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IMPACT STRENGTH OF WOVEN KENAF FIBRE
REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITE PLATES
SITI NOR AZILA BINTI KHALID
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
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IMPACT STRENGTH OF WOVEN KENAF FIBRE REINFORCED POLYESTER
COMPOSITE PLATES
SITI NOR AZILA BINTI KHALID
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
AUGUST 2017
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“Special dedication to my beloved family Khalid Mat Ali and Bedah Md Ali, to my
supportive siblings, to my fiancée Ayub, to my research team, and to my entire
friends, thanks for everything”.
DEDICATION
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility
to complete this thesis. Firstly, special thanks to my Supervisor, Associate Professor
Dr Al Emran bin Ismail for his consistent encouragement, advice, precious guidance
throughout the course of this research and writing this thesis.
I also would like to record my sincere appreciation and gratitude to my
Co-Supervisor, Associate Professor Dr Muhd Hafeez bin Zainulabidin, whose help
and encouragement throughout the time of this study. In addition, special
appreciation the contribution is made to En. Zakaria, En. Adam, En. Nizam, for their
cooperation is in handling tools in the UTHM laboratory, and onwards makes this
research going smoothly.
Very special thanks to my beloved family for their support, encouragement
and payer to Allah S.W.T. Similar appreciation goes to my team member‟s work for
their advice and sharing their experience together. Finally to others who have
contributed either directly or indirectly towards the successful completion of this
research. May Allah blessing give and happiness is upon you always. Amin
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ABSTRACT
Natural fibre composition is a brilliant option for the most widely applied fibre in the
composite innovation such as covers; car doors panel and car roofs. The advantages
of natural fibre composites are renewable, low cost, low density and tend to
decompose (biodegradability). In the recent years, there have been many researchers
involved in the field of natural fibre reinforced plastic. Most of them studied based
on composite reinforced with short and non-woven fibres related to issues such as
poor fire resistance, variable quality and lower strength properties. This study
focused on the composite woven structure from the woven kenaf fibre based on their
higher capability to absorb energy. This method using Taguchi for optimization
which can reduce the time consumed rather than using experimental approach.
Composites were prepared using the hand lay-up method with three different
weaving patterns, namely plain, twill, and basket. The hardened composites were
cured for 24 hours before it was shaped according to specific dimensions ASTM
D3763 and D3039 for impact and tensile tests. The highest energy absorption for
plain, twill, and basket were 30.412, 36.026 and 32.509 Joule respectively. The
effect of weave patterns and orientations was significant on energy absorption
performance. Although, from three woven weaving patterns the twill types showed
an improvement on impact strength of energy absorption compared to the plain and
basket woven in all orientations among the others composites. After optimization, the
value of energy absorption with percentage ratio of plain, twill and basket woven
was 27.681 (9.86%), 32.770 (8.26%) and 29.893 (8.75%) Joule respectively. The
result was still under acceptable range since it was below 10% deviate value from
actual result which was due to material yarn size under control and sensitivity to
dynamic loading. Result on tensile test shows the highest mechanical behaviour after
using new orientation which is increasing 3.77%. It indicated that, the natural fibre
was very sensitive with impact loading.
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ABSTRAK
Komposisi gentian asli ialah pilihan terbaik untuk gentian paling banyak digunakan
dalam inovasi komposit seperti pelindung; panel pintu dan bumbung kereta.
Kelebihan komposisi gentian asli iaitu boleh diperbaharui, kos dan ketumpatan yang
rendah serta mudah terurai (terbiodegradasikan). Baru-baru ini, ramai penyelidik
terlibat dalam bidang komposisi plastik diperkuat gentian. Kebanyakan mereka
mengkaji berdasarkan komposit diperkuat oleh gentian pendek dan tanpa tenun yang
berkaitan dengan isu ketahanan api yang rendah, kualiti bahan berbeza dan
ketahanan yang lebih rendah. Kajian ini tertumpu pada struktur tenunan komposit
daripada tenunan gentian kenaf kerana keupayaannya yang tinggi dalam penyerapan
tenaga. Kaedah ini dengan menggunakan Taguchi untuk mengoptimum dapat
mengurangkan masa berbanding menggunakan kaedah ujikaji lain. Komposit dibuat
menggunakan kaedah pengacuan sentuh dengan tiga corak tenunan yang berbeza
iaitu biasa, kepar dan reraga. Komposit dibiakan mengeras selama 24 jam sebelum
dibentuk mengikut dimensi yang telah ditetapkan ASTM D3763 dan D3039 untuk
ujian hentaman dan tegangan. Penyerapan tenaga paling tinggi bagi tenunan biasa,
kepar dan reraga ialah 30.412, 36.026 dan 32.509 Joule. Corak dan orientasi tenunan
memberi kesan terhadap penyerapan tenaga. Walaubagaimanapun, di antara tiga
corak tenunan kain, komposit jenis kepar menunjukkan kekuatan hentaman
penyerapan tenaga yang lebih baik berbanding dengan tenunan biasa dan reraga.
Selepas pengoptimuman, nilai penyerapan tenaga dan peratus perbandingan bagi
tenunan biasa, kepar dan reraga ialah 27.581 (9.86%), 32.770 (8.26%) dan 29.893
(8.75%) Joule. Keputusannya masih dalam julat boleh terima kerana di bawah 10%
nilai sisihan daripada keputusan sebenar disebabkan oleh saiz benang tenunan dalam
kawalan serta kepekaan terhadap bebanan dinamik. Keputusan ujian tegangan
menunjukkan tindakan mekanikal paling tinggi selepas menggunakan sudut dan
orintasi sampel baru dengan peningkatan sebanyak 3.77% setelah pengoptimuman.
