commit the is-ought allacy

Tat is how do we justifiably derive what ought to be simply rom what

is the case Tis latter question raises an issue that will resurace severaltimes during our overall study For now let me limit my comments to our

present ethical ocus Tat is on a biblical ethic all people are intrinsi-

cally moral beings since all are image bearers We are like God in that we

have moral intellectual spiritual relational and other capacities10486261048632 Tus

certain things are appropriate or inappropriate or us due to our nature

We bear Godrsquos image and a key part o that is being moral I so then on

this view the ldquooughtrdquo can be derived rom what ldquoisrdquo the case since we areintrinsically moral beings Now this brie discussion about this issue with

natural law will not address all issues associated with it However we will

return in part 1048627 to the question o whether our nature does indeed have

an intrinsic moral dimension

As a ourth issue even i some moral positions seem to be justified by

appeals to nature or creation over time people still may disagree over

whether they are true or alse For instance today it is clear to Americans

that the kind o slavery practiced in the southern states is wrong Tey not

to mention others have come to a point now where they see that such

slavery clearly is wrong but o course that was not always a widely held

view Slave owners in the South even tried to justiy their moral position by

appealing to the nature o Aricans Abolitionists on the other hand could

appeal to the intrinsic wrongness o treating ellow humans as mere property

as a moral act grounded in nature Such issues and appeals to intuition we

will discuss more when we address relativism For now let us note that we

know some moral truths more intuitively than others and some seem to be

very clear or example that murder is wrong However as with the example

o slavery i some people did not see slaves as persons then the orce o that

moral truth would not really hit them

Moral conflicts Another key issue with biblical ethics is what we are to

do when two moral principles conflict (apparently or actually) Can people

live out both moral principles consistently Tis issue will help us makedistinctions between absolute and objective morals

28And as we will see on a substance dualist view o human nature it is true that we all have such

capacities whether or not they are ever developed into realized properties




10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

Consider first the Hebrew midwives Let us look at Exodus 104862510486251048629-10486261048625

Ten the king o Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives one o whom was

named Shiphrah and the other was named Puah and he said ldquoWhen you are

helping the Hebrew women to give birth and see them upon the birthstool i

it is a son then you shall put him to death but i it is a daughter then she shall

liverdquo But the midwives eared God and did not do as the king o Egypt had

commanded them but let the boys live So the king o Egypt called or the

midwives and said to them ldquoWhy have you done this thing and let the boys

liverdquo Te midwives said to Pharaoh ldquoBecause the Hebrew women are not as

the Egyptian women or they are vigorous and they give birth beore the

midwie can get to themrdquo So God was good to the midwives and the people

multiplied and became very mighty Because the midwives eared God He

established households or them

Pharaoh commanded them to kill but apparently they lied and God

blessed them How do we account or this A first option denies that such

conflicts even can happen Tat is God would not give commands that con-

flict On that view the person should trust God to open the way out o such

apparent dilemmas10486261048633 Yet in Joshua 1048626 it seems that Rahab did ace a real

conflict On the one hand i she were to tell the truth to the authorities o

her hometown Jerichomdashthat she knew where the Israelite spies were lo-

catedmdashthen they would have aced punishment or torture perhaps even

death Furthermore in so doing she would have displeased their God She

told the spies she knew that their God was the true God and the God o

Israel had pronounced a rightul judgment upon Jericho She wanted to

identiy hersel with the people o the true God On the other hand i she

were to lie to her authorities then she could preserve the spiesrsquo lives

Tere still are two more options Te second holds that yes there can

be real moral conflicts since we are in a allen world but it still is wrong

when one does not obey all the commands Tat is the midwives acted

wrongly by lying to Pharaoh but that act was the lesser o two evils

However there is a moral problem with this view in that a person has a

duty to sin We are blameworthy it seems i we do the lesser evil eventhough there is no choice Moreover the act that we would be held blame-

