Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Impact Series no. 10
Impact of Vertisol Technology in India
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
Citation: Joshi, P.K., Shiyani, R.L., Bantilan, M.C.S. , Pathak, P., and NageswaraRao, G.D. 2002. Impact of vertisol technology in India. (In En. Summaries in En,Fr.) Impact Series no. 10. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: Interna-tional Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 40 pp. ISBN 92-9066-453-3. Order code ISE 010.
Abstract
Research on vertisol technology as a package of options began at ICRISAT in1974. The technology was first tested and demonstrated on farmers' fields inAndhra Pradesh. Later, on-farm trials were conducted in five states — AndhraPradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh — to understandthe dynamics of adoption of various components of the technology, such as sum-mer cultivation, dry seeding, crop protection, improved varieties, proper place-ment of seed and fertilizer, etc. The survey was conducted in 27 villages, where 500farmers from low-, medium-, and high-rainfall regions were interviewed using a well-designed questionnaire. This study assesses the extent of adoption of the var-ious components of vertisol technology, identifies the constraints to their adoption,examines farmers' perceptions of the sustainability benefits from it, estimates theon-farm benefits, and details the relative significance of the various components.
Impact of Vertisol Technologyin India
P K Joshi, R L Shiyani, M C S Bantilan, P Pathak
and G D Nageswara Rao
ICRISAT
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Ar id TropicsPatancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India
2 0 0 2
About the Authors
P K Joshi
R L Shiyani
M C S Banti lan
P Pathak
G D Nageswara Rao
Principal Scientist, National Centre for Agricultural Economics and
Policy Research, Library Avenue, Pusa, P.O. Box 11305, New Delhi
110 012, India.
Associate Professor, Depar tment of Agricultural Economics,
Gujarat Agricultural University, Junagadh 362 001 , Gujarat,
India.
Global Theme Leader, SAT Futures and Development Pathways
(GT6) , International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Principal Scientist (Soil and water management), Water, Soil and
Agro-biodiversity Management for Ecosystem Health (GT3) ,
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics,
Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Scientific Officer, SAT Futures and Development Pathways (GT6),
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics,
Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of ICRISAT concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Where trade names are used this does not
constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any product by the Institute.
Copyright© 2002 by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT).
All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for the purposes of criticism
and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without prior permission from ICRISAT. The Institute does not require
payment for the non-commercial use of its published works, and hopes that this Copyright
declaration will not diminish the bonafide use of its research findings in agricultural research
and development.
Contents
In t roduc t ion 1
H is to ry of Vert isol Techno logy 2
Vert isol Techno logy 3
Hypotheses 7
Me thodo logy 7
Analyt ical F ramework 10
Adop t i on of Vert isol Techno logy 10
Intensi ty of Adop t i on 14
Pr inc ipal C o m p o n e n t of Vert isol Techno logy 16
Rainfall 17
Cons t ra in ts to Adop t ion 17
Benefi ts of Vert isol Techno logy 22
Conc lus ions a n d Lessons for the F u t u r e 27
References 30
Introduction
Indian agriculture is largely characterized by rainfed farming, with more than60% of the cropped area being dependent on rainfall. Low yields and high riskare typical of rainfed agriculture. Unless the low yield barrier and high risk areaddressed, the country's increasing food needs cannot be met on a sustainedbasis. Given the prevailing traditional technologies, rainfed farming cannot beimproved. The major constraints to agricultural development in the seasonallydry tropics are the lack of suitable technologies and viable crop productionsystems. Water and nutrient stresses, and degradation of natural resources arepervasive in the rainfed semi-arid tropics (SAT) since there are no opportunitiesto cultivate two crops a year. Crop intensification has been considered the mosteffective means of meeting these challenges. Improved technologies offer thepotential to considerably improve rainfed farming.
Efforts are on at various research institutes and the International CropsResearch Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) to developappropriate technologies that increase and stabilize production in the drylands.Developing crop and resource management technologies has been one ofICRISAT's significant contribution to alleviating production constraints andimproving the sustainability of natural resources in vertisol areas. An integratedpackage of options was conceived and developed by a multidisciplinary team ofagricultural and social scientists at ICRISAT in 1974 in response to theseconstraints. This was later known as vertisol technology (El-Swaify et al. 1985;Kampen 1982). The package targeted vertisol areas in regions with relativelydependable rainfall, where land was left fallow during the rainy season (Flower1994). Vast vertisol areas in India, such as in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,and Andhra Pradesh, are left fallow during the rainy season and sown duringthe postrainy season using residual moisture (Kampen 1982). It may be feasibleto use a package of approaches consisting of several clusters of improvedtechnological options to markedly increase productivity. The prerequisites forthe success of the technology are dependable early-season rainfall for dryseeding and soils with sufficient moisture-holding capacity to grow two cropswithout irrigation. It is estimated that vertisol technology may be suitable over 5-12 million ha in India, largely covering the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra (Ryan et al. 1982). Anevaluation of the techno-economic feasibility of the technology at various stagesand its superiority over traditional practices is essential for allocating funds on a priority basis. The on-farm trials of the early 1980s provided an opportunity toassess the adoption of the technology after a significant period of time.
1
History of Vertisol Technology
Vertisol technology research represents a major institutional investment byICRISAT. The word "vert" in vertisol is derived from the Latin word "verto"meaning invert or turn. Inversion takes place in the soil because of cracking,which is characteristic of vertisol soils. Vertisols are hard when dry, sticky whenwet, and have a narrow moisture range during which tillage takes place(Virmani et al. 1989).
At ICRISAT, research on vertisol technology as a package of options started in1974 with two major experiments. The 'step-in improved technology' wasinitiated between 1975-76 and 1988. Fourteen cropping systems were evaluatedand valuable information was generated. The technology was tested anddemonstrated on farmers' fields at Taddanpally, Andhra Pradesh. Later during1982-83, operational-scale demonstrations were carried out at eight locations.In order to test the performance of the technology outside ICRISAT, on-farmtrials were conducted during 1981-84 at Taddanpally and Sultanpur in AndhraPradesh, Kanzara and Shirapur in Maharashtra, Farhatabad in Karnataka, andBegumgunj in Madhya Pradesh. The trials were collaborative in nature andinvolved State Departments of Agriculture, the All India Co-ordinatedResearch Project for Dryland Agriculture, and the Andhra PradeshAgricultural University (APAU). Walker et al. (1989) assessed the feasibility ofthe technology at seven different locations and compared the profitability ofimproved vertisol technology options with that of traditional farming practicesfrom 1979/80 to 1982/83. Marginal rates of return on additional investments inimproved technology were found to be negative in initial on-farm tests, butpositive during subsequent years (Table 1). Although vertisol technologyoptions generated handsome economic rates of return in on-farm tests inTaddanpally and Sultanpur, the potential of the improved cropping systems wasnot fully tapped. In 1983/84, on-farm tests were expanded to cover 2000 ha in28 locations in 5 States.