Keadaan ini menunjukkan gentian asli sangat peka terhadap bebanan dinamik.
viii
CONTENTS
DECLARATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
ABSTRAK vii
CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xx
LIST OF APPENDICES xxi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Objective of Study 4
1.4 Scope of Study 5
1.5 Outline of the Thesis 6
1.6 Summary 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Fundamental of Crashworthiness 7
ix
2.3 Composite 10
2.4 Natural Fibre 12
2.5 Kenaf Fibre 19
2.6 Experimental Method 22
2.6.1 Chemical Treatment 22
2.6.2 Layers and Orientations 26
2.6.3 Woven and Non-Woven Composite 30
2.6.4 Vacuum Infusion 35
2.6.5 Taguchi Method 36
2.6.6 Advantages of Taguchi Method 42
2.7 Summary 43
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 44
3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Woven Fabrications 46
3.2.1 Plain Weave 48
3.2.2 Twill Weave 49
3.2.3 Basket Weave 50
3.3 Composite preparations for impact test 51
3.4 Composite Preparations for Tensile Test 55
3.5 Taguchi Method Parameters and Variables 56
3.6 Testing Method 60
3.6.1 Tensile Test 60
3.6.2 Impact Test 63
3.7 Fracture Observation and Analysis 65
3.8 Summary 65
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Impact Tests 67
4.2.1 The Effect of Different Angle Orientations on
Energy Absorption for Plain Woven 68
4.2.2 The Effects of Fibre Orientations on Force-
Displacement Curves 70
x
4.2.3 The Effects of Fibre Configurations on Force-
Displacement Curves 74
4.2.4 The Effects of Orientations on Energy
Absorption 78
4.2.5 The Effects of Orientations on Force Peak 81
4.3 Taguchi Method Results 85
4.3.1 Signal to Noise (S/N) ratios for energy
absorption optimization 85
4.4 After optimization 92
4.4.1 Energy Absorption after optimization 92
4.4.2 The Effects of Impactor Velocity on Energy
Absorption 96
4.4.3 The Effects of Impactor Speed on Force-
Displacement 97
4.5 Tensile Test 100
4.5.1 Mechanical Behaviour of different woven
type 100
4.5.2 Stress-Strain Curves of Twill Woven 103
4.5.3 Comparing twill woven with new angle after
optimization 105
4.6 Composite Fragmentations 109
4.6.1 Composite Fragmentation on Impact Test
using different Orientation 109
4.6.2 Composite Fragmentation on Impact test
using different velocity 115
4.6.3 Composite Fragmentation on Tensile Test of
twill woven 119
4.6.4 Tensile test after optimization 121
4.7 Summary 122
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 124
5.1 Introduction 124
5.2 Conclusion 125
5.3 Recommendation 126
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REFERENCES 127
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 140
Appendix A 142
Appendix B 147
Appendix C 152
Appendix D 157
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
2.1 Comparison between natural and glass fibres
(William et al. 2000) 15
2.2 Natural fibre properties (Rome, 2009) 16
2.3 Natural fibre composition (William et al. 2000) 17
2.4 Properties of kenaf fibre and polyester resin
(Rassmann et al., 2000) 20
2.5 Tensile strength of kenaf bast fibre under
different alkali treatment (Hashim et al.,
2014) 25
2.6 Experimental setup for sample orientation
(Alam et al., 2010) 27
2.7 Design with degraded column (Roy,
1990) 39
3.1 The arrangement of angle [-15°/40°/75°] using
Taguchi method 58
3.2 The arrangement of angle [0°/45°/90°] using
Taguchi method 58
3.3 Taguchi method rules 58
3.4 Trial angle of experimental using Taguchi
method [-15°/40°/75°] 59
3.5 Trial angle of experimental using Taguchi
method [0°/45°/90°] 59
4.1 Taguchi method expresses the experimental
results energy absorption for plain1 woven 86
4.2 Response (S/N) for plain1 woven 86
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4.3 Taguchi method expresses the experimental
results energy absorption for plain2 woven 88
4.4 Response (S/N) for plain2 woven 88
4.5 Taguchi method expresses the experimental
results energy absorption for twill woven 89
4.6 Response for Signal to Noise Ratios (S/N) for
twill woven 90
4.7 Taguchi method expresses the experimental
results energy absorption for basket woven 91
4.8 Response for Signal to Noise Ratios (S/N) for
basket woven 91
4.9 Percentage of error before and after
optimization 96
4.10 Comparison mechanical properties of kenaf
composites from this research with previous
research 108
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
2.1 Road safety and traffic data index 2000=100
(Road safety annual report, 2015) 8
2.2 Damage stage during impact (Dhakal et al.,
2007) 9
2.3 Formation of composite material using fibres
and resin (Mazumdar, 2002 and Safri et al.,
2014) 10
2.4 Scheme of manufacturing of composite
materials (Das et al., 2012) 11
2.5 Examples of use of Natural Fibres in several
applications 14
2.6 Classification of natural fibres (Akil et al.,
2011) 14
2.7 Natural fibre hierarchal structure (Bos et al.,
2006) 18
2.8 Comparison of specific modulus of kenaf
fibrewith several other fibres (Akil et al., 2011
and Zampaloni et al., 2007) 20
2.9 Typical image of (a) kenaf plantation (b) kenaf
fibre (Saba et al., 2015) 21
2.10 The result of kenaf treatment under impact test
(Suhairil et al., 2012) 23
2.11 Tensile modulus comparison among virgin and
treated composites (Liao et al., 2016) 24
2.12 Impact strength of untreated, treated, and
stretch-treated composite (Saiman, 2014) 24
xv
2.13 Energy absorption against fibre composition
(Hashim, 2016) 26
2.14 The energy absorption of five layers of non-
woven hemp fibre 27
2.15 Mechanical properties between different
orientations of the GRP composite (a) hardness
(b) impact strength (c) tensile strength (Alam et
al., 2010) 28
2.16 Load displacement curves of axially crushed
composite tube with fibre orientation (a) 0°/90°
(b) -15°/75° (c) -75°/15° (d) 30°/-60° (e) 60°/-
30° (f) 45°/-45° (Mahdi et al., 2014) 29
2.17 Fabric formation by interlacing two yarn sets
on a loom 31
2.18 Example of typical weave pattern (a) plain (b)
twill (c) basket 32
2.19 Specific flexural strength and specific young‟s
modulus of woven fibre jute and flax (Bledzki
et al., 2001) 33
2.20 Several types of plain woven natural fibre (a)
jute woven and (b) flax woven (Meredith, et
al., 2012) 34
2.21 Image of (a) unidirectional jute (b) plain woven
jute fabric (c) nonwoven jute fabric composite
and (d) plain woven jute fabric composite
(Arifuzzaman et al., 2013) 35
2.22 Pictorial depiction and additional steps using
Taguchi method 38
