Impactofparentalmigrationonthepsychosocialwellbeingof

left-behindchildrenintwoChineseprovinces:individual

experiences,familycharacteristics,andcommunitycontexts

ChenyueZhao

InstituteofGlobalHealth,UniversityCollegeLondon

Supervisor:Prof.ThereseHesketh

AthesissubmittedforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy

February2017

2

Declaration

I,ChenyueZhao,declarethattheworkpresentedinthisthesisismyown.Where

information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been

indicatedinthethesis.

3

Abstract

Background:Inmanycountries,largenumbersofleft-behindchildren(LBC)

growupexperiencingprolongedseparationfromtheirmigrantworkerparents.

InChina,thewellbeingof60millionLBChasbecomeasignificantchallengefor

families,communities,andthesociety.Thisthesisaimedtoinvestigatetheimpact

mechanismsofparentalmigrationonthepsychosocialwellbeingofLBC.

Methods:Childrenwererecruitedfrommigrant-sendingruralareasinZhejiang

andGuizhouprovinces.Aqualitativestudyinvestigatedtheexperiencesof

childrenandperceptionsoffamilymembersinrelationtochildpsychosocial

wellbeingundertheimpactofparentalmigration,aswellastheinterrelated

factorsinthefamilyandsocialenvironmentsandthemechanismsthroughwhich

theyaffectLBC.Aquantitativestudymeasuredchildren’spsychosocialstrengths

anddifficultiesandthefamilyandsocialfactors,withaself-administered

questionnaire,andexaminedtheeffectsofbothcurrentandpreviousparental

migration,andpotentialcausalmechanismsinvolvingdifferentcovariatesin

multiplelinearregressionmodels.

Findings:Qualitativefindingsshowedthatlengthyseparationposesconsiderable

difficultiesonmanychildren’spsychosocialwelling,especiallyemotionaldistress,

primarilythroughdisruptedattachmentrelationships.Theseeffectsmaynotbe

easilyrestoredevenifmigrantparentspermanentlyreturnedhome.The

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psychosocialsupport(andlackof)fromtheco-residentfamily,aswellasfactors

regardingschoolperformanceandcommunitycohesion,alsomodifyorintensify

thechildwellbeingoutcomesundertheimpactofparents’absence.Quantitative

resultsindicatedthatbothcurrentandpreviousparentalmigrationwas

independentlyassociatedwithadverseoutcomes,especiallytheemotionaland

socialdimensionsofchildpsychosocialwellbeing.Relationshipbetweennuclear

familymembers,carearrangements,andavailabilityofsupportinfamilyand

socialenvironmentsseemtobeimportantcovariatesinthecausalmechanisms.

Parentaldivorceandlackofsupportmayparticularlyexacerbatechildren’s

psychosocialdifficulties.

Discussion:Parentalmigrationhasalong-lastingadverseeffectonchildren’s

psychosocialwellbeing,especiallyemotionalfunctioning.Positiveparent-child

relationshipbondsandsupportivefamilyandsocialenvironmentsarecrucial

determinantsofthewellbeingofLBC,ratherthansocioeconomicstatus.

Communitybasedprogramsmaybedevelopedtoprovideadditionalcareand

support.

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Acknowledgements

IwouldfirstandforemostliketothankmyprimarysupervisorProf.Therese

HeskethwhoprovidedessentialguidanceandsupportthroughoutmyPhD

project.IamalsoverygratefultomysecondarysupervisorDrLeahLiforthe

insightfulhelpwiththequantitativeanalysischapter.

TherearemanypeopleinChinawithoutwhomthisresearchwouldhavebeen

impossible.ThankstotheprojectteamatZhejiangUniversityforenablingmeto

conductthisstudy,andtoKaihuaWomen’sFederationforthelocalsupportfrom

manyofitsstaffmembers.ThanksalsotothestudyparticipantsinZhejiangand

Guizhouforsharingtheirtimeandoftenpersonalexperiences.Specialthanksto

KaihuaWomen’sFederationforthecruciallocalsupportfrommanyofitsstaff

members.

Also,verydeepthankstothefriendswhohavemotivatedandinspiredme

throughoutmyPhD,inparticularJinXuandHenryLi,becauseofwhomInever

reallyfeltaloneonthisbittersweetjourney.

Finally,thankstomyparentsandmygirlfriend,whosupportedme

unconditionallyalongtheway.Andthankstomygrandfather,whoIwasunable

tospendmoretimewithduringhislastyears,whotaughtmesomuchin

becomingapersonIam,andwouldhavebeensoproudofme.

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TableofContents

Chapter1Introduction.........................................................................................................................13

1.1ScaleofmigrationandLBCpopulationsglobally.....................................................13

1.2Contextsofmigrationandparent-childseparation................................................16

1.3Careenvironmentofleft-behindchildren...................................................................18

1.4PoliciestosafeguardthewellbeingofLBC.................................................................21

1.5ProgramstoimprovethewellbeingofLBC................................................................24

1.6Researchquestionandstudyaims.................................................................................26

1.7Thesisstructure......................................................................................................................26

Chapter2ReviewofTheoreticalPerspectives...........................................................................28

2.1Introduction..............................................................................................................................28

2.1Migrationtheories.................................................................................................................28

2.1.1Thepush-pullmodels................................................................................................28

2.1.2Neoclassicaleconomicstheory..............................................................................30

2.1.3Householdeconomicstheory.................................................................................31

2.1.4Segmentedlabor-marketandworldsystemstheory....................................32

2.2Theoriesinfamilystudies..................................................................................................33

2.2.1FamilyStressManagement....................................................................................33

2.2.2FamilyContext............................................................................................................35

2.2.3Socio-ecologicalapproachandfamilysystemstheory................................37

2.3AttachmentTheory................................................................................................................39

2.3.1Theearliestattachment..........................................................................................39

2.3.2Developmentanddisruptionofattachmentrelationship..........................41

2.3.3Migratoryseparationandattachment..............................................................42

2.4Summary....................................................................................................................................43

Chapter3ReviewofEmpiricalLiterature....................................................................................45

3.1Introductionandscopeofthereview...........................................................................45

3.1Methods......................................................................................................................................46

3.2Quantitativestudies..............................................................................................................62

7

3.2.1Characteristicsofthestudysamples..................................................................63

3.2.2ComparisonbetweenEnglish-languageandChinese-languagestudies67

3.2.3Happinessandqualityoflifemeasures.............................................................68

3.2.4Mentalhealthstatus.................................................................................................70

3.2.5Resilienceandpositiveyouthdevelopment......................................................72

3.2.6Psychosocialstrengthsanddifficulties..............................................................73

3.2.7Emotionalsymptoms................................................................................................77

3.2.8Behavioralissues........................................................................................................82

3.2.9Self-conceptandself-esteem..................................................................................84

3.2.10Factorsassociatedwithwellbeinginleft-behindchildren......................86

3.3Qualitativestudies..............................................................................................................110

3.3.1Migrationdecision..................................................................................................110

3.3.2Gendernormsandsocio-culturalcontext......................................................113

3.3.3Emotionalandbehavioralimpact....................................................................114

3.3.4Communication........................................................................................................117

3.3.5Education...................................................................................................................120

3.3.6Careenvironmentintheleft-behindfamilies...............................................123

3.4Summary.................................................................................................................................125

3.4.1Overviewandgapsintheliterature................................................................125

3.4.2Contributionofthereviewtothecurrentqualitativestudy...................127

3.4.3Contributionofthereviewtothecurrentquantitativestudy................128

3.4.4Puttingempiricalstudiesintocontexts..........................................................130

Chapter4Studycontexts..................................................................................................................131

4.1Introduction...........................................................................................................................131

4.2Studyareasandpopulations..........................................................................................131

4.2.1SocioeconomicdevelopmentandmigrationinZhejiangProvince......133

4.2.3IntroductiontoKaihua,themainprojectsite..............................................135

4.2.2SocioeconomicdevelopmentandmigrationinGuizhouProvince.......137

4.3Policyandadministrationcontexts.............................................................................138

4.3.1FamilyplanningpolicyinChina........................................................................139

4.3.2Ruralgovernmentadministrationsystem.....................................................140

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4.3.3Women’sFederation(WF)system....................................................................142

4.3.4 Roles of government agencies on child protection and intervention

programs...............................................................................................................................143

4.4Summary.................................................................................................................................144

Chapter 5 Experiences of children, and relationships, care and support in the

familieslivingapart.............................................................................................................................145

5.1Introductionanduseofextantliterature.................................................................145

5.2Methods...................................................................................................................................147

5.2.1Studyarea..................................................................................................................148

5.2.2Sampling.....................................................................................................................149

5.2.3Interviewpreparations.........................................................................................152

5.2.3Interviewprocedure...............................................................................................154

5.2.4Rolesofthelocalcollaborator...........................................................................156

5.2.5Analysis.......................................................................................................................158

5.3Results......................................................................................................................................161

5.3.1Overviewofmigrantfamilies.............................................................................161

5.3.2Householdsocioeconomicrationalesofmigration....................................162

5.3.3Childwellbeinginabsenceofmigrantparents...........................................168

5.3.4 Care arrangements and psychosocial support in the left-behind

family......................................................................................................................................179

5.3.5Careanddiscipliningconcernsandthereturnofmigrantmother.....185

5.3.6Challengesineducationattainmentandcommunityenvironment....192

5.3.7Psychosocialsupportfromthecommunityenvironment........................197

5.4Discussion...............................................................................................................................201

5.4.1Summaryofkeyfindings......................................................................................201

5.4.2Comparisonofstudycontextswithextantinternationalliterature....204

5.4.3Attachmentrelationshipandemotionaldistress........................................206

5.4.4 Availability of support from family and socio-ecological

environments.......................................................................................................................211

5.4.5Theprocessesandeffectsofreturnmigration.............................................214

5.4.6Limitations:studysample,age,andgender.................................................217

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5.4.7Studyimplicationsandconnectionswiththequantitativestudy........218