2
T a b l e 1 . A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e prof i tab i l i ty o f i m p r o v e d d e e p v e r t i s o lt e c h n o l o g y o p t i o n s w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l f a r m p r a c t i c e s i n s e v e n w a t e r s h e dt e s t s , 1979/80 to 1982/83 ( W a l k e r e t a l . 1989) .
District, State
Aurepalle (Mahbubnagar,
Andhra Pradesh)
Shirapur(Sholapur, Maharashtra)
Kanzara
(Akola, Maharashtra)
Taddanpally(Medak, Andhra Pradesh)
Sultanpur
(Medak, Andhra Pradesh)
Farhatabad
(Gulbarga, Karnataka)
Begumgunj(Raisen, Madhya Pradesh)
Year
1979-80
1980-81
1979-80
1980-81
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
1982-831982-83
1982-83
1982-83
Area (ha)
13.5
11.913.9
10.53.7
10.8
14.5
26.7
17.5
24
Farmers
5
8
3
12
4
12
3
10
Soil
(rainfall)
Alfisols
(not assured)Vertisols
(not assured)Medium
vertisols
(assured)
Vertisols
(assured)
Vertisols
(partly
assured)Vertisols
(partly
assured)
Vertisols(assured)
Marginal
rate ofreturn (%)
Negative
37
Negative
113Negative
8
244
381302
3
26
Vertisol Technology
Research in vertisol technology was one of the joint outputs of ICRISAT andthe Indian NARS in order to increase agricultural production and productivityby efficient utilization of resources in rainfed areas. The improved technologicaloptions addressed the problems of rainy-season cropping on deep black soilswith poor drainage. The options developed by ICRISAT for the management ofland and water involved the use of moderate inputs and bullock power, andaccessibility to small farmers in rainfed SAT. They effectively improveddrainage, reduced soil erosion, and increased/stabilized crop productivity, andwere based on the concept of a micro-watershed (3 to 25 ha) as the basic naturalresource management unit. Following are the essential components of vertisoltechnology identified by Ryan et al. (1982).
3
Summer Cultivation
This refers to ploughing land immediately after harvesting the postrainy-seasoncrop, when the soil is not too hard and still contains some moisture. Thisprevents weeds from setting seed, thus reducing weed survival andmultiplication (Shetty at al. 1977). Often, stubble/crop residues remain in thefield after harvest, providing shelter to insects during the off-season and thenmultiplying during cropping. Stubble of many crops such as sorghum, maize,and paddy provide shelter to the stem borer. Most of the weeds in the field act asalternate hosts to pests and diseases during the off-season. Summer cultivationexposes the hibernating egg colonies and pupae of various insects to severe solarheat, thus killing them (Patil and Jawaregowda 2000). It also improves soilfertility, fills cracks, and pulverizes the soil, thereby improving moistureabsorption.
Broadbed and Furrow (BBF)
This is a land preparation technique in which 105 cm-wide beds alternate with45 cm-wide furrows at a gradient of 0.4-0.8% depending on soil type andrainfall. This technique ensures desired plant stand by avoiding stagnation ofwater/excess moisture in the field, and also economizes on water. Rainfallinfiltration increases with BBF and excess water is removed with minimumerosion, thus stabilizing soil moisture conditions. It helps maintain optimummoisture supply in the effective root zone, thereby improving the physical,chemical, and biological properties of the soil, which ultimately results in higheryield (Desai et al. 2000). Sengar (1998) reported the beneficial effects of surfacedrainage in pigeonpea in Madhya Pradesh. Mamo et al. (1994) reportedsignificantly higher grain yields of gram with BBF than with flat seedbeds.Farmers in some parts of India are adopting BBF for postrainy-seasongroundnut in order to increase yield and save on labor (Joshi and Bantilan1996).
Dry Seeding
This option involves sowing rainy-season crops before the monsoon rains. Dryseeding overcomes the constraint of wet sowing and facilitates earlygermination. It results in early maturity of the crop, which eventually escapesterminal drought. Dry seeding was reported to increase yields of sorghum andcotton by 200-300 kg ha-1 (Joshi et al. 1998). Farmers obtained higher yields ofsorghum (27%) and cotton (38%) by adopting dry seeding in Maharashtra
4
(Bhole et al. 1998). It was further reported that cotton seed can remain in thesoil for a longer time, and unlike seed of many other crops, is not affected byants and other insects. Similarly, dry seeding of sorghum enabled farmers todouble crop.
Use of Improved Seeds and Moderate Amounts of Fertilizer
Improved varieties are an important component of vertisol technology, and havegained popularity during the last two decades. The genetic potential ofimproved cultivars is utilized to increase production in vertisols. Labor of bothsexes is used more intensively in dry seeding compared to farmers' traditionalpractices of sowing. It also involves less risk, higher profitability, is moreresponsive to fertilizers, matures early, and involves less shattering.
Available farmyard manure (FYM) is generally not enough to meet croprequirement and nutrient mining. To improve soil fertility and overcomenutrient mining, vertisol technology recommends the application of moderateamounts of chemical fertilizer that could be complemented by manure. Farmerswho apply chemical fertilizer are convinced of the quick results and overcomethe supply constraint involved with FYM.
Seed and Fertilizer Placement
Proper placement of seed and fertilizer can increase crop yields substantially.While seed is broadcast in traditional dryland agriculture, in vertisol technologyseed and fertilizer are placed together in order to minimize nutrient loss andmake optional use of available moisture. Dibbling and using a seed drill arecommon practices adopted by farmers sowing seed and placing fertilizer, inorder to maintain proper row arrangements in cotton and groundnut. Seeddrills are commonly used to sow sorghum, wheat, pigeonpea, and chickpea.
Joshi et al. (1998) observed a unique practice in Begumgunj village, where a mixture of seed and fertilizer was placed using either a drill or plough. Althoughunusual, this modified form of the technology went to prove that farmersaccepted the placing of seed and fertilizer together.
Double Cropping
Double cropping involves utilizing land for two growing seasons instead of one.This technology option helps in using the land for production for up to eightmonths in summer instead of four. In vertisol areas where rainfall is greater than
5
750 mm year-1, two crops are feasible without irrigation. Double croppingmakes effective use of other fixed costs and production resources such asmoisture, human labor, bullock time, and cultivation tools. During on-farmtesting, several new cropping systems were recommended and verified forfeasibility and adaptability.
Both sequential crops and intercrops that require two seasons to mature areconsidered options; however, farmers view moisture limitation as a majorconstraint to double cropping. There is, however, an opportunity to increaseintensity through an intercrop.
Plant Protection Measures
Since rainfed agriculture is highly prone to diseases and pests, application ofmodest doses of insecticides/pesticides was advocated to protect plants. Withthe advent of High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs), the incidence of diseases andinsect/pests has increased. Though several insect species attack during variousstages of crop growth, those doing so at the reproductive stage are of majoreconomic significance. Since the indiscriminate use of pesticides raises issues ofsustainability and environmental pollution, improved plant protection measuresare considered one of the essential components of vertisol technology.