2.23 Plot of S/N ratio as a function of input
parameters for (a) tensile and (b) flexural
(Rostamiyan, 2015) 40
2.24 S/N response forparameters; processing
temperature (A), processing speed (B),
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processing time (C), and fiber size (D) (Shekeil
et al., 2013) 41
3.1 Flow chart for the experimental works 45
3.2 Simplified drawing of a two-harness shuttle
loom (Kadolph, 2007) 47
3.3 Fabrication of woven kenaf (a) yarn kenaf and
(b) yarn setup 47
3.4 Kenaf plain woven 48
3.5 Kenaf twill woven 49
3.6 Kenaf basket woven 50
3.7 Preparation of composite (a) fabrics cutting and
(b) silicone spray 51
3.8 Illustration of four layers kenaf composite 52
3.9 Schematic diagram (a) ply angle and (b)
stacking angle for composite [45°/0°/45°/90°] 53
3.10 Composite fabrication (a) woven arrangement
in the mould and (b) poured with polyester 54
3.11 Hydraulic press machine 54
3.12 Final process of composite (a) sample after
compression (b) cutting process and (c) final
sample 55
3.13 Composite fabrications (a) angle of orientation
(b) fabric in mould and (c) final sample 56
3.14 Typical tensile specimen 60
3.15 Schematic diagram of hydraulic universal
testing machine (ASM international, 2004) 61
3.16 Universal Testing Machine in UTHM
laboratory 62
3.17 The instrumented drop tower arrangement on
the impact machine (Dhakal et al., 2007) 64
3.18 SHIMADZU Hydroshot Impact Test Machine
in UTHM laboratory 64
4.1 The identification of total energy absorbed 68
4.2 Energy absorption for plain1 and plain2 woven 69
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4.3 Force-Displacement of Plain1 woven 72
4.4 Force-Displacement of Plain2 woven 72
4.5 Force-Displacement of Twill woven 73
4.6 Force-Displacement of Basket woven 73
4.7 Force-Displacement curves for S1 type
orientation 75
4.8 Force-Displacement curves for S2 type
orientation 76
4.9 Force-Displacement curves for S7 type
orientation 77
4.10 Force-Displacement curves for S8 type
orientation 77
4.11 Energy absorption with different type of woven 78
4.12 Energy absorption for plain1 woven 79
4.13 Energy absorption for plain2 woven 80
4.14 Energy absorption for twill woven 80
4.15 Energy absorption for basket woven 81
4.16 Force peak for plain1 woven 83
4.17 Force peak for plain2 woven 83
4.18 Force peak for twill woven 84
4.19 Force peak for basket woven 84
4.20 The main effects plot (data means) of S/N
ratios for plain1 woven 87
4.21 Main effects plot (data means) of S/N ratios for
plain2 woven 89
4.22 Main effects plot (data means) of S/N ratios for
twill woven 90
4.23 Main effects plot (data means) of S/N ratios for
basket woven 92
4.24 Energy absorption of plain1 woven after
optimization 94
4.25 Energy absorption of plain2 woven after
optimization 94
xviii
4.26 Energy absorption of twill woven after
optimization 95
4.27 Energy absorption of basket woven after
optimization 95
4.28 Energy absorption of woven with different
velocity 96
4.29 Force-Displacement for plain1 woven with
different speed 98
4.30 Force-Displacement for plain2 woven with
different speed 99
4.31 Force-Displacement for Twill Woven with
different speed 99
4.32 Force-Displacement for Basket woven with
different speed 100
4.33 Young‟s Modulus for different type of woven 102
4.34 Tensile Strength for different type of woven 103
4.35 Stress strain curves of twill woven 104
4.36 Schematic of tensile progress 105
4.37 Young‟s Modulus for twill woven 106
4.38 Tensile strength for twill woven 107
4.39 Effect on energy absorption on fragmentation
length 110
4.40 Fragmentation of plain1woven 111
4.41 Fragmentation of plain2 woven 112
4.42 Fragmentation of twill woven 113
4.43 Fragmentation of basket woven 114
4.44 Fragmentation different velocity on plain1
woven 116
4.45 Fragmentation different velocity on plain2
woven 116
4.46 Fragmentation different velocity on twill
woven 117
4.47 Fragmentation different velocity on basket
woven 117
xix
4.48 Fragmentation length with different velocity 118
4.49 Tensile test fragmentations for twill woven 120
4.50 Tensile test after optimization 122
xx
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
- Original cross section area
D, d - Diameter (mm)
E - Young‟s modulus
Em - Energy at maximum load point
J - Joule
- Length (mm)
P - Maximum load (kN)
S/N - Signal to noise
V - Volume (mm3)
- Fibre volume
W - Weight
- Weight of the fibre
- Density of the matrix
ε - Strain
π - Pai
σ - Stress
% - Pecentage
° - Degree
- Elongation of the gage length
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
NaOH - Natrium Hydroxide
NF - Natural Fibre
NKTB - National Kenaf and Tobacco Board
RMP - Royal Malaysian Police
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Title Page
A Plain1 Woven Impact Test Result 142
B Plain2 Woven Impact Test Result 148
C Twill Woven Impact Test Result 153
D Basket Woven Impact Test Result 158
1
1CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
In the recent years, industries actively attempt to reduce the dependence on
petroleum based fuels and products due to the increasing environmental
consciousness. This leads to the need to investigate environmentally friendly and
sustainable materials to replace the existing ones. The increases of production and
usage of plastics in every sector of our daily life lead to massive plastic wastes.
Disposal problems, as well as strong regulations and criteria for a cleaner and safer
environment, have influenced such a great part of the scientific research towards
eco-composite materials. Among the different types of eco-composites, those which
contain natural fibres (NF) and natural polymers are the ones more preferred to be
used.
There are few studies which deals with structural composites based on natural
reinforcements. These studies are mainly oriented towards housing applications
where structural panels and sandwich beams were manufactured out of natural fibres
and used as roofs (Akil et al., 2011). Considering the high performance standard of
composite materials in terms of durability, maintenance and cost effectiveness, the
application of kenaf natural fibre reinforced composites as construction material
holds enormous potential and is critical to achieve sustainability. Due to their low
density and their cellular structure, natural fibres possess very good acoustic and
thermal insulation properties and demonstrate many advantageous properties
compared to fiberglass.