Chapter 6 Impact of parental migration on children’s psychosocial wellbeing

measures:aquantitativesurvey....................................................................................................222

6.1Introduction...........................................................................................................................222

6.2Methods...................................................................................................................................223

6.2.1Studypopulations...................................................................................................223

6.2.2Datacollection.........................................................................................................224

6.2.3Measures.....................................................................................................................225

6.2.4Dataanalysis.............................................................................................................236

6.3Results......................................................................................................................................237

6.3.1Sampledescriptivestatistics...............................................................................237

6.3.2Parentalmigrationstatusandpsychosocialdifficulties..........................240

6.3.3Effectsofhouseholdcharacteristics.................................................................243

6.3.4Effectsofsocialsupportandschoolperformance......................................246

6.3.5Differentdimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeing..........................................246

6.3.6Resultsincurrentlyleft-behindchildren........................................................248

6.2.7Interactioneffects...................................................................................................250

6.4Discussion...............................................................................................................................251

6.4.1Summaryofkeyfindingsandcontributionstotheliterature...............251

6.4.2Independenteffectsofparentalmigrationonpsychosocialdifficulties254

6.4.3Familycareandsocialsupport..........................................................................258

6.4.4Familywealthstatusandchildwellbeing.....................................................265

6.4.5Householdeconomicsoflabormigration......................................................268

6.4.6Schoolperformance...............................................................................................270

6.4.7Ageandgenderdisparities..................................................................................271

6.5Strengthsandlimitations................................................................................................274

Chapter7Discussionandconclusion..........................................................................................276

7.1Overallsummaryofstudyresults................................................................................276

7.2Keyfindingsandcontributions.....................................................................................277

7.2.1 The relationship-emotion mechanisms showing the impact of

migration..............................................................................................................................277

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7.2.2Non-emotionalaspectsofchildwellbeing.....................................................281

7.2.3Atimedimensionoftheimpactfrommigration.........................................283

7.2.4Carearrangementsandpsychosocialsupport.............................................286

7.2.5Householdeconomicresources..........................................................................290

7.2.6Socioeconomicandcommunitycontexts.......................................................292

7.3Conclusion..............................................................................................................................298

7.3.1SystemssafeguardingthewellbeingofLBC..................................................298

7.3.2Stableandprotectivefamilyenvironment....................................................299

7.3.3Implicationsforpolicyandinterventions......................................................300

7.3.4Solutionstokeepfamiliestogether..................................................................302

References...............................................................................................................................................304

Annex:Quantitativesurveyquestionnaire................................................................................324

ListofTables

Table3.1:SummaryofreviewedquantitativestudiesconductedinChinaand

publishedinEnglish............................................................................................................................50

Table3.2:SummaryofreviewedquantitativestudiesconductedinChinaand

publishedinChinese...........................................................................................................................53

Table3.3:Summaryofreviewedquantitativestudiesthatwerenotconductedin

China..........................................................................................................................................................59

Table3.4:Summaryofreviewedqualitativestudies.........................................................108

Table5.1:Demographics,familycomposition,andmigrationpatternof

interviewedmigrantfamilies.................................................................错误! 未定义书签。

Table6.1:FrequencydistributionofresponsesineachSDQitem..............................227

Table6.2:Overallsamplecharacteristics...............................................................................234

Table6.3:Samplecharacteristicsbyparentalmigrationstatus...................................238

Table6.4:Psychosocialoutcomesbyparentalmigrationstatus..................................242

Table6.5:Regressioncoefficient(SE)fortotaldifficultiesscoreonparental

migrationstatuswithandwithoutadjustmentforhouseholdcharacteristics,

socialsupport,andschoolperformance.................................................................................244

Table6.6:Regressioncoefficientsforemotionalsymptoms,peerrelationships,

andhyperactiviessubscalesonparentalmigrationstatus,household

characteristics,socialsupport,andschoolperformance.................................................247

Table6.7.Regressioncoefficients(SE)fortotaldifficultiesscoreonparental

migrationstatus,householdcharacteristics,socialsupport,andschool

performanceforcurrentlyleft-behindchildrenonly........................................................249

Table6.8:Between-subgroupcomparisonsofadjustedmeantotaldifficulties

scorebykeycovariatesandparentalmigrationstatus....................................................251

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ListofFigures

Figure2.1:TheABC-XContextualModeloffamilystress(Boss,2002).......................37

Figure2.2:Bronfenbrenner's(1979)ecologicalframeworkforhuman

development...........................................................................................................................................38

Figure3.1:Flowchartofarticleselectionprocedure...........................................................49

Figure3.2:Summaryframeworkofthequantitativeliterature......................................66

Figure4.1:Locationofthestudyprovinces...........................................................................133

Figure5.1:Conceptualframeworkofkeyfactorsintheimpactmechanismsof

parentalmigrationonchildpsychosocialwellbeing(AdaptedfromBoss,2002)202

Figure6.1:FrequencydistributionofSDQtotaldifficultiesscore...............................231

Figure6.2.FrequencydistributionofSDQsubscalescores............................................232

Figure6.3:Adjustedtotaldifficultiesscorebyparentalmigrationstatusand

covariates..............................................................................................................................................250

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Chapter1 Introduction

1.1ScaleofmigrationandLBCpopulationsglobally

Overthepastfewdecades,unprecedentedmigrationflowsinmanypartsofthe

worldhavehadprofoundimpactsonfamilystructuresandthehomecommunities

ofmigrants(Lametal.,2013).In2013,232millionpeople–3.2%oftheworld's

population–livedoutsidetheircountryoforigin(UnitedNations,2013).Aneven

highernumber-anestimated763millionpeople-arelivingwithintheirown

countrybutoutsidetheirregionofbirth(UnitedNations,2013).Despitethat

familiesmaybeabletomigratetogether,thepopulationmovementsoftenleadto

separationbetweenhouseholdmembers,withavarietyofimplicationsonboth

sidesoffamilieslivingapart:themigrantsawayfromhome(abroadorinanother

partofthecountry),andtheleft-behindfamilymembersintheirhometown.In

particular,suchseparationisperhapsmostconcerningwhenitinvolveschildren

leftbyoneorbothmigrantparents,inthecareofothercaregivers(Asis,2006).

Inmostdevelopedcountries,theterm“leftbehind-children”isusedtodescribe

childrenwhofallbehindinwellbeing,mainlyrelatingtomaterialwellbeing,

educationandhealth.Toclarify,inthisthesis,“leftbehind-children”(LBC)refers

tochildrenwhoexperienceprolongedseparationfromtheirmigrantworker

parent(s).ThenumberofLBCishighinmanylow-andmiddle-incomecountries,

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whereanincreasingnumberofparentshavejoinedtheglobalmovementof

workersrespondingtolaborshortagesinwealthierregions(Graham&Jordan,

2011).

Forinstance,overseasworking,includingalargenumberoffemalemigrant

workers,isparticularlycommoninsomeSoutheastAsiancountries.Areviewby

Bryant(2005)focusingonthreeSoutheastAsiancountriesestimatedthat,there

werethreetosixmillionchildreninthePhilippinesleftbehindbyparentsworking

overseas,approximatelyonemillionsuchchildreninIndonesia,andhalfamillion

inThailand.

EnormousimmigrationflowsfromLatinAmericatotheUnitedStatesalsoresulted

ingreatchallengesoftheleft-behindfamilies.Nobles(2013)reportedthatmore

than20%ofchildreninMexicoexperienceafather’smigrationbytheageof15.A

UNICEF(2007)reportsuggestedthatinEcuador,between1990and2005,the

numberofLBChasrisenfrom17,000to218,000.

EasternEuropeisanotherhighout-migrationarea,bothfromwithinandoutside

oftheEuropeanUnion,totheWesternhigh-incomecountries.InRomania,astudy

(Botezat&Pfeiffer,2014)reportedanestimated350,000children(over8%ofthe

childpopulation)werelivinginamigrantfamily,andnearly400,000childrenhad

atsomepointoneorbothparentsworkingabroad.InMoldova,itwasestimated

that22%ofallchildrenaged0-14hadoneorbothparentsabroad(UNICEF,2011).

15

DespitealackofreportsfromAfricancountriesonthenumberofLBC,thescaleof

migrationtowesterncountriesandwithinthecontinentorthecountryhasalso

beensignificant.TheWorldBank’s(2016)reportindicatedthatinternational

migrantsfromSub-SaharanAfricatotaled23.2million,ofwhom26%wereliving

inOECDcountriesand65.6%werelivingwithintheregion,whichinevitablylead

toalargenumberofchildrenleftbehindathome.

Whileoverseasmigrationisnowacommonphenomenoninmanypartsofthe

world,itispossiblethatevenmorepeoplearemigratingwithintheirown

countries,primarilyfromruraltourbanareas.Morethanhalfoftheworld’s

populationnowlivesinurbanareas(UnitedNations,2014),notleastduetothe

rapidurbanizationinAsiaandAfrica.

InChina,unevensocioeconomicdevelopmentisencouragingmigrationflowsto

thecitiesforbetterjobopportunities;themassiverural-urbanmigrationhas

driventhenumberofchildrenleftbehindinruralChinaupto61million,

accountingfor38%ofchildreninruralareasand22%ofallchildreninthe

country(All-ChinaWomen’sFederation,2013).Anestimated29millionLBClive

withneitherparent,andover2millionlivealone(All-ChinaWomen’sFederation,

2013).

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1.2Contextsofmigrationandparent-childseparation

Globalizationinthepastfewdecadeshasresultedinanoverwhelmingtrend

towardtechnologicalandsocialintegration(Prempehetal.,2004),whichhas

affectedglobalmigrationpatterns.Thegenerallyrestrictivestancetowards

immigrationindevelopedcountriesnowcoexistswithastrongdemandforcertain

categoriesofmigrantworker,forinstanceindomesticserviceandagriculture.