The components of vertisol technology are basically a collection of innovationsfrom which a farmer can choose, based on his need and benefit. Farmers mayeither adopt the complete package or part of it, or even a modified form of itsrecommendation (Byerlee and Polanco 1986; Ryan and Subramanyam 1975).Despite substantial investments in time, resources, and capital, there isinsufficient research on the nature and extent of adoption of vertisoltechnology, its benefits, and constraints. This study was an attempt in thisdirection. Its objectives were to:
• Assess the extent of adoption of various components of vertisol technology;
• Identify the constraints to their adoption;
• Study farmers' perceptions about sustainability benefits;
• Estimate the on-farm benefits of different components of the technology;and
• Assess the relative significance of its components.
6
Hypotheses• There is greater adoption of different components of vertisol technology in
the medium-to-high rainfall region.
Greater adoption of different components of the technology leads to highercrop intensification, which in turn influences the sustainability of naturalresources.
MethodologySampling
Since agroclimatic and socioeconomic conditions in India are highly diverse, itwas essential to delineate them into homogenous zones so that areas withcommon biophysical attributes and soil and water conservation problems couldbe grouped for optimum planning and efficient implementation of soil andwater management programs. Since rainfall is the best indicator of severalcharacteristics of a region, the following classification was adopted for thisstudy.
Five States were selected to understand the dynamics of adoption of variouscomponents of vertisol technology (Figure 1). The survey was conducted in 27villages selected from 19 blocks in 9 districts. In all, 500 farmers (100 from lowrainfall, 190 from medium rainfall, and 210 from high rainfall regions) weresurveyed during 1996/97. The sampling distribution is given in Table 2.
7
Figure 1. Vertisol areas in India and the study clusters by rainfall.
Data on adoption of various components of vertisol technology, constraints toadoption, farmers' perceptions of the components, etc., were collected byinterviewing sample farmers using well-designed and pre-tested questionnaires.This was supported by detailed discussions with agricultural extensionpersonnel, researchers, and agricultural policymakers.
8
9
Analytical Framework
It is often difficult to define the term adopters in adoption studies ofmanagement-related technologies since some components of the technologyare known and adopted even before their introduction. Therefore, informationon the first year of adoption of the different components was collected, and a disaggregated analysis was done. In addition farmers are free to choose andadopt any subset of the technology components. To systematically assess theextent of adoption and farmers' perceptions about the benefits of andconstraints to vertisol technology, a component-wise tabular analysis wascarried out.
The principal components approach was used to assess the relative importanceof various components of the technology. The functional form of the principalcomponent model was expressed as:
P1=a1 1X 1+a1 2X 2+ +a1kX k
P2=a2 1X 1+a2 2X 2+ +a2kX k
Pk = ak 1X 1+ ak 2X 2+ +akkX k
This approach aims to construct new variables (P1) called principalcomponents, out of a set of variables, Xj (j=l,2,...k). The principal componentsare linear combinations of the Xs. The a, called loading, is chosen so that theconstructed principal components satisfy two conditions:
• They are uncorrelated (orthogonal); and• The first principal component (P1) absorbs and accounts for the maximum
proportion of total variation in the set of all Xs, and the second principalcomponent absorbs the maximum of the remaining variation in the Xs, andso on.
Adoption of Vertisol Technology
Table 3 demonstrates the proportion of farmers who adopted the differentcomponents of vertisol technology before and after 1980. Since a fewcomponents were adopted by farmers prior to their release, a comparison ofcomponent-wise adoption was made between pre-1980 and 1996/97.
10
Summer Cultivation
The proportion of farmers who adopted summer cultivation before 1980 washighest in the low-rainfall region (39%), followed by the high- (38%) andmedium-rainfall (31%) regions. Post-1980, the practice was adopted to a greater extent by farmers in the medium-rainfall region (60%), followed by thelow- (42%) and high-rainfall (32%) regions. The wider adoption in themedium-rainfall region could be attributed to fewer irrigation facilities (Table2). On the other hand, there was adequate moisture in the soil for landpreparation and seed germination in the high-rainfall region, where summercultivation may not be desirable. Many farmers in this region do not depend onrains for tillage since there are better irrigation facilities. It can thus be inferredthat medium- and low-rainfall regions could be considered our research targetdomain for summer cultivation.
Broadbed and Furrow
Broadbed and furrows are used to improve in situ moisture conservation anddrainage. Under an optimum soil moisture regime, farmers can grow two cropsunder sequential cropping or add three months to the growing season withintercropping. However, none of the farmers in the low- and high-rainfallregions adopted BBF since they did not face problems of excess water andwaterlogging in fields. About 6% of the farmers in the medium-rainfall regionadopted BBF, indicating that this component should be considered on a case-by-case basis depending on soil type and gradient rather than as a generalrecommendation for all farmers. A majority of the farmers followed traditionalmethods of draining excess water or making furrows between rows. These aremore convenient and less expensive to adopt compared to BBF.
Dry Seeding
Dry seeding involves sowing of seed before the onset of monsoon. This practicewas adopted only by farmers in the medium-rainfall region; about 16% of themadopted it prior to 1980, whereas 44% adopted it after 1980. It was adoptedmainly in cotton and maize, using seeds saved from a previous crop.Nonadoption in the other two regions could mainly be due to its nonsuitabilityto crops grown in those regions or due to less dependence on rainfall in theearly part of the rainy season.
11
12
Improved Varieties
Improved varieties play a significant role in increasing production in vertisols.It was observed that a majority of the farmers (79%) in the medium-rainfallregion had been growing improved varieties prior to 1980, whereas theproportion who adopted them in the low- and high-rainfall regions increasedonly after 1980. A similar situation was observed for fertilizer application. It wasperceived that improved varieties responded better to fertilizer than didlandraces.
Nutrient Management
Proper placement of seed and fertilizer were essential to the technologypackage to ensure the utilization of soil moisture and nutrients, and minimizenutrient loss. It was observed that placing seed and fertilizers using a ploughwas a common practice in all the three regions. This shows that the farmerswere fully convinced about the benefits of sowing in rows and placing fertilizeralong with seeds. A majority of the sample farmers used dibbling andmaintained proper row arrangements for cotton, while seed drills werecommonly used to sow sorghum, wheat, pigeonpea, and chickpea.
Double Cropping
Double cropping refers to both sequential crops and intercrops, which requiretwo seasons to mature. It was recognized that the production potential ofvertisols could be increased by introducing double cropping and utilizingunderutilized resources. Despite this, it was not adopted in the low-rainfallregion prior to 1980, while adoption was only 24% post-1980. There was greateradoption of double cropping in the medium- and high-rainfall regions evenprior to 1980. Appropriate technologies, a conducive policy environment interms of remunerative prices for important crops, and better marketingfacilities could enhance the adoption of double cropping in the low-rainfallregion.
Crop Protection
Since crop protection measures are imperative to protect the extra investmentsmade on resources, their adoption pattern was assessed. It was found thatinsecticide/pesticide use increased substantially after 1980 (82%), particularlyin the low-rainfall region, whereas prior to 1980, they were used by only 8% ofthe farmers. Over the years, the need to apply insecticides/pesticides has arisen
13
T a b l e 4 . I n t e n s i t y 1 o f a d o p t i o n o f v e r t i s o l t e c h n o l o g y .