One of the main important aspects of the behaviour of natural plant fibre
reinforced polymeric composites is their response to an impact load and the capacity
2
of the composites to withstand their service life. Such damage may be caused by
bumps or crashes, falling objects and debris. Some of the reported work
(Bledzki et al., 2002) has suggested that natural fibre composites are very sensitive to
impact loading. The major drawback is its low impact strength as compared to glass
fibre reinforced thermoplastic and thermosets composites. In a broader context,
assessing the impact resistance of a composite material is always hard since the
damage manifests itself in different forms such as delamination at the interface, fibre
breakage, matrix cracking and fibre pulls out.
Natural plant fibres can be economically and ecologically useful alternative
to reinforcement fibres in polymeric composites. Due to their low density and low
cost in comparison to conventional fibres, kenaf fibre reinforced composites have
great potential to be use in engineering applications. A growing environmental
awareness across the world has aroused interest in research and development of
environmentally friendly and sustainable materials. Natural plant based fibre were
used as reinforcements for composite materials and give various advantages
compared to conventional fibres.
Malaysian considered kenaf as the next generation of major industrial crop in
line with economic policy and development to create new sources and at the same
time heavily promotes its production growth, to make it abundant, inexpensive and
readily available. Understanding the importance of kenaf as a potential for profit bio
resource, the Malaysian National Kenaf and Tobacco Board (NKTB) announced
nationwide cultivation process, which involve wide area and as many farmers in
eight states in Malaysia in the year 2013 (Saba, 2015). Based on their growth rate,
kenaf are now involved in several provinces of Malaysia such as Pahang, Kelantan,
Terengganu, Perak, Johore, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Malacca.
From the research reviews, these studies highlight to explore properties of
industrial kenaf to project it as a prospective energy absorbing in the Malaysia which
could be alternative sources of future energy demands in a growing population. To
the best of knowledge (Zampaloni et al., 2007 and Kumar et al., 2014), till now, there
are lack significant work has been done in this area by using Taguchi method to
optimize higher energy absorption from kenaf reinforcement. In the prospective of
the ever increasing demand of the automotive sources, and mechanical strength of
kenaf natural fibre (Akil et al., 2011), so kenaf fibre are selected in this research.
3
Furthermore, in this study, impact tests were carried out on woven kenaf
reinforced unsaturated polyester composite. A low velocity instrumented falling
weight impact test method was employed to determine load–deformation, load–time,
absorbed energy–time and velocity–time behaviour for evaluating the impact
performance in terms of load bearing capabilities, energy absorption and failure
modes. The post-impact damage and failure mechanism of fractured specimens was
assessed by high camera resolution. The impact response of woven kenaf reinforced
polyester composites was also analysed using Taguchi method and their impact
response characteristics were discussed. Taguchi method to be used in this studied to
reduce the experimental work.
1.2 Problem Statement
Vehicle crashworthiness has been improving in recent years with attention mainly
directed towards reducing the impact of the crash on the passenger. Efforts has been
made in experimental research in establishing safe theoretical design criteria for the
mechanic of crumpling, providing the engineers with the ability to design vehicle
structures so that the maximum amount of energy should dissipate while the material
surrounding the passenger compartment is deformed, thus protecting the people
inside. The attention given to crashworthiness and energy absorbing has been
focused on composite structures.
In the recent years, there have been many researchers (Wambua et al., 2003,
Aziz et al., 2005, Shalwan & Yousif, 2013 and Rao & Roa, 2007) who involved in
the field of natural fibre reinforced plastics. On the other hand, the increased interest
in using natural fibres as reinforcement plastic to substitute conventional synthetic
fibre in some structural applications has become one of the main concerns to study
the potential of using natural fibre. Most of them are based study on the mechanical
properties of composites reinforced with short and non-woven fibres. Several
research has been conducted on woven natural fibre composites (Saiman, 2014,
Bledzki et al., 2001, Meredith et al., 2012 and Arifuzzaman et al., 2013), normally on
hemp and jute, but only a small portion has been exploited for woven kenaf. This
would affect the mechanical properties of the composites.
4
Normally, mechanical properties of kenaf mixed other ingredients, such as
fibreglass (Ghani et al., 2012 and Davoodi et al., 2010) were studied. Hybridization
with glass fibre provides a method to improve the mechanical properties on natural
fibre composites (Yuhazri & Dan, 2008, Jayabal et al., 2011, Salleh et al., 2012 and
Sharba et al., 2016). Even though many researchers mentioned that hybrid composite
can improve strength, in this study, kenaf was developed personally to find that it can
be reach or replace the composites that already have in order to reduce cost instead of
glass fibre is an expensive material. However, there are several issues such as their
poor fire resistance, variable quality, depending on unpredictable influences such as
weather and lower strength properties. In the light and due to the versatility and
enormous potential, it is currently being explored by this research by some aspect
such as woven and orientation performance. Development of new techniques has
always been the most important part in any research activities for improvements in
costs and less environmental impacts.
Furthermore, less of work reported in the literature on the Taguchi orthogonal
arrays of orientation woven kenaf fibre reinforced composite. In this research various
woven types and orientations are applied to study the effects on mechanical
properties of natural based composite. Kenaf woven composite with several
orientations were exploited to find new composite with higher capability of energy
absorption and furthermore can replace the conventional material that were used
before. As well known, bonding strength depended on physical absorption, bonding
between fibre layer orientation and the matrix resin. This study focused on
evaluating the composite from natural fibre woven kenaf with several of orientations.
The optimum orientation of composite was obtained to produce non-structural parts
for the automotive industry applications such as covers, car doors panels and car
roofs.
1.3 Objective of Study
In this study, woven kenaf fibre reinforced composites were developed. Then the
composites were impacted to measure the behaviour and failure mechanisms.
Therefore, several research objectives were proposed as follows:
5
1. To evaluate the energy absorption of kenaf woven composites with different
fibre orientations.
2. To determine the impact strength of different type of weaving pattern plain,
twill and basket.
3. To optimize impact energy absorption by Taguchi method.
4. To correlate the relationship between impact speed and energy absorption on
kenaf woven composites.
1.4 Scope of Study
Kenaf fibre was used in this study. It was in the form of yarn 1mm in diameter.
There were some types of woven that were used namely plain, twill and basket.