Meanwhile,inthedevelopingworld,therecenturbanizationintheemerging

countrieslikeChinahasattractedtremendousmigrationflowsintothecities(Wu,

2007).Sincethereformandopeninguppolicyinthelate1970s,Chinahas

witnessedrapideconomicgrowthandmassiveurbandevelopment.Theprocessof

industrializationhasacceleratedruralreformsinChina,increasedagricultural

productivityandfreedagriculturallabor.Asaconsequence,largenumbersof

formerrurallaborershaveheadedintomoreurbanizedareas,lookingforbetter

employmentopportunitiesandsourcesofincome.Therefore,sincemid-1980s,

Chinahaswitnessedwhatsomescholarsdescribedasthelargestpeacetime

populationmovementinworldhistory(Roberts,2002).

Peoplemigrateacrosscountries,orwithinacountryfromruraltourbanareas,

mostlydrivenbythepotentialforimprovedeconomiccircumstancesandbetter

opportunitiesforhumandevelopment(UNICEF,2006).Althoughsuchincentives

usedtobeviewedonindividualbasis,nowitisnearlyimpossiblenottoconsider

thefundamentalroleplayedbythefamily.Hence,householdmigrationistypically

17

consideredalivelihoodstrategythatistakenupduetoeconomicdeficienciesof

thefamily(Laudy&Stark,1988;Stark&Lucas,1988)

However,duetostringententrypolicies,financialconstraints,andlimitedaccess

topublicgoodsinthedestination(Valtolina&Colombo,2012),inmanycases

familymembersareunabletomigratetogether.Consequently,hundredsof

millionsofchildrenaroundtheworldarebeingleftbehindbytheirmigrant

parents,manyofwhomarelower-skilledworkersfromdevelopingcountries

(Yeoh&Lam,2006).Inparticular,migrantworkersatthelowerendofthe

socio-economicspectrumoftenhavelittleornopossibilityoffamilyreunification

indestinationcountries,resultingintheirlong-termseparationfromleft-behind

familymembers.

LabormigrantsfromSoutheastAsiatypicallytakeupshort-termcontractsinthe

wealthiercountiesoftheregionandbeyond,betheywomenworkingasdomestic

servantsormenemployedatseaorinconstruction.Theirlimitedrightsof

residenceinhostcountriesmakeitlegallyorpracticallyimpossibletobringa

family.MillionsofLatinAmericansintheUSandinEuropeareunabletobring

theirchildrenbecausetheparentsareundocumentedimmigrants;evenlegally

residentmigrantsoftenfacebureaucraticandfinancialobstaclestofamily

reunification,whichcanresultinyearsofunwantedseparation(Carlingetal.,

2012).China’surbanlocalpublicresourcedistributionandmanagementsystem

posesformidableobstaclesforrural-to-urbanmigrantsaccessingpublicgoodslike

18

primaryeducationandmedicalcare.Also,rurallaborershavelowerpay,more

crowdedlivingconditions,andmorephysicallydemandingjobs.Thishasresulted

inthemajorityofmigrantworkershavingnochoicebuttoleavetheirchildren

livinginruralhometowns.Leavingchildrenbehindhasbecomeacommon

phenomenonnotonlyforlow-incomefamiliesbutalsoacrossthesocio-economic

spectruminruralChina(Heetal.,2012)

1.3Careenvironmentofleft-behindchildren

CareisdefinedbyStanding(2001)astheactofseeingtoaperson’s“physical,

psychological,emotionalanddevelopmentalneeds”.Aschildren’swellbeing

comprisesavarietyofelements,theimpactfromparentalabsenceandeffectsof

differentcharacteristicsofthecareenvironmentarecomplex.Ingeneral,

standardsoflivingshouldriseinhouseholdsthatreceiveremittancesfromfamily

migrantlaborers(Sofranko&Idris,1999).However,evidencehasindicatedthat

parentalmigrationaffectschildwellbeingthroughatrade-offbetweenincreased

familyincomeanddisruptedparentalcare(Valtolina&Colombo,2012).Thequality

ofsubstitutecarearrangementsisanimportantfactordeterminingthedegreeto

whichparentalabsenceimpactsthecare,stimulationandsupervisionofchildren

(Parreñas,2008).

Forthefamilieswhereoneorbothmigrantparentsliveapartfromthefamily,

childrenleft-behindareusuallyleftinthehometowntoberaisedbyacaregiver,

19

whomaybetheotherparent,anextendedfamilymember,orinsomecasesa

non-kinrelatedperson.Whileinmanycountriesitwastraditionallythefatherwho

wouldleaveandbecomethebreadwinnerofthefamily,nowitisincreasingly

frequentthatthemotheralsomigrates,separatelyortogetherwiththefather.

Regardlessofthemigrationpatternofthefamily,infulfillingchildcare

responsibilities,caregiversarefacedwithnumerouschallenges,including

inadequatesupport,socialstigma,isolation,disruptedleisureandretirementplans,

age-relatedadversities,angertowardthecustodialchildrenandfinancial

difficulties(Butler&Zakari,2005;Daly&Glenwick,2000;Whitleyetal.,2001).

Asiancareregimesremainstrongly‘familistic’,thatis,familieshavetheprincipal

responsibilityfortheirmembers’welfare,beitintermsofsharingincomesor

providingcaretothoseinneed(Esping-Andersen,2000).Unlikewesterncountries,

organizationofcareinmanypartsofAsiadoesnotheavilyreplyonthestate,

marketorevencommunity.TheconceptoffamilycareinmanyAsiancultures,

fromhigh-incometolow-incomesettings,involvesactiverolesofextendedfamily

members,especiallygrandparents(Ochiai,2009).InSoutheastAsia,theextended

familyadultshasbeenfoundtohavemajorinfluenceoverallaspectsofmigration

includingparticipatinginthemigrationdecision,fundingthetripandtakingcare

ofleft-behindchildren,therebymitigatingthesocialcostsofmigration(Bryant,

2005).MeanwhileinChinawherethefamilycarecultureislargelysimilar,

researchalsosuggestedthatintensivegrandchildrencare,albeitacommon

20

practice,canbebeyondthedefinedobligationsofgrandparentsandconsidered

moreafavorthanaformalobligation(Cong&Silverstein,2011).

China’s“OneChildPolicy”createdauniqueimpactonfamilystructures.The

enforcementofOneChildPolicy,despitethemorerelaxedvariationsofitincertain

areasofthecountry,hasbeenfoundtobeariskfactorforaseriesofemotional

andbehavioralproblems,basedondatafromeconomicsexperimentsconducted

withgroupsofindividualsbornjustbeforeandjustafterthepolicy’sintroduction

in1979(Cameronetal.,2013).Ahighproportionofsinglechildfamiliesin

relativelyunderdevelopedareasinruralChinashouldbeconsideredanimportant

characteristicofLBC’scareenvironment.Asrapideconomicgrowthcreatedmore

humandevelopmentopportunitiesinChina,thosewhoaretheonlychildmaybear

higherexpectationsfromthefamily,butreceivelesssupportandbemore

vulnerabletopsychosocialchallengesoncesetbackstakeplaceintheirlives(Wang

&Guo,2010).

Whatchildrenreceivefromtheirmigrantparentscanbebroadlycategorizedinto

twogroups:economicresourcesandsocio-culturalorientations(McLanahan&

Sandefur,1994).Additionalfinancialresourcesfromremittancessentbymigrant

parentscanbeusedtofacilitatechilddevelopment,includinginvestmentin

educationandthelivingenvironment.Assetssuchasgoodhousingcondition,

adequatefoodandnutrition,highqualityschoolandneighborhood,andadditional

opportunitiesforskillbuilding,arecrucialinpromotingchilddevelopment(Wen,

21

2008).Remittanceshavebeenshowntohaveapositiveeffectonnutritionand

generalhealth(Constant&Zimmermann,2013).Ontheotherhand,LBCcan

benefitfromnewinformationandideasinamoredevelopedurbansetting,that

aretransmittedbytheirparentsandwhichhavebeentermed“social

remittances”(Levitt,1998).Migrantparentsmayrepresentanadvancedmodern

lifestylethatthechildcouldliveupto,andprovideaspirationsofpursuingsuccess

inlife(Pribilsky2001).

1.4PoliciestosafeguardthewellbeingofLBC

Whetherlabormigrationisaneffectivelong-termpovertyalleviationstrategy,at

bothhouseholdandnationallevels,isstilladebatedissue(Adams&Page,2005).

Althoughmigrationwasdrivenbyeconomicincentives,theincreaseindisposable

incomeandmaterialresourcesarenotguaranteedintheleft-behindfamily

members.Particularly,childrenarevulnerabletotheeconomicshocksand

instabilityinthemigrantreceivingareas(Janson,2014).Forexample,inChina,

partlybecauseofthepreferenceforinvestinginnewhousingratherthanin

privatesavingschemes,veryfewmigrantfamilieshaveliquidassets(Janson,

2014).Consequently,theuncertaintyineconomicbenefitsfromremittancesis

rathersignificant.

Thislackofeconomicsecurityrequirestargetedpolicyandinterventionfromlocal

governmentsaswellasnongovernmentalorganizations.Corporatesocial

22

responsibilityfromtheenterpriseswheretheparentsareworkingshouldalsobe

strengthened,inadditiontoprovidingbasicemployeebenefits.Decenthousing,

accessiblepreschoolsandschoolsareamongtheessentialconditionstoenable

familiestobringtheirchildrenwiththem.

Whilepolicymakersandacademicshavebecomeincreasinglyawareofthe

economicroleofmigration,lessattentionhasbeenpaidtothepsychosocial

ramificationsforleftbehindfamilymembers(dalaGarza,2010).Yetanumberof

studieshaveindicatedthedisadvantagesinavarietyofmeasuresofpsychosocial

wellbeing,includingdepression,anxiety,loneliness,andqualityoflife(seethe

literaturereviewchapter).