C o m p o n e n t s o fvert isol techno logy
S u m m e r cul t ivat ionBroadbed a n d furrowD r y seedingImproved variet iesFert i l izer appl icat ionP lacemen t of seeda n d fertil izerD o u b l e c ropp ingP lan t p ro tec t ion
L o w rainfall
***
-+
*********
+***
M e d i u m rainfall
***
+**
*********
* * ***
High rainfall
**
--
********
****
All
**
++
*********
***
1.*** = Very h igh adop t i on ( > 7 5 % ) , ** = h igh adop t i on (51 to 75 % ) ,* = m o d e r a t e adop t i on (26 to 5 0 % ) , + = low adop t ion (up to 2 5 % ),a n d - = no adopt ion .
due to the high incidence of insects/pests, particularly in pigeonpea and pearlmillet. Though an increase in their use by farmers in the high-rainfall regionwas noticed, its proportion was the lowest among all the three regions.
Intensity of Adoption
Table 4 details the intensity of adoption of different components of vertisoltechnology. Adoption was very high in the case of placement of seed andfertilizer, fertilizer application, and improved varieties in all the three rainfallregions and also for the pooled data. While the rate of adoption of doublecropping in the medium- and high-rainfall regions was very high, the intensityof adoption of summer cultivation was high in low- and medium-rainfallregions. The low adoption of double cropping in the low-rainfall regionsuggests that intercropping of more than one crop having different periods ofmaturity increases the efficiency of rain water use and the productivity ofavailable resources. A majority of the farmers in the low-rainfall region usedplant protection measures. Those in the low-rainfall region of Gulbarga facedthe problem of Helicoverpa in pigeonpea; thus higher use of pesticides wasreported. Contrary to this, major crops in the high-rainfall region, such assoybean and rice, had no insect/pest problem; therefore adoption of plantprotection measures was low. Time series data were compiled on region-wisecrop intensity, area under HYVs, and total fertilizer consumption from 1980 to1994 in the selected districts. The data were correlated with year-wise data on
14
T a b l e 5 . C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s a m o n g s e l e c t c o m p o n e n t s o f v e r t i s o lt e c h n o l o g y .
C o m p o n e n t s of vertisol
t echno logy D C C R P I N T I V
H Y V
area F A T F C
L o w - r a i n f a l l r e g i o n
D o u b l e c ropp ing ( D C )
C r o p intensi ty ( C R P I N T )
Imp roved variet ies (IV)
H Y V area
Fert i l izer appl icat ion (FA)T o t a l fertilizer consumpt ion
( T F C )
1
0.70230.8627
0.9176
0.9418
0.8653
10.7147 1
0 .6603 0 .8806
0.7422 0 .9808
0.7736 0 .9170
1
0.9198
0.9312
1
0.9253 1
M e d i u m - r a i n f a l l r e g i o nD o u b l e c ropp ing ( D C )
C r o p intensi ty ( C R P I N T )
Imp roved variet ies (IV)
H Y V area
Fert i l izer appl icat ion (FA)T o t a l fertilizer consumpt ion
( T F C )
10.8621
0.9894
0.63960.9851
0.8942
1
0.8537 1
0 .5396 0 .64160.8357 0 .9953
0.9509 0 .8905
10.53760.5822
1
0.8899 1
H i g h - r a i n f a l l r e g i o n
D o u b l e c ropp ing ( D C )
C r o p intensi ty ( C R P I N T )
Imp roved variet ies (IV)
H Y V area
Fert i l izer appl icat ion (FA)
T o t a l fertil izer consumpt ion
( T F C )
1
0.90230.9895
0.8117
0.9744
0.8667
1
0.9007 1
0 .8042 0 .84620.8784 0 .9928
0.7656 0 .8277
1
0.8748
0.7377
1
0.8153 1
adoption of the respective components of vertisol technology by sample farmers
of the regions. A correlation matrix is given in Table 5. A positive association
was observed between adoption of double cropping and crop intensity, between
adoption of improved varieties and area, and between adoption of fertilizer
application and total fertilizer consumption in all the three regions. This implies
that the samples selected duly represented the respective regions. It was also
observed that these three components of the technology were highly correlated
among themselves in all the regions.
15
T a b l e 6 . A d o p t i o n o f v e r t i s o l t e c h n o l o g y b y f a r m s i z e ( % f a r m e r s ) .
C o m p o n e n t s of vert isolt echno logy
S u m m e r cul t ivat ion
B roadbed a n d furrowD r y seeding
I m p r o v e d variet ies
Fert i l izer appl icat ion
M e d i u mSmal l farm fa rm
(1 to 2.5 ha) (2.5 to 5 ha)
65 64
1 1
10 15
73 68
85 93
P lacemen t of seed a n d fertil izer 81 90
D o u b l e c ropp ing
P lan t p ro tec t ion
71 77
45 45
L a r g efa rm
(>5 ha) Al l
90 71
4 2
20 14
90 75
99 89
97 85
64 7071 50
Farm Size and Vertisol Technology
Adoption of the different components of vertisol technology by farm size wasassessed (Table 6). It was found that all the components of the technology,except double cropping, were widely adopted by large farmers, followed bymedium and small farmers, suggesting that farm size was positively correlatedwith adoption of technology. Large farmers could afford to adopt differentcomponents of the technology while small farmers faced several resourceconstraints. Since India has a large proportion of small and marginal farmers,special government programs are needed to ensure easy accessibility to vertisoltechnology.
Principal Component of Vertisol Technology
The adoption of vertisol technology is influenced by many components but thevariations are governed by a few underlying factors. Identifying and assessingthe magnitude of these factors provides a deeper insight into the phenomenon,and helps in formulating appropriate policies. Therefore, this study used theprincipal component analysis model.
A principal component analysis (Table 7) revealed four underlying dimensionsin the adoption of the technology, which together explained about 74% of thevariation in the configuration. Improved varieties, fertilizer application, properplacement of seed and fertilizer, summer cultivation, and plant protectionmeasures were the key components in the first dimension, which explainedabout 3 1 % of the total variation. Dry seeding was the major component in thesecond dimension, explaining nearly 16% of the total variation. The importantcomponent in the third dimension was double cropping, which accounted for14% of the total variation. The least preferred practice was BBF, the fourth
16
T a b l e 7 . F a c t o r p a t t e r n s w i t h t e c h n o l o g y a d o p t i o n c o m p o n e n t s .