Kenaf yarn were weaved into woven with degree of warp 0º and weft 90º for plain
and basket, meanwhile 45º for twill woven. The weaving process used handloom
machine. Four layers of woven kenaf were studied and orientated using different
angles by Taguchi Method before it was positioned into steel mould. Polymeric resin
that was used polyester. The resins were poured into the mould and it was then
compressed to squeeze out the excessive resin. The hardened composite was shaped
into 100 x 100 x 3 mm and 250 x 25 x 3 mm according to ASTM D3763 and D3039
standards for impact and tensile tests.
The composite plates were testing using different fibre orientations in order to
study the composite input resistance. Taguchi method was performed to optimize the
fibre orientation with respect to experimental results. After experimental results were
obtained, energy absorption of composite was analysed. Finally, the new samples
were fabricated as suggested by Minitab software to approximately predict the value
of energy absorption of woven kenaf composite. The impact test was carried out with
three different velocities which are 1, 2 and 10 m/s. The velocities was varied and
applied, in order to observe the correlation between speed and mechanical behaviour
of composites. The fragmentation of composites of the composites after impact and
tensile loading were observed to examine the relationship between the damaged
shape and the impact behaviour.
6
1.5 Outline of the Thesis
This section has been constructed to give details in order to address the objectives.
Five chapters including introduction were composed to present the series of the
thesis layout. The following of each chapter are:
Chapter 1: Introduction. This chapter contains overviews of the research work
background, problem statement, objective to archive, scope and aim of study.
Chapter 2: Literature Review. This chapter consists of some crashworthiness,
composite and natural fibre background, as well as relevant experimental
studies on the response and impact. This followed by reviews on the related
research topics from previous researches.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology. The details of the experimental work were
explained in this chapter. The samples preparation, fabrication method and
equipment used in the research activities were described.
Chapter 4: Result and Discussion. These chapters discuss the result obtained
from the methodology flow. Data were analysed and compared with previous
research.
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Future Work. The conclusion of the present work.
The conclusions from experimental and investigations are presented. The
future works as recommendations are also stated in this chapter.
1.6 Summary
This chapter consisting of general introduction that traditionally organized to explain
the background of study, problem statement, objective and scope of study. The aim
of this study focused on the process that can demonstrate the energy absorption on
impact loading in natural fibre composite namely, kenaf fibre composites based on
experimental work using Taguchi orthogonal array method.
7
2CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presented the literature reviews of past and current works on impact
engineering on composite natural fibre under low velocity impact. Natural fibres
have gained attention in composite making since they are sustainable, renewable, and
environmental friendly. However, there are some drawbacks characteristics such as
low tensile strength, low modulus and low flexural strength compared to industrial
synthetic fibres. Various techniques had been used included optimization process to
improve the mechanical properties of the reinforced composite. From the literature
survey, kenaf was one of the selected natural fibres that had been heavily discussed.
Good number of journal papers has studied on cultivation of kenaf and its consequent
effect, chemical treatment, matrix combinations with glass fibre, processing
techniques such as Taguchi method, environmental effects on composites and critical
length. Furthermore, it has high potential as industrial fibre due its natural property
and driven by the development of kenaf cultivation in Malaysia.
2.2 Fundamental of Crashworthiness
Crashworthiness refers to the quality of response for a certain type of vehicle when it
experienced an impact. The less damages the vehicle or its occupants and content
after an impact, the higher crashworthiness of the vehicle or the better its
crashworthy performance (Johnson, 1990). The physics of impact involves of energy
and momentum when a moving object strikes a structure. The kinetic energy of the
8
impact loading body were be partially converted to strain energy and partly
dissipated through friction and local plastic deformation. Thus strain energy radiated
away as stress waves (Christopher, 2012). The research and development of energy
absorption structure and materials, where kinetic energy during impact or intense
dynamic loading dissipated, has received attention since the 1970s especially from
the automobile and military industries (Guoxing & Tongi, 2003).
In Malaysia, a lot of concern was directed towards road accident statistic,
which rises alarmingly high throughout the years. The Royal Malaysian Police
(RMP) is the agency responsible for collecting crash data. Figure 2.1 statistically
shows a road safety and traffic index from years 2000 until 2014. Based on
provisional data by the RMP, there were 6674 road deaths in 2014. From the data,
the injury crashes were increase from years 2000 until 2014. The form covers
information on vehicles involved, environment, injury and background of the crash
as well as information on the victim. An impact analysis of Malaysia‟s safety
interventions shows that the road safety programme which started in 1998 was able
to significant reduce traffic deaths. This closely related with crashworthiness as well
as impact crush, where the vehicles and passengers experienced an impact. In
general, the selection of material and composite arrangement is very important for
the safety of passenger if any accident occurred.
Figure 2.1: Road safety and traffic data index 2000 = 100
(Road safety annual report, 2015)
YEAR
Num
ber
of
Acc
iden
t
Fatalities Injury crashes Motor vehicles
9
Figure 2.2: Damage stage during impact (Rydin et al., 1995)
There are several researches on impact damage that has been conducted
related with crashworthiness (Kamaruddin, 2015, Liu et al, 2011 and
Qiau et al., 2006). It is necessary to study the impact damage to examine the affect
towards consumer. Figure 2.2 shows the damage stages during impact of a specimen.
Correlation between the influence of load level and level of damage was plotted. At
stage 1, there is no damage occurred. Matrix cracking occurs at stage 2 as the load
increases. As the load further increases, the size and extent of the matrix cracking
developed; interfacial debonding occurred at stage 3. This, in turn, leads to
delamination, then fibre breakage, and finally perforation of the impacted specimen
at stage 4.
The impact performance of target specimens can be characterised by
calculating the loss of kinetic energy of the impact mass during impact. By
measuring striking velocity and residual velocity, energy absorption by the impacted
specimens can be analysed using the following formula:
2 21
2i rE m v v (2.1)
Forc
e (k
N)
Displacement (mm)
10
where; E is energy dissipated by the target during impact, m the mass of the
impactor, is the residual velocity after rebound or perforation and can also be
considered as initial and final velocity, respectively.
2.3 Composite
A composite consists of an integral combination of two or more material, which were
put together in a particular way in order to obtain specific properties superior to those
of their constituents. Simple composite materials consist of a reinforcement phase
embedded in a continuous matrix (Summerscales et al., 2010). Normally, composite
material was formed by reinforcing fibres in a matrix resin as shown in Figure 2.3
(Mazumdar, 2002 and Safri et al., 2014). The reinforcement or filler material
enhances and strengthens the properties of matrix while the matrix transfers the
applied stresses to the reinforcement. The wide variety of matrix and reinforcing
materials allows the designer to choose the optimum combination which produced
specified properties for a given application. Figure 2.4 shows the schematic diagram
of composite materials manufacturing (Das et al., 2012).