InChina,theincreasingevidenceaboutthesocialanddevelopmentalcostsof

migration,ledseveralcentralgovernmentagenciestojointlycallonlocal

authoritiestoprioritizeimprovementsintheeducationandcareofLBC

(GovernmentofChina,2013)inordertomitigatetheadverseeffectsofparental

absence.MostrecentlyinFebruary2016,theStateCouncilofChinaissuedasetof

guidelinescallingfortheestablishmentofanenhancedsystemthatengages

families,governments,schoolsandsocialgroupsinprovidingbettercareand

protectionto“left-behindchildren”(StateCouncil,2016).Arescuemechanism

thatincludesinterventionmeasuressuchasmandatoryreporting,crisis

managementandassistanceevaluationwillpreventinfringementsontherightsof

thesechildren.Theguidelinesencouragegovernmentstocontractcharitiesand

23

voluntarybodiestoprovideprofessionalservices,includingmechanismsof

compulsoryreporting,intervention,assessmentandhelp.Theseorganizations

mustreportcasesthatinvolveinjury,abuseorotherharmtotheappropriate

authorityandinterveneassoonaspossible.

Theguidelinesalsolayoutmeasurestograduallydecreasethenumberof

left-behindchildren.Thegovernmentwillprovidemoreassistancesuchas

grantingfamiliesofmigrantworkersurbancitizenshiporsubsidiesinhousingor

education.Ruralmigrantworkersarealsoencouragedtoreturntotheir

hometownsandstarttheirownbusinesses.Itisexpectedthat,by2020,Chinawill

improvelawsandregulationsregardingchildprotection,andcreateasafer

environmentforchildrentogrowupespeciallyinruralareas.

Insomeothercountries,thegovernmenthasalsotakenmeasurestosafeguardthe

wellbeingofLBC.Forexample,RomaniaissuedaGovernmentalOrdinancein2006,

solicitingparentstoinformauthoritiesoftheirleavingintentions,andregistera

guardian,inordertomonitortheLBCespeciallythose“atrisk”,raiseawareness

andprovidepertinentservices.HowevertheimplementationoftheOrdinance

soonbecameineffective.Thenanewregulationwasissuedin2009,asalaw

obligingmigrantparentstonominateaguardianmeetingseveralcriteria(a

relativewithatleasttheminimumincomeguaranteedandatleast18yearsolder

thanthechildtobecaredfor,fullphysicalandpsychologicalcapacity,nodisabling

conditionsorpreviousparentingconvictions,nomorethanthreeotherchildrenin

24

care).Therearesubstantialfinesforparentsbreakingthelaw.Monthlymonitoring

visitsbythesocialworkers,withtheultimateresponsibilityforchildreplacement

instatecare,arestipulated(Pantea,2012).

EventhoughRomaniahasabroadschemeofsocialassistanceprovisionsand

services(Cerami,2006)especiallyforchildren,thehighpressurefromparental

migrationhasfoundthesystemunprepared.Somedeprivedmigrant-sending

communitiesintheeasthavethepoorestresourcesforassistanceand

interventions.Moreover,localauthoritiesmayhavetheassumptionthatmigrant

familiesdeveloptheirowninternalarrangementsandthus,relievethestateofits

role(Luca,2007).

1.5ProgramstoimprovethewellbeingofLBC

Despitethetremendouschallengesfacedbytheleft-behindfamiliesandthe

migrantsendingcommunitiesglobally,onlyfewspecificpoliciesandprograms

thataddressthewellbeingofLBChavebeenreported.

InChina,despitethegovernment’sadvocacyandconstantefforts,veryfew

systematiccareandsupportprogramsforruralLBCarebeingimplementedinthe

field,partlybecausethenon-profitsectorinChinaisundermanypoliticaland

administrativeconstraints.UNICEFChinahasreportedonpreliminary

achievementsofa“ChildWelfareDirectors”programinafewprovinces,which

25

recruitsgrassrootssocialworkerstobridgeservicegapsforvulnerablechildren,

especiallyLBC(UNICEF,2014a).Yetthisapproachdoesnotprovideessential,

concreteservicestochildrenotherthanconnectingthemwithavailableresources

andinstitutions.Neitherdoesithaveaphysicalspaceasacommunitylevel

platform.

VeryfewprogramstargetingLBCwerereportedinothercountriesaswell.One

program(Givaudan&Pick,2013)wascarriedoutinMexico,bytheMexican

InstituteofFamilyandPopulationResearch(IMIFAP).IMIFAPhasestablisheda

numberofCommunityChildDevelopmentCenters(CCDCs)thatfocuson

mitigatingthenegativeeffectsofparentalmigration,intheruralareasoftwo

Mexicanstates.BasedattheseCenters,abroadlifeskillstrainingprogram(e.g.,

cognitive-problemsolving,expressionandmanagementofemotions,

social-conflictresolution)isconducted,targetingLBCandvolunteercommunity

promoters/caregiversofchildrenunder12yearsold.

Theprogramhasbeensuccessfulintrainingpromoterswhointurnhavebecome

changeagentsintheirlocalities.Migrantparents,aswellascaregiverssuchas

grandmothers,relatives,andneighbors,acceptedtheprogramandreported

changesintheperceptionoftheirrolesinthecaringanddevelopmentofthe

babies.Positivebehavioralchangeswerealsofoundastheyattachmore

importancetohealthandnutritionissues.

26

1.6Researchquestionandstudyaims

InlightofthebackgroundsoftheLBCissues,withaspecificfocusonfamilies

affectedbyrural-to-urbanmigration,anextensiveliteraturereviewwasconducted

whichidentifiedafewmajorgaps.First,longer-termimpactofparentalmigration

onchildrenwasseldomexplored,asonlyveryfewstudiesindicatedthelasting

effectsaftermigrantparentsreturned.Second,therelationshipqualityand

dynamicsremainedunclearinLBC’sfamily,especiallybetweenmigrantparents

andtheirchildren.Third,howtheleft-behindfamilyandtheirsocialenvironments

providecareandsupporttochildrenhasnotbeencomprehensivelyassessed.

Thisthesisaimedtoanswerthisoverarchingresearchquestion:whatarethe

impactmechanismsofparentalmigrationonchildren’spsychosocialwellbeing?In

thecurrentqualitativeandquantitativestudies,thiswastobeaddressedby

exploringhowparentalmigrationmayaffectpsychosocialwellbeingofchildren

overalengthyperiodoftime,andwhataretherolesofparent-childrelationship,

familycareandsocialenvironment,inthemechanismsorpotentialcausal

pathwaysthatconnectparentalmigrationwithchildpsychosocialwellbeing

status.

1.7Thesisstructure

27

Chapter2providesanoverviewoftheoreticalperspectivesthatarerelevanttothe

mechanismsofparentalmigrationanditsimpactonchildren.Chapter3isa

comprehensivereviewofbothquantitativeandqualitativestudiesonthe

wellbeingofLBC.Chapter4introducesthesocioeconomicdevelopment,andpolicy

andadministrationcontextsofthestudyareas.Chapter5isaqualitativestudy

examiningexperiencesofchildren,andrelationships,careandsupportinthe

familieslivingapart,throughin-depthinterviewscarriedoutinonestudycounty.

Chapter6isaquantitativecross-sectionalsurveyinvestigatingpsychosocial

wellbeingoutcomesandchildandfamilycharacteristics,basedonasampleoffive

countiesintwoChineseprovinces.Chapter7isthefinaldiscussionandconclusion

basedonfindingsacrossbothqualitativeandquantitativestudiesinthisthesis.

28

Chapter2 ReviewofTheoreticalPerspectives

2.1Introduction

Thischapterreviewstheoriesthatarerelatedtochildwellbeinginmigrant

familiesfrommultipledisciplines.Accordingtotheoverallresearchquestionof

thisthesis,migrationinthesociety,familycharacteristics,andchildwellbeingare

thethreelogicallevelsordimensionsthatareinvolvedinthecausalpathways

andmechanismswhenexaminingthepsychosocialwellbeingofLBC.Connections

andinteractionsbetweenthesedimensionsarealsosuggestedinthe

interdisciplinarytheoreticalapproaches.Thereviewedtheorieswillbe

summarizedattheendofthisChapter,withreferencetotheaimsofthisthesis.

Linksbetweenthetheoreticalreviewandthefollowingchapters,includingthe

empiricalreviewaswellasthecurrentstudies,willalsobehighlighted.

2.1Migrationtheories

2.1.1Thepush-pullmodels

Theearliestmigrationtheoristsconcludedthatmigrationwasgovernedbya

"push-pull"process(Dorigo&Tobler,1983).Thissimplemodelconceivesof

migrationasdrivenbyasetofpushfactorsoperatingfromtheregionorcountryof

origin(poverty,unemployment,landlessness,rapidpopulationgrowth,political

29

repression,lowsocialstatus,poormarriageprospectsetc.),andpullfactors

operatingfromtheplaceorcountryofdestination(betterincomeandjob

prospects,bettereducationandwelfaresystems,landtosettleandfarm,good

environmentalandlivingconditions,politicalfreedometc.).

Ravenstein's1889"LawsofMigration"statedthattheprimarycauseformigration

wasbetterexternaleconomicopportunities;thevolumeofmigrationdecreasesas

distanceincreases;migrationoccursinstagesinsteadofonelongmove;

populationmovementsarebilateral;andmigrationdifferentials(e.g.,gender,

socialclass,age)influenceaperson'smobility.

ManytheoristsdevelopedvariationsofRavenstein'sconclusionsinthelater

migrationtheories.EverettLee(1966)reformulatedRavenstein'stheorytogive

moreemphasistointernal(orpush)factors.Leeintroducedasetof“intervening

obstacles”whichhavetobeovercome;examplesincludephysicaldistance,costof

makingthejourney,culturalbarrierssuchaslanguageanddifferentwaysoflife,

andpoliticalobstaclessuchasinternationalbordersandimmigrationrestrictions.