T e c h n o l o g y
Improved cult ivars
P lacemen t of seed and fertilizer
Fert i l izer appl icat ion
S u m m e r cul t ivat ion
P lan t p ro tec t ion
D r y seeding
D o u b l e c ropp ing
B roadbed a n d furrow
% var iat ion expla ined
Cumu la t i ve % var iat ion expla ined
Fac to r 1
.519
.473
.451
.390
.363
.099
.390
.095
31.3
31 .3
Fac to r 2
.102
- .359
- .436
.365
.210
.629
.143
.278
15.6
46.9
Fac to r 3
- .218
.246
.210
- .164
- .277
.299
.807
.061
14.3
61.2
Fac to r 4
- .163
.097
.155
- .399
.130
.060
- .236
.839
12.5
73.7
dimension. Researchers and policy planners should focus on technologycomponents with higher loading values in the first dimension while leastweightage should be given to components with low loading values. However,area needs have to be kept in mind vis-a-vis soil depth, percentage of clay, totalrainfall, duration and intensity of rainfall, etc.
Rainfall
Vertisols are traditionally left fallow in the rainy season and cropped in thepostrainy season on stored soil moisture. In 1981, 26 million ha of agriculturalland was left fallow during the rainy season. Traditional fallowing exposesvertisols to severe erosion and leads to the underutilization of their productionpotential. The long-term operational-scale experiments at ICRISAT gave anexcellent opportunity to validate the hypothesis that improved systems as a whole increase crop growth, crop production, carrying capacity of the land,improve soil quality, and carbon sequestration. Improper management of landand water adversely affects the adoption of vertisol technology. Vertisolsimproved management practices like BBF and also cropping systems.Integrated Pest Management (IPM) could record increased productivitywhich was mainly due to increased rainfall use efficiency (Singh 2001). It maythus be concluded that adoption of vertisol technology is higher in the medium-rainfall region.
Constraints to Adoption
Among the major constraints to adoption (Tables 8, 9, and 10) lack ofawareness about benefits accruing from all the components figured
17
18
19
20
prominently in all the three rainfall regions. Results suggest the need for strongtechnology dissemination methods to convince farmers of the benefits ofimproved production and management technology options. Inadequate creditfacilities too have restricted the adoption of many components of thetechnology. Timely and adequate supply of credit through Self-Help Groups(SGHs) would help. Farmers also faced problems of higher price andnonavailability of inputs like improved seed, fertilizers, implements,insecticides/pesticides, etc., which could be resolved by joint efforts by seedcompanies, agricultural scientists, extension workers, and other voluntaryorganizations. Some of the farmers had dug their own wells, but had no oilengines or electric motors to irrigate the postrainy-season or long-durationcrop. A majority of the farmers was unaware of banking procedures. If farmerswere to be educated and made aware of the bank loans available to purchaseagricultural implements, a larger area can be expected to be covered underdouble cropping and improved varieties. No visible marginal rate of return wasobserved from fertilizer application, and the use of BBF and plant protectionmeasures.
Wide infestation of weeds in fields sown just ahead of the monsoon was a majorconstraint to adopting dry seeding. With the onset of the monsoon, weeds growin conjunction with the crop. So rapid is weed growth that weed control costsare a financial burden on the farmer. The other constraints to adopting dryseeding were loss of seed due to late rainfall and soil cracks; seed damage byants, birds, insects, etc., and gap filling due to failure of seeds in some fieldplots, calling for further research on alternatives to dry seeding. Lack ofknowledge, fall in cultivated area, and annual preparation of BBF and itsmaintenance during heavy rains were the constraints which resulted in very lowadoption of BBF. As a result, most farmers followed traditional methods ofdraining excess water. Districts like Sholapur and Gulbarga did not facewaterlogging, implying that the technology may be targeted for the needy areas.
21
Benefits of Vertisol Technology
On-farm Benefits
To assess the on-farm benefits of adopting vertisol technology, input andoutput data on adopters and nonadopters was collected with a focus oncomponents such as summer cultivation, dry seeding, and BBF. The data setswere confined to the medium-rainfall region where adoption was quiteimpressive. The components were evaluated for all the three crops — maize,pigeonpea, and paddy. Details of the cost and returns from these crops inrelation to the different components of vertisol technology are given in Tables11 ,12 and 13.
Maize
Maize is an important crop which attracted the adoption of differentcomponents of vertisol technology. Farmers could harvest an impressive 43%higher yield by merely adopting summer cultivation in contrast to theircounterparts who adopted no component of the technology (Table 11). The netincome from maize was to the tune of Rs 5776 ha-1 in the case of adopterswhereas it was only Rs 2428 ha-1 in the case of nonadopters. Adopting summercultivation reduced unit cost of production by about 30%. A large share of thedecline in cost may be ascribed to the reduced cost of weeding (by about 28%)due to summer cultivation.
The on-farm benefits of dry seeding in maize are summarized in Table 11.There was a nearly 16% gain in maize yield due to adoption of dry seeding. In a study in Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, Bhole et al. (1998) reported about 27% higher yields in cotton due to dry seeding and 38% in sorghum. The netincome per hectare of maize cultivated was more than double in the case ofadopters compared to nonadopters. The relatively higher price of maize due toearly harvesting, better yield, and lower cost of cultivation was responsible forthe higher net incomes of adopters. Higher yields and lower total cost ofcultivation also resulted in a 24% fall in unit cost of production. However, anincrease in the cost of weeding (4%) was warranted. Severe weed problemswere reported by Joshi et al. (1998) in plots that were dry seeded. Moreagronomic and entomological research is therefore called for to control weedinfestation. The participation of female labor in marketing was noticed. It cantherefore be inferred that dry seeding is not a constraint in economic terms,even though many farmers avoid it due to the risk of losing their seeds andweed infestation. The cost of weeding on dry sown fields was 4% higher than on
22
normally sown fields. In Madhya Pradesh, Foster et al. (1987) observed highercosts due to gap filling and intensive weed management in dry sown fields.Nonavailability of labor for manual weeding during the peak seasondiscouraged farmers from adopting dry seeding on a large scale. Therefore,alternative methods like hand weeding, mechanical weeding, and chemicalcontrol are required. If the weed problems originating in dry seeding areovercome, the payoffs could be in the form of substantial increases in area.
Summer cultivation followed by dry seeding enhanced maize yields by 39%.Together, these two components increased net income threefold. There was a 36% reduction in unit cost and 9% decline in cost of weeding. The decliningweeding cost could be attributed to summer cultivation.
The economic feasibility of BBF in the existing cropping system was alsoassessed. None of the maize growers adopted BBF alone; it always followedsummer cultivation. Only two farmers adopted BBF. Nonadoption wasbecause surface waterlogging was not a serious constraint in the study area.BBF yielded positive benefits wherever drainage problems arose. Resultsrevealed that adoption of summer cultivation and BBF increased maize yield byabout 18%. Similarly, the net income per hectare of maize cultivated was nearlydouble that of the nonadopting farmers. The unit cost of production fell to 27%and the cost of weeding to 20%. Despite these benefits, farmers did not adoptthis method due to lack of awareness. It was also found that the BBF system isdifficult to maintain through the rainy season. However, an in-depth study ofits contribution to improving the sustainability of soil and water resources isneeded. In terms of relative profitability of maize, the adoption of summercultivation and dry seeding together showed the highest net income (Rs 7433ha-1) compared to all other technology options.