Figure 2.3: Formation of composite material using fibres and resin
(Mazumdar, 2002 and Safri et al., 2014)
Fibre Resin Composite
11
Figure 2.4: Scheme of manufacturing of composite materials (Das et al., 2012)
Most of the mechanical devices and elements, which were made of metals,
polymers and composite materials, were designed to absorb impact under axial
crushing, bending and/or combined loading. The energy absorbing capability differs
from one component to the next in a manner which depends on the mode of
deformation involved and the material used (Mamalis et al., 1997).
Researchers (Akil et al., 2011, Grasso et al., 2015, Qiao et al., 2008 and
Mohamad, 2016) has studied about the impact and compression test using different
target material which include polymer, concrete, alu minium, natural fibre and also
laminate composite. Most of the studies proposed composite as the target material,
such as Glass Fibre Reinforced Polyester (GFRP) (Catalin et al., 2015, Kotik &
Iptina, 2016 and Ramesh et al., 2013), Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) (Li
et al., 2016) and Fibre Reinforcement Polymer (FRP) (El-Gamal et al., 2016 and
Ghasemnejad et al., 2012).
Composite materials have relative advantages in terms of specific energy
absorption, weight and strength (Yuhazri et al., 2015). Research by Reddy (1999)
mentioned that composite materials were commonly formed by three different types;
fibrous composite which consist of fibres from one material in a matrix material of
another. Second are particulate composites, which are composed of macro size
particles from one material in a matrix of another. Third, laminated composites,
which are made of layers of different material, or different angle for each laminated.
COMPOSITE METAL
POLYMER
CERAMIC
GLASS
12
However, there are several specific strength and stiffness which need to be achieved.
Moreover, with composites, the designer can verifies the type of fibre, matrix, and
fibre orientation to produce composites with improved material properties.
Hence, in this research laminate composite has been chosen as the target
material for the test. Combinations of natural fibre with polymer resin were mixed to
increase the mechanical properties using Taguchi method. On the other hand, the
results of mechanical properties of strength and energy absorption measured were
compared with another composite previously studied.
2.4 Natural Fibre
Natural fibres have the potential to replace glass fibre in fibre-reinforced composite
applications (Joshia et al., 2014 and Igor et al., 2009). Nowadays, natural fibre
composites were not exploited only in structural and semi-structural applications of
the automotive sector, but also in other fields too. According to their origin as shown
in Figure 2.5, natural fibres were classified according to their sources, which are
animals, vegetables or minerals (Akil et al., 2011). There were many types of
natural fibre being investigated, but commonly used fibres were vegetable source
fibres, which was due to their wide availability and renewability in short amount of
time with respect to other sources. Commonly used fibres were flax, hemp, jute,
wood, rice hust, bamboo, grass, kenaf, ramie, sisal, kapok, banana and pineapple leaf
fibre. These fibres were usually used as the reinforcement in the development of
natural fibre based composites.
Fully biodegradable, less harmful to the environment, abundant availability,
comfy, renewable, cheap and has low density are the advantages of natural fibres
compared to other establish materials (Zampaloni et al., 2007, Ku et al., 2011 and
Dhakal et al., 2007). These natural fibres composite have higher specific strength
than glass fibre, but with similar specific modulus (Bledzki & Gassan, 1999).
Furthermore, properties such as lightweight, reasonable strength and stiffness qualify
natural fibres as the material of choice in replacing synthetic fibre (Ayre et al., 2009).
However, the disadvantages of natural fibre are its low tensile strength as compared
to traditional fibres such as fibre glass and carbon fibres. It also has a low
decomposition temperature and low tendency to absorb moisture (Mallick, 2010).
13
The shortcoming has been highly exploited by proponents of natural fibre
composites. The replacement of synthetic fibre with fibre composite is beginning to
widespread due to their advantages compared to glass fibre such as renewability, low
density, and high specific strength as indicated in Table 2.1.
In the past, natural fibres were not taken into account as reinforcements for
polymeric materials because of some problems associated with their use which is low
thermal stability. In other terms, this resulted in the possibility of degradation at
moderate temperature (230-250 °C). Furthermore, hydrophilic nature of fibre
surface, due to the presence of pendant hydroxyl and polar groups in various
constituents, leads to poor adhesion between fibres and hydrophobic matrix polymers
(John & Anandjiwala, 2008 and Kalia et al., 2009). The hydrophilic nature can lead
to swelling and maceration of the fibres. In addition, moisture content in fibre‟s
mechanical properties decrease significantly depending on the quality of the harvest,
age and body of the plant from which they are extracted, as well as the extraction
techniques and the environmental conditions on the site.
Figure 2.5: Example of use of Natural Fibres in several applications
(Akil et al., 2011)
14
Figure 2.6: Classification of natural fibres (Akil et al., 2011)
Natural fibres can be classified according to their origin and grouped into leaf
abaca, cantala, curaua, date palm, henequen, pineapple, sisal, banana, seed cotton,
bast flax, hemp, jute, ramie, fruit coir, kapok and oil palm. Among them, flax,
bamboo, sisal, hemp, ramie, jute and wood fibres are of particular interest because of
their physical and mechanical properties (Kalia et al., 2009). Comparison between
natural fibre and glass fibres were summarized in Table 2.1. The replacement of
synthetic fibre with fibre composites has begun to widespread due to their
renewability, low density and high specific strength properties as compared to glass
fibre. Physical and mechanical properties depend on the single fibre chemical
composition (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, waxes, water content and other
minors), grooving conditions (soil features, climate, aging conditions) and
extraction/processing method conditions. Grooving conditions was recognized as the
most influent parameter for the variability of mechanical properties of fibres.
Composition of several natural fibres was summarized in Tables 2.2 and 2.3.