PersonalfactorsalsoplayaroleinLee’stheorizationofmigration:differentpeople

willreactdifferentlytovariouscombinationsofpushesandpulls,accordingto

theireconomicstatus,life-stageandpersonality.Forexample,asingle,

unemployedyoungadultwillrespondmoredirectlytojobandincomefactorsand

belessconcernedabouttheeducationsystemofadestination,ascomparedto

someonewhoismigratingwiththeirchildren.

30

2.1.2Neoclassicaleconomicstheory

Thepush-pullmodelsdominatedmuchmigrationthinkingduringthe

mid-twentiethcentury,untilthe1960sifnotlater.Manyofthemigration

paradigmsarethenreflectedintheneoclassicaleconomicstheory,whichisbased

onprinciplesofutilitymaximisation,rationalchoice,factor-pricedifferentials

betweenregionsandcountries,andlabormobility.Migrationcanbeassumedasa

rationalchoicewithinthebroadersocialstructuresofrural-urbanand

developmentalinequalities,thatis,abundantcapital,laborshortagesandhigh

wagesincertaincountriesorurbanareas,andtheoppositeinothercountriesor

ruralareas(Masseyetal.,1999).

Macroeconomically,neoclassicaleconomicssuggeststhatinternationalmigration

isrelatedtotheglobalsupplyanddemandforlabor(Sjaastad1962;Todaro1969).

Nationswithscarcelaborsupplyandhighdemandwillhavehighwagesthatpull

immigrantsinfromnationswithasurplusoflabor.Atthemicrolevel,migrationis

theresultofdecisionsmadebyindividual“rationalactors”whoweighupthepros

andconsofmovingrelativetostaying,orthereturnsagainsttheinvestmenttothe

humancapitaloftheindividual,basedonabundantinformationabouttheoptions.

Sjaastad(1962)interpretedtheresultsofthiscost-benefitcalculusasadecisionto

migratebasedonreturnstotheindividual’sinvestmentinhisorherhuman

capital.

31

2.1.3Householdeconomicstheory

Yetmostoftheseprevioustheorieshadleftoutthehouseholdcontextofmigration.

Migrationdecisionsmaynotbeindividuallymade,butarelikelytobejointlytaken

withintheambitofthehousehold,andfordifferentmembersofthehousehold

(King,2012).Sometimesthescaleofthedecision-makingunitmovesfurtherinto

theextendedfamiliesandevenwidercommunalgroups(Masseyetal.,1998);this

isparticularrelevantinafamilistandcollectivistculture,forexample,the

traditionsinruralChina.

Hence,thenewhouseholdeconomicstheoryshiftsthedecision-makingfromthe

individualandarguesthattheappropriateunitsofanalysisformigrationresearch

arefamiliesandhouseholds(Stark&Bloom,1985).Akeyinsightofthisnew

approachisthatmigrationdecisionsarenotmadebyisolatedindividualactors,

butbylargerunitsofrelatedpeople–typicallyfamiliesorhouseholds–inwhich

peopleactcollectivelynotonlytomaximizeexpectedincome,butalsotominimize

risksandtoloosenconstraintsassociatedwithavarietyofmarketfailures,apart

fromthoseinthelabormarket(Massey,1998).

Ithasbeenarguedthatespeciallywithinthecontextofdevelopingcountries,an

individualismotivatedtomovenotonlyforhis/herowngoalsbutalsoforthe

survivalofthehousehold(Lauby&Stark,1988).Theperspectiveofthenew

32

householdeconomicsbecomesespeciallyrelevantinthesecontexts,becausepoor

familiesindevelopingcountrieslackinstitutionalmechanismsofprivateinsurance

marketsandgovernmentalprogramsthatminimizehouseholdrisks,whichare

morecommoninmanydevelopedcountries.Thus,thereistheincentiveto

self-insurebysendingoneormorefamilymemberstoacityorabroadtoremit

earningsthatguaranteesfamilyincomeandreducesrisksincurredthroughcrop

failures,croppricefluctuations,andunemployment(Masseyetal.,1998).Alarge

proportionofrural-urbanmigrantsindevelopingcountriesremitasignificantpart

oftheirearningstotheleft-behindfamilymembersathome,therebyreducingthe

incomevarianceassociatedwithworkinagriculture(Lauby&Stark,1988).

2.1.4Segmentedlabor-marketandworldsystemstheory

Inaddition,fromamoreglobalperspective,segmentedlabor-markettheory(Piore,

1983)arguesthatFirstWorldeconomiesarestructuredsoastorequireacertain

levelofimmigration,primarilydrivenbypull,notpushfactors.Thistheory

suggeststhatdevelopedeconomiesaredualistic:aprimarylabormarketofsecure,

well-paidjobsfornativeworkers;andasecondarylabormarketoflow-skill,

low-wage,insecureandgenerallyunpleasantjobsinfactoriesandtheservice

sector,filledmainlybymigrantworkers.Totheextentthatthesecondarylabor

marketmaybesplitintoemploymentsubsectionsaccordingtogender,raceor

nationality,itbecomessegmented.Onthewhole,thecreationofthesejobs

precedesthemigrantswhofillthem(Samers,2010).Similarly,world-systems

33

theory(Sassen,1988)arguesthatinternationalmigrationisaby-productofglobal

capitalism.Contemporarypatternsofinternationalmigrationtendtobefromthe

periphery(poornations)tothecore(richnations)becausefactorsassociatedwith

industrialdevelopmentintheFirstWorldgeneratedstructuraleconomicproblems,

andthuspushfactors,intheThirdWorld.

2.2Theoriesinfamilystudies

2.2.1FamilyStressManagement

Theglobalandsocietalmigrationpatternsarethelargercontextsoftheprocesses

inwhichindividualfamiliesareinvolved.Migrationnotonlyinvolveseconomic

activities,butalsoaffectsfamilystructureandfunctioning.Absenceofthefather

and/ormotherhasdirectimpactontheirrelationshipsandinteractionswith

householdmembers,especiallytheirchildren.Additionalcaregivingrolesof

residentcaregivers,e.g.grandparents,mayfurtheraffectdynamicswithinthe

nuclearandextendedfamiliesacrossgeographicaldistance.Therefore,migrant

parentsandtheleft-behindfamilymemberscompriseafamilysystem,whichmay

beconceptualizedasaunitthatmanageslossorabsence,throughoutarangeof

relationshipswithchildren,parents,aswellasgrandparentsorothercaregivers.

Besidesphysicalseparationduetomigration,variousstressorswithinthefamily

networkmayinterferewiththeparent-childdyadsandtheirrelationship

dynamicsthatpromotechilddevelopment(Sroufe,etal,2005;Murray&Murray,

34

2010).Familystressisaprocessoffamilychangeratherthansimplyaneventor

situationthathappensinortoafamily(Boss,2002,p12;Walker,1985).Inthis

process,familycopingwasdefinedasthegroup’smanagementofthestressful

eventorsituation(McCubbin,1979).Boss(2002,p79)contendedthatafamilyas

agroupisnotcopingfunctionallyifevenonemembermanifestsdistress

symptoms,thustheexplorationofbothindividualandgroupindicatorsis

essentialinassessingfamilycoping.BuildingonLazarus’s(1966,1976,1977)

workonindividualcoping,Boss(2002,p79)developedtheconceptoffamily

copingasthecognitive,affective,andbehavioralprocessbywhichindividualsand

theirfamilysystemasawholemanageastressfuleventorsituation.Itis

noteworthythatwhileeconomicresourceisbeneficial,itisnotapredominant

factorinthisprocess,whichismorerelevanttotheoverallfunctioningofthe

familyanditsmembersinthepsychosocialdimension.

CopingbehaviorsaredefinedbyLazarus(1966,1976)as(a)directaction

behaviorsthatareusedtochangeastressedrelationwithone'sphysicalorsocial

environmentand(b)intrapsychicformsofcoping,whicharedefensemechanisms

(e.g.,detachmentordenial)usedtoreduceemotionalarousal.Theactionsand

thoughtscannotchangethesourceofthestress,andthusarereferredtoas

emotion-focusedcoping.Suchcopingbehaviorscanoftenbeidentifiedinmigrant

families,bothamongchildrenandadultfamilymembers.Forexample,children

maytendtoseekemotionalsupportfromtheirpeersorplaymatesinabsenceof

migrantparents;ortheymaytrytorationalizetheseparationdistressthroughan

35

understandingoftheoverallhouseholdbenefitsfrommigration.

Familiescanalsouseproblem-focusedcopingtomasterormanageastressorand

providechilddevelopmentsupport(Lazarus,1976;Papaliaetal.,2001).The

initialdecisiontomigratecanactuallyberegardedascopingwithfamily

economicstressors.Thenanotherscenariomaybethatmigrantparentsmove

backhomeorbringtheirchildrentolivetogetherinthecities,toresolvethe

stressduetoseparation.

Attachmenttheorycontributestoelucidatingthecognitive-emotionalprocessin

dyadsofparentsandschool-agechildren(tobefurtherdiscussedinsection2.3),

asattachmentstylesinyoungchildrentendtopersistovertime(Ainsworthetal.,

1978,p320;Main,1996).Yetattachmentbehaviorsarereferredtolessfrequently

duringadolescence,whenthebalanceofattachmentandexploratorybehaviors

shiftstowardsmoreindependence,especiallyinthephysicalabsenceofthe

parents(Allen,2008,p419).Asaresult,theoriesincopingbehaviors,whichcan

beappliedbothatindividualandfamilylevels,maybebettersuitedinexplaining

thebehavioralconsequenceandfamilysupportforolderleft-behindchildren.

2.2.2FamilyContext

Familycontextisalsocriticalinunderstandingtheprocessofstressmanagement.

Boss(2002,p15)developedherContextualModelofFamilyStressby

36

surroundingHill’s(1949,1958)ABC-XFamilyStressModel(Figure2.1).In

additiontostressevent(A),resources(B),perceptions(C),anddegreeofstress

orcrisis(X),sheproposedthreeinternalandfiveexternalcontextsthatwould

influencehowafamily’sstressprocessplaysoutovertime.