Pigeonpea
Table 12 presents the comparative economics of pigeonpea using differentcomponents of vertisol technology. A very limited number of farmers adoptedthe different components of the technology since there were fewer pigeonpeagrowers. Since none of the pigeonpea growers was a nonadopter of even onecomponent, a comparison of profitability was made between differentcomponents of the technology. There was no significant difference inpigeonpea yield between the adopters of summer cultivation and those of dryseeding. However, adopting dry seeding was more profitable as it gave 6%higher net income with a 10% reduction in unit cost of production. On the
23
24
other hand, farmers adopting summer cultivation experienced a 39% reductionin weeding cost. The findings are in conformity with the results obtained inmaize, and with farmers' perceptions of the constraints to summer cultivationand dry seeding. Surprisingly, pigeonpea growers found only summercultivation economical, rather than summer cultivation and dry seedingtogether. A study of a larger sample of pigeonpea growers would give moremeaningful results. Adopting only summer cultivation provided higher yields(by 25%), net income (by 133%), and a reduction in unit cost of production (by28%) compared to the sequential adoption of summer cultivation followed byBBF. However, it was found that adopting these two components togetherreduced weeding cost by 6%. Introducing BBF could have reduced weedingcost, since similar results were obtained in the case of maize. It can thus beconcluded that the problem of weeds can be greatly minimized by adoptingBBF. Based on their three-year research station experiment in Gujarat, Desai etal. (2000) concluded that providing one furrow after four rows of pigeonpearecorded significantly higher yields compared to flatbed cultivation. Foster etal. (1987) found that the profits from fields with BBF were not significantlydifferent from those from plots cultivated flat-on-grade. Ryan el al. (1980)reported that using the BBF system on vertisol watersheds with an intercrop ofmaize/pigeonpea was about 20% more profitable than using the flatbed system.Since BBF benefits areas that are excessively waterlogged, its use should beassessed in the long run, covering techno-economic feasibility andsustainability issues under different intercrops and crop sequences.
Dry seeding alone contributed the most in terms of yield, net income, and unitcost reduction compared to summer cultivation + dry seeding or summercultivation + BBF. However, weed infestation was found to be high when dryseeding alone was adopted.
Comparing summer cultivation + dry seeding with summer cultivation + BBFin pigeonpea revealed that the former was more profitable. Summer cultivation+ dry seeding gave significantly higher yields and net income per hectare, andreduced unit cost of production compared to summer cultivation + BBF.However, weeding cost was about 35% higher in the former compared to theother group of components. This was obviously because of adopting dryseeding.
25
26
Paddy
In the case of paddy, none of the components except summer cultivation wasadopted by the respondents. About 44% of the paddy growers followed it. Theresults of on-farm benefits of summer cultivation in paddy are presented inTable 13. An 8% gain in paddy yield was realized due to summer cultivation,whereas the net income per hectare of paddy for adopters of summer cultivationwas two times that of nonadopters. Both price and yield of paddy contributedhigher net incomes to the adopters. No significant reduction in unit cost ofproduction was noticed with the adoption of summer cultivation. This wasbecause the cost of land, seedbed preparation as well as the expenditure onchemical fertilizers were significantly higher, resulting in higher cost ofcultivation.
Sustainability Benefits
Vertisol technology has many sustainability benefits apart from the directeconomic ones which accure to farmers. Tables 14, 15, and 16 reveal farmers'perceptions about the sustainability benefits of different components of thetechnology. Improving soil and water conservation by adopting summercultivation was advocated by 52-64% of the farmers, and 6-25% of them were infavor of BBF in the three different regions. Many farmers felt that summercultivation, double cropping, and BBF would enhance soil fertility. Similarly,effective use of rainwater by adopting double cropping, dry seeding, BBF, andproper placement of seed and fertilizers was reported. About 35% of thefarmers in the low-rainfall region and 46% in the medium-rainfall regionopined that if seeds and fertilizer were properly placed, it would help inenhancing fertilizer use efficiency and good crop stand establishment. About13% (low-rainfall region) to 32% (medium-rainfall region) of the farmers feltthat double cropping helps prevent soil erosion. Many farmers observed higheryields/profits by adopting different components of vertisol technology. Thissuggests that its impact on the output marketing system may be studied toanticipate any drastic price effects and also to improve marketing facilities.Collaborative research is required to quantify soil benefits from soil and waterconservation.
Conclusions and Lessons for the Future
Though it was observed that some of the components of vertisol technologywere known to the farmers even prior to 1980, the extent of adoption was much
27
Table 14. Sustainability benefits from components of vertisol technologyin the low -rainfall region (% farmers).
Sustainability benefits
Improves soil and waterconservation
Increases soil fertilityEffective use of rain waterPrevents nutr ient miningPrevents soil erosion
Summercultivation
6435--
19Reduces soilborne diseases/pests, etc.
Controls weedsHigher yield/profit
223016
Doublecropping
-2328-13
--
41
Dryseeding
--
22--
--19
BBF
61018--
---
Properplacement
of seedand
fertilizers
--
2435-
-1120
Table 15. Sustainability benefits from components of vertisol technology inthe medium- rainfall region (% farmers).
SummerSustainability benefits cultivation
Improves soil and waterconservation
Increases soil fertilityEffective use of rain waterPrevents nutrient miningPrevents soil erosionReduces soilborne diseases/pests, etc.Controls weedsHigher yield/profit
5532--
23
262713
Doublecropping
-2621-
32
--
29
Dryseeding
--
45--
--
22
BBF
251317--
--10
Properplacement
of seedand
fertilizers
--1546-
-1423
28
T a b l e 16. S u s t a i n a b i l i t y b e n e f i t s f r o m c o m p o n e n t s o f v e r t i s o l t e c h n o l o g y
i n t h e h i g h - r a i n f a l l r e g i o n ( % f a r m e r s ) .
S u m m e r
Sustainabi l i ty benefi ts cu l t iva t ion
Improves soil a n d waterconservat ion
Increases soil fertilityEffective use of ra in wate r
Prevents nu t r ien t m in ing
Prevents soil eros ion
Reduces soi lborne diseases/
pests , etc.
Con t ro l s weeds
H igher yield/profit
52
21--
9
2325
14
D o u b l e
c r o p p i n g
-
1934-
20
--
33
D r y
seed ing
--5--
--
-
B B F
8-6--
--
-
P r o p e r
p l a c e m e n t
of seed
a n d
fert i l izers
--
1833-
-10
15
higher only after 1980. In general, farmers of the medium-rainfall region werefound to-be early adopters; the proportion of farmers who adopted differentcomponents of the technology too was relatively higher in this region. Thisimplies that earmarking appropriate ecoregions for a given technology wouldensure its wider adoption. Among the most important and widely adoptedcomponents were placement of seed and fertilizer, improved varieties, fertilizerapplication, and summer cultivation. The adoption of dry seeding and BBF wasreported only in the medium-rainfall region. BBF was used only by farmers withdrainage problems in their fields. Future research on dry seeding and BBFshould concentrate on the ecoregion where the specific problems exist.