Vegetable Animal Mineral fibers
Seed
-Cotton
-Kapok
-Milkweed
Bast
-Flax
-Hemp
-Jute
-Ramie
-Kenaf
Stalk
-Wheat
-Maize
-Barley
-Rye
-Oat
-Rice
Leaf
-Pineapple
-Abaca
-Henequen
-Sisal
Cane, grass
& reed
-Bamboo
-Bagasse
-Esparto
-Sabei
-Phragmites
-Communis
Fruit
-Coir
Wool & Hair
-Lamb‟s wool
-Goat hair
-Angora wool
-Cashmere
-Yak
-Horsehair
Silk
-Tussah
-Mulberry
-Asbestos
-Fibrous
brucite
-Wollastonite
Natural Fibers
15
Table 2.1: Comparison between natural and glass fibres (William et al., 2000)
Natural Fibres Glass Fibres
Density Low Twice that of natural fibres
Cost Low Low, but higher than NF
Renewability Yes No
Recyclability Yes No
Energy consumption Low High
Distribution Wide Wide
CO2 Yes No
Abrasion to machines No Yes
Health risk when inhaled No Yes
Disposal Biodegradable Not biodegradable
16
Table 2.2: Natural fibre properties (Rome, 2009)
Plant fibre Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Young‟s
modulus
(GPa)
Specific
modulus
(GPa)
Failure
strain
(%)
Length of
ultimates, l
(mm)
Diameter of
ultimates, l
(mm)
Aspect
ratio, l/d
Microfib
angle, θ (°)
Density
(kg.m-3)
Moisture
content (%)
Cotton 300-700 6-10 4-6.5 6-8 20-64 11.5-17 2752 20-30 1550 8.5
Kapok 93.3 4 12.9 1.2 8-32 15-35 724 - 311-384 10.9
Bamboo 575 27 18 - 2.7 10-40 9259 - 1500 -
Flax 500-900 50-70 34-48 1.3-3.3 27-36 17.8-21.6 1258 5 1400-1500 12
Hemp 310-750 30-60 20-41 2-4 8.3-14 17-23 549 6.2 1400-1500 12
Jute 200-450 20-55 14-39 2-3 1.9-3.2 15.9-20.7 157 8.1 1300-1500 12
Kenaf 295-1191 22-60 - - 2-61 17.7-21.9 119 - 1220-1400 17
Ramie 915 23 15 3.7 60-250 28.1-35 4639 - 1550 8.5
Abaca 12 41 - 3.4 4.6-5.2 17-21.4 257 - 1500 14
Banana 529-914 27-32 20-24 1-3 2-3.8 - - 11-12 1300-1350 -
Pineapple 413-1627 60-82 42-57 0-1.6 - 20-80 - 6-14 1440-1560 -
Sisal 80-840 9-22 6-15 2-14 1.8-3.1 18.3-23.7 115 10-22 1300-1500 11
Coir 106-175 6 5.2 15-40 0.9-1.2 16.2-19.5 64 39-49 1150-1250 13
18
17
Table 2.3: Natural fibre composition ( William et al., 2000)
%
Jute
Flax
Hemp
Kenaf
Sisal
Cotton
Cellulose
61.71
71.75
70.2-74.4
53-57
67-78
82.7
Hemicellulose
13.6-20.6
18.6-20.6
17.9-22.4
15-19
10-14.2
5.7
Lignin
12-13
2.2
3.7-5.7
5.9-9.3
8-11
-
Pectin
0.2
2.2
0.9
-
10
-
Others
-
3.8
6.1
7.9
1
-
Waxes
0.5
1.7
0.8
-
2.0
0.6
Water
12.6
10.0
10.8
-
11.0
-
18
Natural fibre mechanical properties depend on the type of cellulose and the
geometry of the elementary cell. The celluloses chains were arranged parallel to each
other, forming bundles where each bundle contains forty or more cellulosic
macromolecules linked by hydrogen bonds, amorphous hemicelluloses and lignin,
which confer stiffness to fibre called microfibrils (Rong et al., 2011). The hierarchy
of fibres and fibrils found in the bast fibre are shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7:Natural fibre hierarchal structure (Bos et al., 2006)
Among all natural fibres, bast fibres which were extracted from the stems of
plants such as jute, kenaf, flax, ramie and hemp are widely accepted as the best
option for reinforcements of composites due to their good mechanical properties.
Hemp shows to have very promising tensile properties for applications where
mechanical properties are requisite. The two basic parameters that characterize
mechanical behaviour of natural fibres are cellulose content and spiral angle
(Bogoeva-Gaceva et al., 2007 and Akil et al., 2011).
In general, tensile strength of a fibre increases with increasing cellulose
content and with decreasing angle of helix axis. The strength of natural fibre
composites is lower compared to the average of synthetic fibre reinforced
composites, even under optimized fibre-matrix interaction. However, their lower
density and cost make them competitive in terms of specific and economic properties
(Akil et al., 2011).
Hackling
Breaking
scotching
Flax stem
Ø 2-3 mm
Bast fiber
bundle
Technical fiber
Ø 50-100 µm
Elementary fiber,
Plant cell
Ø 10-20 µm
Meso fibril
Ø 0.1-0.3 m
Micro fibril
Ø 1-4 nm
19
This is basically due to the composite-like structure of natural fibres; they are
generally not a single filaments as most manmade fibres but they can have several
physical forms, which depend on the degree of fibre isolation. Composite strength
also depends on fibre diameter (smallest diameter could achieve higher mechanical
resistance due to larger specific contact surface with matrix) and fibre length.
2.5 Kenaf Fibre
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) is an annual crop native to southern Asia. It is grown
mainly for bast fibre in China (44%), India (39%), Indonesia, Malaysia, Bangladesh,
USA, South Africa, Vietnam, Thailand and some parts of Africa. In Europe, kenaf
may be an option for fibre production especially in the Mediterranean zone. Kenaf is
very important to promote selected new genotypes resistant to cold and drought.
Kenaf was annually harvested and ideal for farm machinery. Fibre qualities lay in
their air permeability, the ability of members of moisture, free from substances
harmful to health, biodegradability, and no allergic effect. In terms of
environmentally sustainable, kenaf is better when compared to other crops such as
corn and sugar because kenaf requires lower fertilizer (Monti & Zatta, 2009).
The fibre in kenaf was found in the bast and core. The bast constitutes 40%
of the plant. These fibres are 2 to 6 mm long and slender with cell wall around6.3
µm thick. The core is about 60% of the plant and has thickness with diameter 38
µm, but short and thin with 0.5mm and 3µm respectively. The tensile properties of
technical kenaf fibre were determined as follow; breaking stress of 433.1 MPa
(standard deviation 186. 0 MPa), young modulus of 26.9 GPa (standard deviation 8.1
GPa) and elongation at break of 1.8% (standard deviation 0.57%)
(Islam et al., 2011).
