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In Defense of Societal IssuesAs Organizers forSchool Science

Robert E. Yager

Analysis and debate within scienceeducation is desirable�just as it isin science itself. Such is the situationwith respect to new organizers forstudy of science. Whatever the or-ganizer, one should be sure that itdoes justice to the goals of generaleducation. Some of the traditionaltopics which characterize traditionalcourses seem to ignore such goalsand do not characterize science.They often create the illusion thatscience is finished, that it is a setbody of knowledge. The traditionalorganization of science courses sug-gests that science can only be experi-enced after all that is known is mas-tered. Further, the traditionalcourses suggest that science is pre-determined to exist in neat disciplinepackages, that it is free of socialforces, and that it has no relevancein meeting personal needs or in re-solving social issues. There appearsto be no evidence that using non-tra-

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ditional topics as organizers will make science more subject to manipula-tion and perversion; there seems to be no evidence that using the majorarguments of our time as points of departure for science study would bedisastrous. In some ways such suggestions seem .undesirable and absurd.Perhaps students who experience science in more relevant settings will in-sist upon study in more depth; perhaps more will want to study evenmore science because they can readily see its value.

It seems reasonable that the scientific community, including those stu-dents and scholars who have "won" with the traditional system of edu-cation, would insist that such traditional approaches are best. They havelearned to operate comfortably within a structure of discipline-boundproblems. One needs to keep in mind, however, that only 16% of theAmerican public has a Bachelor’s degree; few of these (perhaps 10% atmost) are in science fields; that the number with M.S. and Ph.D.’s in sci-ence are even fewer. Is there any reason to believe that such persons whoare in such a minority can be the best judges of appropriate science (andorganizers for the study of science) for all students?Kromhout and Good seem unaware of the science/technology move-

ments in other countries. There are three national efforts in the UnitedKingdom. There are similar moves in Europe, Israel, Australia, andsome African nations. One of the major reports supported by the Na-tional Science Board Commission on Pre-College Science, Mathematics,and Technology Education calls for two years of required science and so-ciety courses in grades 9 and 10 for all U.S. students. The same reportcalls for a third course for llth and 12th grade students�at least forthose not aspiring to careers in science and technology.The efforts in the United Kingdom seem to meet the criterion of socie-

tal issues as organizers. These efforts are endorsed and sponsored by theprestigious Association for Science Education. There does not seem to bea disaster in the U.K.; nor does anyone seem to fear manipulation andperversion.Could it be that Kromhout and Good are too tied to their own expe-

riences�to their own traditional frame of reference? After all, it is alltoo common to cling to our own experiences, to patterns we find com-fortable and useful! It is often difficult to consider the interests andframes of reference of others. Teaching science in a way it is known toscientists was a focus during the 1960s; presumably this was a way tomake science exciting and meaningful for all students. Since the adventof such "new" courses as structured by the scientific community, enroll-

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ments have dropped by more than 50%. Perhaps the flight from sciencehas been caused by past failures�failures to help students use knowledgeand evidence to resolve current issues and problems.

Robert E. YagerUniversity of IowaScience Education CenterIowa City, Iowa 52242

HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT EXPERIMENTS

Two of the medical experiments conducted on this flight of Columbia wereproposed by high school students. As winners in the first annual Shuttle StudentInvolvement Project, (SSIP) Amy Jusske of Wilson High School, Long Beach,Cal. and Karia Hauersperger of East Mecklenburg High School, Charlotte, N.C.combined experimental test procedures to study the human body’s response toweightlessness.To get their experiments on board the Shuttle, both students entered the na-

tionwide SSIP contest and had their proposals critically examined by scientistsand educators along with hundreds of other proposals. Experiments werechecked for scientific validity and interest, safety, and feasibility. Kusske andHauersperger were two often finalists from the first competition. Another of thefinalists, Todd Nelson, flew his experiment on Columbia’s third flight in Marchof 1982.

Kusske’s experiment is titled, "The Effects of Diet, Exercise, and Zero Grav-ity on Lipoprotein Profiles." Lipoprotein, found in the blood, can be used topredict the likelihood of someone contracting atherosclerosis and coronary dis-ease. (Atherosclerosis is a common form of arteriosclerosis.) To make predic-tions, the relative concentrations of high density and low density lipoproteinswere compared. Exercise increases the ratio between the two types of lipopro-teins and decreases the risk factor for contracting either disease.During the flight, Columbia’s crew kept diet and exercise logs. Blood samples

of each crewmember were taken during regular physical examinations seven andtwo days before the flight and upon touchdown. Copies of the logs and results ofthe blood samples are being studied by Kusske.

Hauersperger’s Experiment, "The Effects of Space Travel on Level of Trival-ent Chronium in the Body" also required the daily diet logs of the crewmembersand the results of the blood samples.Her experiment is looking at any alterations that occurred in chromium me-

tabolism during the flight. Serum levels of insulin are known to change slightlyduring space flight and insulin helps control body use of carbohydrates. Chro-mium is a cofactor (substance which must be present in low quantities for an en-zyme to work) for insulin.To assist the two students in their experiments, corporate sponsors and NASA

scientists were selected to serve as advisors.

School Science and MathematicsVolume 83 (8) December 1983