Vertisol technology was found to favor large farmers since only they couldafford it; small farmers faced several resource constraints. Future researchshould therefore focus on the small farmer in order to make the technologymore accessible.
Vertisol technology as a complete package was not adopted by the samplefarmers; only its components were widely adopted by different groups offarmers at different locations. Similar findings were reported by Joshi et al.(1998). A stepwise adoption of various technology options was also observed.
29
The several constraints to the adoption of different components of thetechnology need attention in order to ensure widespread adoption of thetechnology. The NARS and the State Department of Agriculture may provideappropriate technology domains by identifying the existing constraints indifferent regions.
Many sustainability benefits were reported; however they may only contributeto enhancing yields in the long run. So future research will have to address thereassessment of such benefits, covering techno-economic feasibility and thesustainability issues under different rainfall regions.
Farmers adopting either summer cultivation or dry seeding enjoyed betteryields, higher net incomes, and a reduction in unit cost of productioncompared to their counterparts. The relatively higher cost of weeding due todry seeding suggests the need for collaborative research by agronomists,entemologists, and plant pathologists to overcome weed infestation. Summercultivation followed by dry seeding was found more profitable than summercultivation followed by BBF. This implies that dry seeding has a greater bearingon crop yields in dryland areas compared to BBF.
Results of the principal components analysis indicated the existence of fourunderlying dimensions in the adoption of vertisol technology. Improvedvarieties, fertilizer application, proper placement of seed and fertilizers, etc.,were the key components in the first dimension. Constraints to their adoptioncould be eliminated with the help of technical improvements. Some constraintslike the nonavailability of fertilizers and seeds of improved varieties requireintervention from public agencies. Voluntary organizations may take the leadin helping farmers of dryland agriculture.
The future research agenda will have to include impact assessment in terms oftransforming technology and its implications on food security and povertyalleviation. Quantifying the social benefits from vertisol technology would beimportant, as it would justify incentives and policy initiatives to enhanceadoption. Refinement of technology and policy research by NARS incollaboration with ICRISAT are called for.
References
Bhole B D, Alshi M R, Joshi P K, Bantilan M C S, and Chopde V K. 1998.Dry seeding in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Pages 197-201 in Assessingjoint research impacts: proceedings of an international Workshop on Joint
30
Impact Assessment of NARS/ICRISAT Technologies for the Semi-AridTropics, 2-4 Dec 1996, ICRISAT, Patancheru, India (Bantilan M C S, andJoshi P K, eds.). Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: InternationalCrops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Byerlee D, and Polanco E H de. 1986. Farmers' stepwise adoption oftechnological packages: evidence from the Mexican Altiplano. AmericanJournal of Agricultural Economics 68:519-527.
Desai N C, Ardeshna R B, and Intwala C G. 2000. Increasing pigeonpeaproductivity by providing land configuration in vertisols. InternationalChickpea and Pigeonpea Newsletter 7:66-67.
El-Swaify S A, Pathak P, Rego T J, and Singh S. 1985. Soil management foroptimized productivity under rainfed conditions in the semi-arid tropics.Advances in Soil Science 1:1-64.
Flower D J. 1994. Vertisol technology in India: technology development,extension and impact assessment. Pages 58-66 in Evaluating ICRISATresearch impact: summary proceedings of a Workshop on Research Evaluationand Impact Assessment, 13-15 Dec 1993, ICRISAT Center, India (Bantilan M C S, and Joshi P K, eds.). Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Foster John H, Kshirsagar K G, and Bhende M J. 1987. Early adoption ofimproved vertisol technology options and double cropping in Begamgunj,Madhya Pradesh. Economics Group Progress Report No. 77, Patancheru,Andhra Pradesh 502 324, India: International Crops Research Institute for theSemi-Arid Tropics.
Joshi P K, and Bantilan M C S. 1996. Evaluating adoption and returns toinvestment on crop and resource management research and technologytransfer: a case of groundnut production technology. ECON 1 ProgressReport. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International CropsResearch Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. (Limited distribution).
Joshi P K, Bantilan M C S, Ramakrishna A, Chopde V K, and Raju P S S.1998. Adoption of vertisol technology in the semi-arid tropics. Pages 182-196 inAssessing Joint Research Impacts: Proceedings of an international Workshopon Joint Impact Assessment of NARS/ICRISAT Technologies for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2-4 Dec 1996, ICRISAT, Patancheru, India (Bantilan M C S,and Joshi P K, eds.). Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
31
Kampen J. 1982. An approach to improved productivity on deep vertisols.Information Bulletin No. 11. Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh 502 324, India:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Mamo T, Abebe M, Duffera M, Kidanu S Y, and Erkosa T. 1994. Responseof chickpea to method of seed bed preparation and phosphorus application onEthiopian vertisols. International Chickpea and Pigeonpea Newsletter 1:17-18.
Patil R H, and Jawaregowda. 2000. Pre-sowing agronomic practices fordisease management. The Hindu, 2 Nov 2000.
Ryan J G, and Subramanyam K V. 1975. Package of practices approach inadoption of high-yielding varieties: an appraisal. Economic and PoliticalWeekly 10(52): A 110.
Ryan J G, Sarin R, and Pereira M. 1980. Assessment of prospective soil waterand crop-management technologies for the semi-arid tropics of peninsularIndia. Pages 52-72 in Proceedings of the International workshop onSocioeconomic constraints to development of semi-arid agriculture, 19-23 Feb1979, ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India (Ryan J G, ed.). Patancheru 502 324,Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Ryan J G, Virmani S M, and Swindale L D. 1982. Potential technologies fordeep black soils in relatively dependable regions of India. Pages 41-61 inProceedings of the seminar on Innovative technologies for integrated ruraldevelopment, 15-17 Apr 1982, New Delhi, India. New Delhi, India: IndianBank.
Sengar S S. 1998. Effect of surface drainage and phosphorus levels on yield ofpigeonpea. Pages 155-156 in Abstracts: National Symposium on Managementof Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Pulse Crops, 26-28 Jun 1998, Kanpur, India.Indian Society of Pulse Research and Development and Indian Institute ofPulses Research. Kanpur, India: Indian Institute of Pulses Research.
Shetty S V R, Krantz B A, and Obion, S R. 1977. Weed research needs of thesmall farmers. Pages 47-60 in Proceedings of the Conference and workshop onWeed science, 17-21 Jan 1977, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University,Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. India: Indian Society of Weed Science.
Singh R P. 2001. Watershed management: A holistic approach for drylandagriculture. Presented at the National workshop on Watershed areadevelopment: Challenges and solutions, 28-29 Jul 2001, Lucknow.
32
Virmani S M, Rao M R, and Srivastava, K L. 1989. Approaches to themanagement of vertisols in the semi-arid tropics: the ICRISAT experience.Pages 17-33 in Management of vertisols for improved agricultural production:proceedings of an IBSRAM inaugural workshop, 18-22 Feb 1985, ICRISAT,Patancheru, India (Burford J R, and Sahrawat K L, eds.). Patancheru 502 324,Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Walker T S, Ryan J G, Kshirsagar K G, and Sarin R. 1989. The economicsof deep Vertisol technology options: implications for design, testing andtransfer. Pages 1-36 in Technology options and economic policy for drylandagriculture: potential and challenge (Jodha N S, ed.). Proceedings of a Workshop, 22-24 Aug 1983, ICRISAT, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh,India. New Delhi, India: Concept Publishing.