20
Figure 2.8: Comparison of specific modulus of kenaf fibrewith several other fibres
(Akil et al., 2011 and Zampaloni et al., 2007)
Table 2.4: Properties of kenaf fibre and polyester resin (Rassmann et al., 2000)
Property Unit Kenaf fibre Polyester resin
Tensile strength MPa 350-600 69
Elastic modulus MPa 40000 3800
Elongation at break % 2.5-3.5 2.3
Flexural strength MPa N/A 84
Flexural modulus MPa N/A 3930
Density kg/m3 1500 1140
Akil et al., (2011) studied on kenaf fibre reinforced composite and concluded
that one of the reasons kenaf was favoured in research area is because it has good
mechanical properties especially in terms of specific modulus or density. Today,
kenaf fibres, which acted as reinforcement of composite material, arouse research
interests. In this research, kenaf natural fibre was selected based on their good
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Kenaf Hemp E-Glass Flax Sisal Coir
Sp
ecif
ic M
od
ulu
s (E
-Mod
ulu
s/D
ensi
ty)
21
mechanical properties. Figure 2.8 shows the comparison of specific modulus of kenaf
fibre with several other fibres. Besides kenaf natural fibre, polyester resin was also
used in this study. The polyester was used to bind the kenaf weaving composition in
a composite. Table 2.4 shows the properties of the kenaf fibre and polyester resin.
Polyester resin was selected in this study because it is suitable for
applications where no structural properties are desired. Plus, it is cheap and has a
quick cure time, allowing high turnover for businesses such as marinas repairing boat
hulls. Vinylester on the other hand, are not suitable for repairing or layering as they
bond poorly for dissimilar structure and are more expensive than polyester.
Furthermore, epoxy is much suitable for extremely strenuous task such as enduring
vibrational load, with higher tensile strength and thermal stability.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.9: Typical image of (a) kenaf plantation (b) kenaf fibre (Saba et al., 2015)
Kenaf fibre has very good characteristic compared to other natural fibres, i.e
long fibre, small diameter, and high interfacial adhesion to matrix
(Aziz & Ansell 2004). Kenaf is commercially available and economically cheaper
amongst other natural fibres (Saba et al., 2015). Other than that, kenaf is compliant to
several types of soil to grow effectively and only need nominal chemical treatment
(Elsaid et al., 2011).However, there is only a few studies has been done on kenaf
fibre to comprehensively understand the possibility of composites especially
22
crashworthiness loading condition. This research is an attempt made to study the
effect of woven kenaf fibre and orientation using Taguchi Method on energy
absorption for polyester composites.
2.6 Experimental Method
Experimental studies have been done and mostly concentrated on processing
condition, fibre types, coupling agent and fibre treatment. Various of experimentally
method has been used in order to improve mechanical properties of natural fibre. In
this section are explored the method which is include chemical treatment, layers and
orientations, woven and non-woven, vacuum infusion and Taguchi method. Some of
the reported work has mentioned that natural fibre composites were very sensitive to
velocity and impact loading (Bledzki et al., 2002). Low velocity impact on fibre
reinforced plastic has been the subject of several experimental and analytical
investigations (Bogdanovich et al., 1994 and Naik et al., 1998). Several research
using various methods for optimization. El-Shakeil et al., (2013) which is focused on
temperature, speed, processing time and fibre size to improve mechanical properties.
Another researcher (Kumar et al., 2014 and Sutharson et al., 2012) that were
conducted using Taguchi method involved with various materials for optimization.
Optimization is the best element for alternative method to improved material strength
with minimum cost and manufacture. In this research Taguchi method was selected
in order to optimize the angle and orientation to improve mechanical properties of
kenaf fibre composites.
2.6.1 Chemical Treatment
There was several research which uses chemical treatment on natural fibre before
continuation to fabricate composite (Yousif et al., 2012). Kenaf can also be
chemically retted, where the kenaf was soaked in an alkali solution such as sodium
hydroxide (NaOH). Chemical retting was faster than water retting. In this process, it
took only several hours for kenaf to be separated. Suhairil et al., (2012) in their
research used NaOH to improve tensile properties of kenaf fibres. The fibre was
soaked with 3%, 6% and 9% of NaOH for a day and dried at 80°C for 24 hours.
23
From the result obtained, it can be seen that chemical treatment resulted in smaller
effects onto the mechanical properties of kenaf fibre. In other word, the results were
almost the same as without chemical treatment. The result of kenaf treatment under
impact test is as shown in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: The result of kenaf treatment under impact test (Suhairil et al., 2012)
Liao et al., (2016) also proved that chemical treatment did not affect the
tensile modulus of composite. In their research, mechanical properties of various
kind of surface treatment agent options or combination of glass woven fabric
composites were clarified. Initially, glass woven was fabricated using hand lay-up
method and was treated by silane coupling, a series of pick-up ratios of polyurethane
dispersion (PUD). Figure 2.11 shows the results after treatment which did not
provide any significant effects, thus resulting in the same condition as before the
treatment.
Furthermore, Edeerozey et al., (2007) mentioned that by using 9% of NaOH,
the average unit break decreased and the strength value recorded was lower than the
untreated fibre. They concluded that 9% NaOH was too strong and might have
damaged the fibres, thus resulting in lower tensile strength. Some of the reported
studies (Saiman, 2014 and Hashim, 2016) also mentioned that chemical treatment did
not improve mechanical properties of kenaf reinforcement.
Ult
imate
Ten
sile
Str
eng
th (
MP
a)
NaOH Concentration (%)
24
Figure 2.11: Tensile modulus comparison among virgin and treated composites
(Liao et al., 2016)
Figure 2.12:Impact strength of untreated, treated, and stretch-treated composite
(Saiman, 2014)
20.6 19.5
20.8 19.4 19.7
0
5
10
15
20
25
Non-treat 0.76wt% 1.51wt% 2.27wt% 6.49wt%
Ten
sile
Mod
ulu
s (G
Pa)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
untreated treated stretch treated
Imp
act
Str
ength
, k
J/m
²
127
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