Theinternalcontextsinclude(a)structural,(b)psychological,and(c)

philosophicaldimensionsofthefamilysystemitself(Boss,2002,p45).The

structureofmigrantfamiliesinvolvesfamilycompositionaswellascaregiving

arrangements.Psychologicalcontextmayrefertothemigrantfamily’sinherent

mechanismsinperception,appraisal,definition,orassessmentofseparationand

loss.Philosophicalcontextindicatesvaluesandbeliefsatthemicrolevelfamily

environmentthatmaydifferfromthesocialculture,forexample,decision-making

onreturningtothemigrant-sendingcommunityfromacity,inconsiderationof

childeducationanddevelopment.

Thefiveexternalcontextsarecomponentsoverwhichthefamilyhasnocontrol

andyetinwhichtheyarefirmlyembedded:(a)heredity,(b)development,(c)

economy,(d)history,and(e)culture(Boss,2002,p69).Hence,themigratory

decisionsandfamilycopingstrategiesareshapedbythespecificcharacteristicsof

themigrant-sendingcommunityaswellasthedestinationcities,sincesupportive

orrestrainingfactorsatcommunitylevelmaydirectlyaffectfamilyenvironment.

Meanwhile,historicalandculturaldeterminantsinthecountryandgloballythat

arerelatedtomigrantfamiliesalsoneedtobeconsideredascrucialexternal

37

contexts.

Figure 2.1: The ABC-X Contextual Model of family stress (Boss, 2002)

2.2.3Socio-ecologicalapproachandfamilysystemstheory

Thesocio-ecologicalmodelonhumandevelopment(Bronfenbrenner,1979)

underscoresthefactthatfamiliesareembeddedinlargersocialsystemswhich

thechildmaynotseemtodirectlyfunctionin,butmaynonethelessbehighly

influential.Thereforetheentireecologicalsysteminwhichchildgrowthand

developmentoccursneedstobetakenintoaccount.Thefivelayersofecological

system(Figure2.2)includemanyextra-familialfactors,suchascommunity

settings,localpolitics,theworkplace,andthesocioculturalcontext.

38

Figure 2.2: Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological framework for human

development

Laterdevelopmentoftheoriginalframeworkpresentedmultipledimensions,asa

Process–Person–Context–Timemodel(Bronfenbrenner&Morris,1998).

Accordingtotherevisedmodel,humandevelopmenttakesplacethrough

processesofprogressivelymorecomplexreciprocalinteractionsinitsimmediate

familyenvironment,onafairlyregularbasisoverextendedperiodsoftime.

Further,theform,powerandcontentanddirectionofsuchprocessesvary

systematically,asajointfunctionofthecharacteristicsofthedevelopingperson

andbothimmediateandmoreremoteenvironment.Theperspectiveofthese

39

processesisadaptedinthisthesiswheninvestigatingtheconnectionsbetween

differentvariablesofthecontext,individualcharacteristicsandoutcomesof

interest.

Children’sattachmentstoparticularcaregiversinfluence,andareshapedby,the

broaderfamilycontext.Familysystemtheoryisconcernedwithfamilydynamics,

involvingstructures,roles,communicationpatterns,boundaries,andpower

relations.Itisrelativelymorefocusedonadultsandcurrentfamilyfunctioning

(Rothbaumetal.,2002).Whilefamilysystemtheoryrecognizesthatcoparenting

dynamicsaredistinguishablefromdyadicparent-childrelationship(Erdman&

Caffery,2013,p43),thesurrogateparentingbygrandparents,accompaniedby

distantparentingofmigrantparents,createsamorecomplexinteractionpattern

involvingavarietyoffactors,withinandoutsidefamilysystems.

2.3AttachmentTheory

2.3.1Theearliestattachment

Currentliteratureinfamilystudiesandchildpsychologydrawonattachment

theorytounderstandthelinksbetweenchildpsychologicalhealthandparental

absenceorpresence,throughthelensofchildren’srelationshipswithparents

and/orresidentcaregivers.Bowlby(1969)indicatedthattheearliestbonds

formedbychildrenwiththeircaregivershaveaprofoundimpactthroughoutlife.

40

Theinitialattachmentachildformsisgenerallytoitsmotherorotherhabitual

caregiver,althoughitmaybesupplementedovertimebyattachmentstoother

persons(Ainsworth,1969;Bowlby,1982,p40).Theactualorthreatened

disruptionofattachments,alsoknownasthe“strangesituation”,canleadachild

toexperiencedepression,anxiety,orangerwhenproximitycannotbemaintained

(Ainsworthetal.,1978,p116).

Thecaregiverorattachmentfigureprovidesasecurebaseforinfantsandchildren,

fromwhichtheyexploretheenvironment,formothersecurerelationships,seek

supportwhenneeded,anddrawstrengthsfromthesupport(Ainsworthetal.,

1978,p135).Youngchildrentendtoformattachmentrelationshipswithmore

thanonecaregiver(Ainsworth,1969;Schaffer&Emerson,1964).Howeverthe

principalattachmentfigureplaysthemostimportantroleinachild’semotional

wellbeing(Bowlby,1980,p308).Childrendevelopexpectations,or“internal

workingmodels”,ofthecaregiver’savailabilityandresponsivenessbasedontheir

previousinteractions(Bowlby,1980,p81).AsJulietHopkins(1990,p467)

explained:

Ifachildhasexperiencedreliablyresponsivecaregiving,he/shewill

constructaworkingmodeloftheselfascompetentandloveable,butif

he/shehasexperiencedmuchrebuffhe/shewillconstructamodelofthe

selfasunworthyofhelpandcomfort.

41

2.3.2Developmentanddisruptionofattachmentrelationship

Inveryyoungchildren,attachmentstendtobedependencyrelationships

characterizedbyadrivetomaintainphysicalproximitytoaprimarycaregiver.

Withage,childrencontinuallyreviseandexpandtheirinternalworkingmodelas

theircognitive,emotional,andsocialcapacitiesincrease,andastheyinteractwith

parents/caregivers,formingotherclosebondswithadults,siblings,andfriends

(Berk,2012,p421).Buildingupontheinternalworkingmodels,olderchildren

andadultscontinuetomonitortheavailabilityofattachmentfiguresaccordingto

theiractualbehaviors(Bowlby,1973,p52).Thismonitoringmayoccur

increasinglythroughdistantformsofcommunicationasayoungchildgrowsup

(Kobak&Madsen,2008,p24),whichlatertransformsintoadrivetomaintain

symbolicproximityvialessdirectcommunication,suchasthroughphonecalls,as

anindividualmatures(Vanoreetal.,2015).

Whenlinesofcommunicationaredisruptedbytheattachmentfigures’prolonged

absence,emotionaldisengagement,orsignalsofrejection,olderchildrencan

developnegativeemotionssimilartoyoungchildren’sreactionstophysical

separation(Kobak&Madsen,2008,p24).Interruptionsinattachment

relationships,orthedevelopmentofunresponsiveorunpredictableattachment

relationships,shakethesenseofsecurityanindividualderivesfromattachments

(Armsden&Greenberg,1987).Insecurelyattachedchildrenaremorelikelyto

respondtolossorstresswithdysfunctionalthoughtsandemotions(Kobak&

42

Madsen,2008,p26;Sroufeetal.,1999).Consequently,migrationofacaregiver,

andthedisruptiontophysicalproximityitmaybring,maycausesignificant

psychologicaldistressamongrecipientsofcare.Factorsthatcontributeto

attachmentrelationshipsincludedurationandqualityofcare,emotional

investment,socialcues,andpresenceofthecaregiver(Colin,1996;Cassidy,2008,

p15).

2.3.3Migratoryseparationandattachment

Althoughattachmenttheorymayapplytodifferenttypesofparent-child

separation,itisimportanttonotetheuniquefeaturesofmigratoryseparation

andthelimitationsoftheattachment-basedinterpretation,ascomparedto

parentalabsenceinotherscenariossuchasincarcerationorambiguousloss.

Separationduetoeconomicmigrationisaphenomenonthatemergedonan

unprecedentedscaleonlyduringthepastfewdecades,andinmostcasesthe

migrationisdrivenbyparents’desiretoimprovethecircumstancesand

wellbeingforthewholefamily,particularlychildren(Rapoport&Docquier,2006).

Consequently,olderchildrenwithincreasedcognitiveunderstandingareunlikely

toperceivetheseparationasintentionalrejectionandabandonment.During

migration,openlinesofcommunicationandfrequentreunionbetweenmigrants

andtheirchildrenarefeasiblewiththehelpofmoderntechnologyand

transportation,whichmaycontributetorelievingthestressduetotheprolonged

43

physicalabsence.

Mostchildandfamilypsychologystudiesusingattachmenttheorylargelyfocused

ontheseparationofparentsfromchildrenowingtocrisiseventssuchas

incarceration,death,ordivorce(Mazzucato,2014).Thesestudieshavefound

strongnegativerepercussionsofparentallossforchildren'semotionalwell-being,

particularlyincasesinwhichprolongeduncertaintyaboutthepermanenceofloss

oritscause(ambiguousloss)blockedappropriatecopingandstressmanagement,

resultinginthedeteriorationoffamilylifewhentasksandroleswerenot

reassigned(Carrolletal.,2007;Boss,2004).

2.4Summary

Thischapterreviewedtheoreticalperspectivesinrelationtomigration,family

systems,andchild-parentattachment,illustratingapreliminaryframework

structurethatentailsthesystemsorenvironmentsinwhichthechildlives,from

themacro-levelsocietytothemicro-levelhousehold.Althoughtheconceptual

frameworkneedstobefurtherdevelopedbasedonourempiricalstudies,existing

theorieshaveprovidedusefulinputsfromvariousperspectivesofthemechanisms,

betweenindividualwellbeingstatusandthelargersocialphenomenonof

migration.