29Eg Rae makes this suggestion on p 1048627983093 o Moral Choices





worthy even though we could do nothing about it seems morally wrong

Tere is a third option however that holds that in cases o actual moral

conflict we do no wrong i we do ulfill the morally more important o thetwo commands in conflict Consider the example o Nazis at the door o a

house in occupied Holland Tey barge in and demand to know i the resi-

dents have any Jews in their house Suppose in act they are hiding Jews I

the residents say yes at the least the Jews will be tortured and likely mur-

dered However i they lie then they have sinned What should they do

o help answer this let us consider two kinds o moral truths to see i we

can make distinctions between absolute and objective moral truths Let ustry to unpack our ways to compare them Te our ldquodimensionsrdquo we will

consider are metaphysics epistemology scope and applicability First meta-

physically what are these things Te answer is that both absolute and ob-

jective morals are transcendent immaterial and universal Yet biblically

Godrsquos character still grounds them Second epistemologically how do we

know them Te same way applies or both we know them by general rev-

elation (reason) and special revelation

What are they in terms o scope Both objective and absolute morals are

or all people However in terms o applicability we may make a distinction

between them In the Nazi case i telling the truth is an absolute it means

that the moral principle always applies without any exceptions On an ab-

solutist view in terms o applicability the residents would have to tell the

soldiers ldquoYes we do have Jews hererdquo

On an objectivist view however there is a hierarchy o moral principles9830911048624

Prima acie one should obey the moral principles that are in conflict However

like the Nazi example in cases o genuine conflict when one simply cannot do

both actions one should obey the morally weightier principle Consider again

the case o the midwives In their response to Pharaoh they do no wrong as

evidenced by Godrsquos not having them repent o a wrong done Tey did not tell

the truth but something much more important outweighed it983091983089

30Consider eg Matthew 1048625983090 and 9830909830901048627983092-983092983088 on a moral hierarchy31A reviewer suggested that just because the midwives did no wrong (since God did not ask them to

repent) that seems like an ldquoodd criterion or whether or not God does in act approve o somethingrdquo

Tis is a good caution Te reviewer also suggested polygamy in the Old estament as a counter-

example to my line o argumentation Nevertheless my context here has been to discuss morals in

cases o genuine conflict when you cannot do both I do not think this alleged counterexample fits that




10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

Does this approach make obedience to the moral principle situationally

relative No or it is right in terms o the metaphysical epistemological and

scope dimensions o both objective and absolute morals It even is intrinsi-cally right Here however something morally weightier overrode its applica-

bility Crucially the conflict must be genuine and not merely onersquos own ration-

alization to justiy onersquos preerences able 10486251048625 helps categorize these findings

Table 11 Absolute and Objective Morality in Biblical Ethics A Comparison

Absolute Morals Objective Morals

MetaphysicallyWhat are morals

Transcendent universal moralproperties that are what they arewhether or not anyone believesthem or talks about them (theyare mind-independent) biblicallythey are grounded in God

Identical

EpistemologicallyHow do we know them

Reason or special revelation Identical

ScopereferenceTo whom do they apply

All people Identical

ApplicabilityCan they be overridden in

cases of genuine conflict Alternatively when dothey apply

No they apply 100 of the time Yes they can There is a hierarchy ofobjective moral truths In cases of

genuine conflict the morally moreimportant principle outweighs theless important one (eg do notmurder versus do not lie)

C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150

In Christian biblical ethics at least as traditionally conceived morals are

objectively real and God grounds them Tey are true and they are nor-

mative or all people due to our nature as image bearers Tese moral truths

are knowable as such in part by reason (general revelation) and more com-

pletely and precisely in special revelation (Scripture) Having finished this

introduction to biblical ethics we now will turn to address the thought o two

ancient philosophers Plato and Aristotle in terms o their ethics especially

regarding what morals are and how we know them





IN SEARCH OF

MORAL KNOWLEDGE




InterVarsity Press






InterVarsity Press











ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983088983091983096-983088 (print)

ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983096983088983090983089-983096 (digital)





P 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089

Y 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092




CONTENTS



P983137983154983156 O983150983141 A S983144983151983154983156 H983145983155983156983151983154983161 983151983142 W983141983155983156983141983154983150 E983156983144983145983139983155


983090 Ancient Ethics 983092983091




P983137983154983156 T983159983151 N983137983156983157983154983137983148983145983155983149 R983141983148983137983156983145983158983145983155983149 983137983150983140 P983151983155983156983149983151983140983141983154983150983145983155983149

U983150983140983141983154983155983156983137983150983140983145983150983143 983137983150983140 A983155983155983141983155983155983145983150983143 T983151983140983137983161rsquo983155 D983151983149983145983150983137983150983156

M983151983154983137983148 P983137983154983137983140983145983143983149983155














P983137983154983156 T983144983154983141983141 T983151983159983137983154983140 983137 T983144983141983151983154983161 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141




Index 983091983093983097






10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141



























isolated discipline
















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











IN SEARCH OF

MORAL KNOWLEDGE




InterVarsity Press






InterVarsity Press











ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983088983091983096-983088 (print)

ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983096983088983090983089-983096 (digital)