33
Notes
Notes
RA - 00397
List o f p u b l i c a t i o n s in th i s se r i es
B a n t i l a n , M . C . S . , a n d Josh i , P . K . 1 9 9 6 . R e t u r n s t o resea rch a n d di f fus ion
i n v e s t m e n t s on wi l t res i s tance i n p i g e o n p e a . ( In E n . S u m m a ri e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t
Ser ies n o . l . P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , I nd ia : In t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s
R e s e a r c h I ns t i t u t e for t h e S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 3 6 p p . I S B N 9 2- 9 0 6 6 - 3 5 6 - 1 . O r d e r
c o d e I S E 0 0 1 .
Josh i , P .K . , a n d Ban t i l an , M . C . S . 1998 . I m p a c t assessmen t o f c rop a n d resou rce
m a n a g e m e n t t e c h n o l o g y : a case o f g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n t ec h n o l o g y . ( In E n .
S u m m a r i e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t Ser ies n o . 2 . P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 32 4 , A n d h r a P r a d e s h ,
I nd ia : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h I ns t i t u te for t h e S em i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 6 0 p p .
I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 3 7 6 - 6 . O r d e r c o d e I S E 0 0 2 .
Y a p i , A . M . , D e b r a h , S.K. , D e h a l a , G . , a n d N j o m a h a , C . 1999 . Im p a c t o f
g e r m p l a s m resea rch spi l lovers: t he case o f s o r g h u m var ie ty S 35 in C a m e r o o n a n d
C h a d . ( In E n . S u m m a r i e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t Ser ies n o . 3 . P a ta n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4 ,
A n d h r a P r a d e s h , I nd ia ; I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h I nst i t u te for t he S e m i - A r i d
T r o p i c s . 3 0 p p . I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 3 7 7 - 4 . O r d e r c o d e I S E 0 0 3 .
R o h r b a c h , D . D ., L e c h n e r , W . R . , I p i nge , S.A. , a n d M o n y o , E . S . 1 9 9 9 . I m p a c t f r om
i n v e s t m e n t s in c r o p b r e e d i n g : t he case o f O k a s h a n a 1 in N am i b i a . ( In E n .
S u m m a r i e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t Ser ies n o . 4 . P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4, A n d h r a P r a d e s h ,
I nd ia : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h Ins t i t u te for t he S em i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 4 8 p p .
I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 4 0 5 - 3 . O r d e r c o d e I S E 0 0 4 .
Ban t i l an , M . C . S . , a n d P a r t h a s a r a t h y , D . 1 9 9 9 . Eff ic iency an d sus ta inab i l i t y ga ins
f rom a d o p t i o n o f s h o r t - d u r a t i o n p i g e o n p e a i n n o n l e g u m e - b as e d c r o p p i n g sys tems .
( In E n . S u m m a r i e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t Ser ies n o . 5 . P a t a n c h e ru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a
P r a d e s h , I nd ia : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h I ns t i t u t e for t he S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
2 8 p p . I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 4 0 7 - X . O r d e r c o d e I S E 0 0 5 .
Y a p i , A . M . , D e h e l a , G . , N g a w a r a , K . , a n d Issaka, A . 1 9 9 9 . A ss e s s m e n t o f t h e
e c o n o m i c i m p a c t o f s o r g h u m var ie ty S 35 i n C h a d . ( In E n . S u m ma r i e s i n E n , F r . )
I m p a c t Ser ies n o . 6 . P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , Ind ia : I n t e r n a t i o n a l
C r o p s R e s e a r c h I ns t i t u t e for t h e S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 3 4 p p. I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 4 0 8 - 8 .
O r d e r c o d e I S E 0 0 6 .
R a m a s a m y , C . , B a n t i l a n , M . C . S . , E l a n g o v a n , S., a n d A s o k a n , M . 2 0 0 0 . I m p r o v e d
cu l t i vars o f pear l mi l le t i n T a m i l N a d u : A d o p t i o n , i m p a ct , a n d r e t u r n s t o r esea rch
i n v e s t m e n t . ( In E n . S u m m a r i e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t Ser ies no . 7 . P a t a n c h e r u
5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , Ind ia : I n t e r n a t i o n a l O o p s R e s e a rc h I ns t i t u t e for t he
S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 6 4 p p . I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 4 1 7 - 7 . O r d e r C o d e IS E 0 0 7 .
Y a p i , A . M . , K e r g n a , A . O . , D e b r a h , S .K. , S i d i be , A . , a n d S a n og o , O . 2 0 0 0 .
Ana lys is o f t h e e c o n o m i c i m p a c t o f s o r g h u m a n d mi l le t r esea rch i n M a l i . ( In E n .
S u m m a r i e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t Ser ies n o . 8 . P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4, A n d h r a P r a d e s h ,
Ind ia : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h I ns t i t u t e for t h e S em i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 5 6 p p .
I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 4 1 9 - 3 . O r d e r c o d e I S E 0 0 8 .
S h i y a n i , R . I . , Josh i , P . K . , a n d B a n t i l a n , M . C . S . 2 0 0 1 . I m p ac t o f c h i c k p e a
r e s e a r c h i n G u j a r a t . ( I n E n . S u m m a r i e s i n E n , F r . ) I m p a c t Ser ies n o . 9 .
P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , I nd ia : I n t e r n a t i o n al C r o p s R e s e a r c h
I n s t i t u t e for t h e S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 4 0 p p . I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 44 2 - 8 . O r d e r c o d e I S E
0 0 9 .
About ICRISAT
The semi-arid tropics (SAT) encompasses parts of 48 developing countries including most
of India, parts of southeast Asia, a swathe across sub-Saharan Africa, much of southern and
eastern Africa, and parts of Latin America. Many of these countries are among the poorest in
the wor ld . Approximately one-sixth of the world's population lives in the SAT, which is
typified by unpredictable weather, l imited and erratic rainfall, and nutr ient-poor soils.
ICRISAT's mandate crops are sorghum, pearl millet, f inger millet, chickpea, pigeonpea, and
groundnut; these six crops are vital to life for the ever-increasing populations of the
semi-arid tropics. ICRISAT's mission is to conduct research which can lead to enhanced
sustainable production of these crops and to improved management of the limited natural
resources of the SAT. ICRISAT communicates information on technologies as they are
developed through workshops, networks, training, library services, and publishing.
ICRISAT was established in 1972. It is one of 16 nonprofi t , research and training centers
funded through the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The
CGIAR is an informal association of approximately 50 public and private sector donors; it is
co-sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), and the World Bank.
ICRISAT
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India
www.icrisat.org
CGIAR
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
ISBN 92-9066-453-3 Order code ISE 010 909-2002