Thereviewedtheoriessuggestthatthecoreoutcometobeinvestigatedinour

44

studies,childpsychosocialwellbeing,isdeterminedbytherelationshipswith

parentsandcarefromcaregivers,whichinvolvesacomplicatedprocessshaped

bythechild’svariousinteractionswithindividualsandenvironments,during

infancytoadolescence.Astheleft-behindchildgrowsup,thewellbeingstatusand

familyconditionsmayalsoevolveovertime,throughaseriesofdynamicsinthe

extendedfamily.Intheabsenceofmigrantparents,thespecificfactorsthatmay

influencechildwellbeingincludefamilycarearrangementsandavailabilityof

psychosocialsupport,aswellashouseholdsocioeconomicstatus.Theseaspectsat

familylevelarefurtheraffectedbythecorrespondingfactorsinthelargersocial

contexts,whichcontributetotheconfigurationofthefamilychildcarestrategies

andmigrationprocesses.Thespecificcommunity/societylevelfactorsinclude

generalmigrationpatterns,communitysolidarityandresources,andoverall

socioeconomicstatusinmigrantsendingandreceivingareas.

Factorsandmechanismsillustratedinthetheoreticalreviewalsohelpbetter

organizetheresultsoftheempiricalreviewinthenextchapter,andinterpretkey

variablesinthequantitativeandqualitativestudies.Thereviewofempirical

literaturewillcontinuetodeveloptheevidencebaseforthisthesis,withamore

close-upviewofchildrenandfamiliesaffectedbymigration.Byconfirming

relevantpartsofthetheories,thecontext-specificfindingsfromtheempirical

evidencewillalsostrengthentheinterpretationoftheresultsfromourcurrent

studies.

45

Chapter3 ReviewofEmpiricalLiterature

3.1Introductionandscopeofthereview

Thischapterprovidesanextensivereviewoftheempiricalliterature,including

bothquantitativeandqualitativestudies,onthewellbeingofLBC.Both

internationalmigrationandinternalmigration(withinacountry)were

consideredrelevantinthisreview.Thisisbecausethekeyissuesintheresearch

questionofthisthesis,suchasparent-childrelationshipoverdistance,andfamily

careandsupportenvironments,donotseemtobemarkedlydifferentbetween

internationalandinternalmigration.

Thetheoreticalreviewinthepreviouschapteridentifiedvariouspatternsof

migration,butthecorerationalesbasedonsocioeconomicdisparitiesremained

highlyconsistent.Asadisruptionorstresseventinthefamily,parentalabsence

duetomigration,irrespectiveoftheirdestination,alsofitswithboththe

attachmenttheoryandfamilysystemstheories.Manyofthemethodologies

employedintheempiricalliteraturearelikelytobeexchangeableacrossdifferent

settings.Additionally,resultsfromthisreviewmayhelpinterpretfindingsfrom

thecurrentstudiesbycomparingwiththeliteratureondifferentpatternsof

migration.Comparisonofthecontextsbetweenourempiricalstudiesandthe

extantliterature,especiallystudiesofinternationalmigration,willbepresented

inChapter5(Section5.4.2).

46

Forquantitativestudies,resultsarecategorizedbydifferentaspectsofchild

wellbeingoutcomes,andthenbydimensionsofassociatedfactors.Forqualitative

studies,thearticlesareclassifiedintoafewbroadkeythemes.Asummaryofthis

reviewispresentedattheendofthischapter,followedbythecontributionofthis

reviewtothecurrentqualitativeandquantitativestudiestobepresentedinthe

nexttwochapters.

3.1Methods

Asystematicsearchwasconductedtoidentifyempiricalstudiesonthe

psychosocialwellbeingofleftbehindchildrenglobally,publishedinbothEnglish

andChinese,usingthefollowingdatabases:PubMed/Medline,PsycINFOandWeb

ofKnowledge,andCNKI(ChinaNationalKnowledgeInfrastructure).Both

quantitativeandqualitativestudieswereincluded.Wedidnotlimitthe

publicationyearinordertoretrievemaximumnumberofrelevantarticles.

TheflowdiagramofthesearchandselectionprocessisoutlinedinFigure3.1.The

inclusioncriteriaareasfollows:(1)thestudysubjectsareLBC,i.e.,childrenliving

intheirhometownorcountryoforigin,separatedfromoneorbothmigrant

parents;(2)psychosocialwellbeingoutcomesofthechildrenwereexamined(3)

forquantitativestudies,acomparison/controlgroupwasincluded,and;(4)

studiespublishedinpeerreviewedjournals

47

Morespecifically,thefollowingexclusioncriteriaregardingmeasuresand

participantswerefurtherapplied:1)studiesonmigrantchildrenwho

accompaniedtheirparents,includingrefugeechildren;2)studiesthatonly

includedoutcomemeasuresinparentsand/orcaregivers,withoutreportingchild

outcomes;3)studiesthatonlyexaminededucationaloutcomesinchildren;4)

quantitativestudieswhichdidnotconsiderotherfactorsofchildpsychosocial

wellbeing,besidesparentalmigrationstatus;and5)quantitativestudiesinwhich

onlybivariatedescriptiveanalysiswasconducted.

Wedidnotrestrictthetypesofpsychosocialwellbeingmeasures,or

qualitative/quantitativemethodologiesinthisreview.Keytermsinpsychosocial

wellbeingwereselectedafterapre-searchoftheLBCliterature.Duetothe

variousexpressionsindefiningtheLBCandmeetingourreviewcriteria,four

groupsofkeywordswereusedasbelow.

#1:"leftbehind"and(childrenoradolescentsorteenagers)

#2:(childrenoradolescentsorteenagers)and(parent*orfather*ormother*)

and(leftorleav*orawayorabsenceorabsentorseparat*orunaccompaniedor

alone)

#3:migrat*ormigrant*oremigra*ortransnationalorimmigra*

#4:psychologicalorpsychosocialordepressionoranxietyorresilienceorneglect

oremotionalorlonelinessormentalorbehavior*orbehaviour*orstress

48

Thenweperformedafinalsearchinwhichgroup#1and#2werecombinedby

thepreposition“or”andthencombinedwithgroup#3and#4with“and”.Forthe

Chineseliterature,sincemoststudiesusedtheterm“留守儿童”whichalready

indicatedparentalmigration,group#3wasremoved.Otherkeywordswerealso

adjustedfromtheliteraltranslationfromEnglish,tobettermatchwiththe

academiclanguageuseinChinese.Thekeywordgroupsareasfollows(including

PinyinandEnglishtranslation):

#1:"留守 [LiuShou;left-behind]"and(儿童 [ErTong;children]or青少年[Qing

ShaoNian;adolescents]

#2:(儿童 or青少年)and(父母 [FuMu;parents]or父亲 [FuQin;father]or母

亲 [MuQin;mother])and(外出 [WaiChu;goingoutfromhome]or打工 [Da

Gong;workingawayinthecity]or迁移 [QianYi;migration]or进城 [JinCheng;

intothecity]

#3:心理 [XinLi;psychological]or抑郁 [YiYu;depression]or焦虑 [JiaoLv;

anxiety]复原力 [FuYuanLi;resilience]or弹性 [TanXing;resilience]or情感

[QingGan;emotion]or孤独 [GuDu;loneliness]or行为 [XingWei;behavior]

Thenthefinalsearchcombined#1and#2bythepreposition“or”,andthen

combinedwithgroup#3and#4with“and”.Thereferencelistsoftheidentified

English-andChinese-languagearticleswerealsohand-searchedforfurther

relevantstudies.Dataandliteraturewereextractedfromeachoftheincluded

studiesusingastandardformat:authorandyear,studylocation,sample,key

49

measurements.

Figure 3.1: Flow chart of article selection procedure

Records from initial search conducted in 3 databases:

n=1,342

Web of Knowledge:498 PubMed: 243 PsycINFO: 89

CNKI: 512

Abstract screening n=1,075

Papers retrieved for Full text screening

n=287

Papers that meet the inclusion criteria n=83

Papers included in the review: n=84

Duplicates excluded: n=267

Papers excluded: n=788

Reviews: 32 Not empirical studies: 453

Not relevant or no comparison groups: 303

Papers excluded: n=204

Reviews: 9 Not empirical studies: 49

Not relevant: 37 No comparison groups: 31

Simple descriptive quantitative study: 78

Papers included by hand searching the references:

n=1

50

Table 3.1: Summary of reviewed quantitative studies conducted in China and

published in English

Author, Year Location Sample Definition of

LBC

Age Key measures

Fan et al.,

2010

China

Hunan

(schools)

Case control

629 LBC

(including 102

past-LBC), 645

non-LBC.

Both parents

away for over

12 months

12.4 ± 2.2 SDQ

SES (Socioeconomic

status)

Education

Teacher engagement

Migration history

Relative/non-relative

caregiver

Gao et al.,

2010

China

Guangdong

(schools)

541 LBC, 2445

Controls.

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

10 to 18 SES

Youth Risk Behavior,

Student Health

Gao et al.,

2013

China

Guangdong

(schools)

2609 (44% LBC;

30%

father-only;3%

mother-only;11%

both)

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

11 to 19

13.8(SD1.1)

Past 30-day smoking,

Smoking Self-Efficacy

Questionnaire

He et al.,

2012

China

Hubei

(schools)

590 LBC, 285

controls

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

9 to 14 Children’s Depression

Inventory, Family

Affluence Scale,

Multidimensional Scale of

Perceived Social Support

Hu et al.,

2014

China

Wuhan

(Schools)

3473 Children

(parent-report)

43% local, 35%

migrant, 22%

LBC.