P 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089

Y 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092




CONTENTS



P983137983154983156 O983150983141 A S983144983151983154983156 H983145983155983156983151983154983161 983151983142 W983141983155983156983141983154983150 E983156983144983145983139983155


983090 Ancient Ethics 983092983091




P983137983154983156 T983159983151 N983137983156983157983154983137983148983145983155983149 R983141983148983137983156983145983158983145983155983149 983137983150983140 P983151983155983156983149983151983140983141983154983150983145983155983149

U983150983140983141983154983155983156983137983150983140983145983150983143 983137983150983140 A983155983155983141983155983155983145983150983143 T983151983140983137983161rsquo983155 D983151983149983145983150983137983150983156

M983151983154983137983148 P983137983154983137983140983145983143983149983155














P983137983154983156 T983144983154983141983141 T983151983159983137983154983140 983137 T983144983141983151983154983161 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141




Index 983091983093983097






10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141



























isolated discipline
















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











InterVarsity Press






InterVarsity Press











ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983088983091983096-983088 (print)

ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983096983088983090983089-983096 (digital)





P 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089

Y 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092




CONTENTS



P983137983154983156 O983150983141 A S983144983151983154983156 H983145983155983156983151983154983161 983151983142 W983141983155983156983141983154983150 E983156983144983145983139983155


983090 Ancient Ethics 983092983091




P983137983154983156 T983159983151 N983137983156983157983154983137983148983145983155983149 R983141983148983137983156983145983158983145983155983149 983137983150983140 P983151983155983156983149983151983140983141983154983150983145983155983149

U983150983140983141983154983155983156983137983150983140983145983150983143 983137983150983140 A983155983155983141983155983155983145983150983143 T983151983140983137983161rsquo983155 D983151983149983145983150983137983150983156

M983151983154983137983148 P983137983154983137983140983145983143983149983155














P983137983154983156 T983144983154983141983141 T983151983159983137983154983140 983137 T983144983141983151983154983161 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141




Index 983091983093983097






10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141



























isolated discipline
















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











CONTENTS



P983137983154983156 O983150983141 A S983144983151983154983156 H983145983155983156983151983154983161 983151983142 W983141983155983156983141983154983150 E983156983144983145983139983155


983090 Ancient Ethics 983092983091




P983137983154983156 T983159983151 N983137983156983157983154983137983148983145983155983149 R983141983148983137983156983145983158983145983155983149 983137983150983140 P983151983155983156983149983151983140983141983154983150983145983155983149

U983150983140983141983154983155983156983137983150983140983145983150983143 983137983150983140 A983155983155983141983155983155983145983150983143 T983151983140983137983161rsquo983155 D983151983149983145983150983137983150983156

M983151983154983137983148 P983137983154983137983140983145983143983149983155














P983137983154983156 T983144983154983141983141 T983151983159983137983154983140 983137 T983144983141983151983154983161 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141




Index 983091983093983097






10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141



























isolated discipline
















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150












P983137983154983156 T983144983154983141983141 T983151983159983137983154983140 983137 T983144983141983151983154983161 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141




Index 983091983093983097






10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141



























isolated discipline
















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150













10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141



























isolated discipline
















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486251048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141



























isolated discipline
















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150

















































10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486251048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






































































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150












































versity Press 10486259830979830971048627)




10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486251048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
























































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150































in postmodern times

















10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486251048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

































o their projects


















PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150

























PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150














PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











PART ONE

A Short History

of Western Ethics







1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150














1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











1











O983148983140 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155














10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486261048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141

















overtake yourdquo





















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150















































10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486261048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141
































Baker 98309098308810486251048625)



















N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150


























N983141983159 T983141983155983156983137983149983141983150983156 E983156983144983145983139983155




















10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486261048632 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141












to harm people




























































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150















































10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486271048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141















































A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150




















A F983141983159 P983154983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983154983161 I983155983155983157983141983155 983159983145983156983144 983137983150983140 O983138983146983141983139983156983145983151983150983155 983156983151

B983145983138983148983145983139983137983148 E983156983144983145983139983155



























10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486271048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141





































































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150













































10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486271048628 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141






























































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150






































coming chapters









10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486271048630 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150

















natural law



































































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150

















































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150















































10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486281048624 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










































































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150
















































10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150











10486281048626 I983150 S983141983137983154983139983144 983151983142 M983151983154983137983148 K983150983151983159983148983141983140983143983141










Identical









C983151983150983139983148983157983155983145983151983150









Documents

In Search of Moral Knowledge by R. Scott Smith - EXCERPT