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

5 to 17 SDQ

(Ordinary Least Square

(OLS) regression

(nested))

Huang et al.,

2015

China (six

provinces)

Household

survey

(snow ball)

608 LBC, 755

non-LBC

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

Mean 10 (2

to 18)

care-giver

report if

under 4

Pediatric Quality of Life

Inventory

51

Jia et al.,

2010

China

Shandong

(household

survey)

324 LBC, 282

non-LBC

One or both

parents away

11.4 (8 to 14) Pediatric Quality of Life

Inventory

Jia & Tian,

2010

China

Shandong

(household

survey)

324 LBC, 282

non-LBC

One or both

parents away

11.4 (8 to 14) Children’s Loneliness

Scale

Relationship with parents

Frequency of

communication with

parents/family gathering

Ling et al.,

2015

China

Hunan (1

village only)

268 LBC, 228

non-LBC

LBC definition:

standard

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

11.9 (7 to 16) The Youth Self-Report;

Children’s Loneliness

Scale;

Depression Self-Rating

Scale for Children

Liu et al.,

2009

China

(three

provinces)

592 LBC One or both

parents away

10 to 17 Children’s Depression

Inventory; State-Trait

Anxiety Inventory

Liu et al.,

2010

China

Hubei

(random

towns -

schools)

Case control

230 LBC, 250

controls

based on

question -

whether grew

up with both

parents work

away

Mean 11 (8

to 15)

Piers-Harris Self-Concept

Scale;

Childhood Loneliness

Scale;

whether they like their

guardians/parents

time spent in physical and

leisure activities

Luo et al.,

2011

China (5

省)schools

1214 LBC (1024

F/O, 190 M/O),

1019 non-LBC,

aged 11-23

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

11 to 23 State-Trait Anxiety

Inventory

The Rosenberg

Self-Esteem Scale

Ren &

Treiman,

2016

China

(nationwide)

1107 LBC, 3613

non-LBC, 342

migrant children

One or both

parents away

for work

Mean 12.2

(10-15)

Center for

Epidemiological

Studies Depression Scale

for Children; Self-esteem

and self-motivation

measures designed by

52

the authors

Su et al.,

2012

China

Jiangxi

501 LBC (218

one parent out,

283 both parents

away), 653

non-LBC.

One or both

parents

migrated to

cities for

employment

Mean 14.12 Frequency of speaking

with parents;

Life and school

satistaction (1 Q each);

Children's Loneliness

Scale; Oxford Happiness

Questionnaire

Tao et al.,

2014

China Anhui 650 LBC, 100

controls

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

3 to 5 Family Support Scale;

Parenting Self-efficacy

Scale;

Preschool-aged Child

Mental Health Scale

Wang et al.,

2015a

China

Chongqing

4857 LBC One or both

parents left

for job over

the past 6

months

7 to 17 Children's Depression

Inventory

Wen et al.,

2015

China

Guangxi

(school)

397 LBC, 477

non-LBC

Born and

raised in the

countryside;

and one or

both of their

parents

migrated to

cities for

employment.

10 to 17 Qs on Five C's model of

PYD

self-rated health, school

grades, educational

aspiration, and problem

behavior; parental

monitoring

Wen & Lin et

al., 2012

China

Hunan

(village

snowball)

LBC 303 (153

both parent away,

108 father only,

42 mother only)

322 controls,

One or both

parents away

8 to 18 Satisfaction with life and

study, positive health

behavior, school

engagement,

Family socializing

process,

Social support,

self-efficacy,

Internal locus of control

53

Wu et al.,

2015

China

Guizhou

(schools)

363 LBC, 103

previously

left-behind, 158

non-left-behind

One or both

parents away,

including past

migration, for

over 6

months

Mean 12.45

(8 to 17)

Depression (Center for

Epidemiological Studies

Depression Scale for

Children); Family Social

Capital (parent-child

interaction; parental

monitoring); Community

social capital

Zhan et al.,

2014

China

Shaaxi

(schools)

4275 LBC (3111

both parents

away), non-LBC

450

Father or

mother

worked

outside of

village in the

past 8 months

Mean 15, 12

to 19

Rosenberg self-esteem

scale

Zhao et al.,

2009

China Anhui

(schools)

1390 LBC, 1131

non-LBC

One or both

parents away,

including past

migration, for

over 6

months

12.83 ± 1.93 P-H children’s

self-concept scale; mental

health diagnosis test

Zhao et al.,

2014

China Anhui

(schools)

1694 LBC, 1223

non-LBC

Based on

questiona -

parent(s) out

for work?

Mean=12.52;

7 to 17

The Social Anxiety Scales

for Children (SASC);

Family function (APGAR);

Quality of life; Neglect and

physical abuse

(Parents-Child Conflict

Tactics Scale)

Table 3.2: Summary of reviewed quantitative studies conducted in China and

published in Chinese

Author, Year Province Sample Definition of LBC Age Key measures

Chen et al.,

2011

Sichuan 340 LBC, 208

controls

Unspecified Mean=13.0

SD=0.9

Vaux Social Support

Record; Psychological

resilience scale; Chinese

Middle School Student

54

Mental Health Scale

Dong & He, 2014

Yunan 654 LBC, 589

controls

One or both

parents migrated

Mean=13.

35, SD=0. 84

Family Assessment Device;

Resiliency Scales for

Children & Adolescents;

duration of migration

Dong & Zhang, 2013

Yunnan 713 LBC, 632

controls

One or both

parents migrated

Junior

middle

school

students

(Year 7-9)

Resiliency Scales for

Children & Adolescents;

Child Loneliness Scale

Dong & Zhang, 2013

Yunnan 713 LBC, 632

controls

One or both

parents migrated

Junior

middle

school

students

(Year 7-9)

Resiliency Scales for

Children & Adolescents;

Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire for Children;

SES; duration of migration

Fan et al., 2013

Hunan Longitudinal

study:151

LBC, 56

controls

(parental

migration

status

unchanged

between

baseline and

follow-up)

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=10.9,

SD=1.6

Family Atmosphere Scale;

self-report happiness; Affect

Balance Scale (negative

and position emotions);

Multidimensional Scale of

Perceived Social Support;

duration of migration

Gao 2010 Henan 116 LBC, 116

controls

Unspecified Primary

school

students

Self-report: Piers-Harris

Children’s Self-

Concept

Scale; duration of parental

migration; frequency of visit;

attitude to migration; sense

of hope

Caregiver-report: SES;

health status; reason for

55

migration; burden in

childcare

Han et al., 2012

Shaanxi 211LBC, 329

migrant

children, 210

controls

One or both

parents away for

over 6 months

Mean=13.9,

SD=1.4

The Healthy Kids Resilience

Assessment; Sense of

Security Scale; parent-child

closeness; wealth status

He et al., 2011

Anhui 893 LBC, 335

controls

Unspecified 6-14 Center for Epidemiological

Studies of Depres- sion

Scale for Children;

economic status; source of

491family income; care

style.

Hou et al., 2015

Henan

and

Shaanxi

1475 LBC,

209 children

living in

special

families

(parents

deceased,

incarcerated,

or divorced);

2355 controls.

One or both

parents migrated,

who visit home

every 3 months or

more

Mean=12.8,

SD=1.9

Self-Esteem Scale;

Children's Depression

Inventory; Seiffge-Krenke

Problem

Questionnaire (problem with

future)

Family type; mother’s

education; school class

characteristics;

neighborhood safety

(occurrence of crime)

Huang & Li, 2007

Jiangxi 570 current

LBC, 110

previous LBC,

133 never

LBC.

Mean=13.4,

9-18

Mental Health Test; type of

caregiver (grandparents,

one parent, adult relatives

from father’s generation;

relative from same

generation or no caregiver)

Jiang 2013 Fujian 963 LBC,

1520 controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=13.9,

SD=0.8

SDQ; wealth status;

duration of migration;

frequency of communication

with parents; caregiver;

Jiang et al., 2013

Anhui 1694 LBC,

1223 controls

One or both

parents away for

over 6 months

Mean=12.6,

SD=2.2,

range 7 to 17

Children’s Depression

Inventory; Social Anxiety

Scale for Children; Trait

56

Coping Style Questionnaire;

Parents-Child Conflict

Tactics Scales; Children’s

Self-Esteem Scale;

Adaptation Partnership

Growth Affection Resolve;

SES

Lan et al.,

2009

Guangxi 270 LBC, 609

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

7-16 Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire; Center for

Epidemiological

Studies Depression Scale

for Children

Frequency of seeing

parents, self-rated

personality; satisfaction with

family; school performance;

SES; family history of

mental illnesses

Li & Tao, 2009

Anhui 334 LBC,

5506 controls

One or both

parents migrated

14-16 Suicide tendency

questionnaire; Self-Rating

Depression Scale;

Self-Rating Anxiety Scale;

Trait-Oriented Coping Styles

Questionnaire; parents’

education; ethnicity

Li et al., 2012 Anhui 810 LBC,

1329 controls

One or both

parents migrated

Junior

middle

school

students

(Year 7-9)

who were

under 14

Smoking; drinking (more

than once per week);

violence under alcohol

influence (more than once

per semester); time spent

online (over 1 hour/day).

Parents’ education status;

urban/rural residence;

ethnicity

Liu et al., 2011

Hebei 194 LBC, 352

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=12.3,

SD=2.6

Depression self-rating scale

for children; SES; primary

caregiver; care style; school

performance

57

Liu et al., 2014

Sichuan Longitudinal

study

T1 (Year 7):

322 LBC, 228

controls

T2 (Year 8):

276 LBC, 180

controls

T3 (Year 9):

217 LBC, 152

controls

One or both

parents away for

over 6 months

Mean=13.0,

SD=0.9

The Healthy Kids Resilience

Assessment; Social Support

Appraisal Scales; Chinese

Middle School Student

Mental Health Scale

Quality of relationship

between father and mother;

strictness of disciplining

from mother, father, and

caregiver

Lu et al., 2014a

Hubei 1031 LBC,

895 controls

One or both

parents away for

over 6 months

Mean=14.1,

SD=2.4

Chinese Middle School

Student Mental Health

Scale; duration of migration;

missing parents; attitude

toward migration

Lu et al., 2014b

Guizhou 250 LBC, 538

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=14.3,

SD=1.1

Mental Health Test; duration

of parental migration;

missing parents; attitude

towards migration; quality of

communication with

parents; frequency of

contact

Wang et al, 2011a

Anhui 1730 LBC,

1223 controls

One or both

parents currently

away for more

than 6 months

Middle

school and

Year 4-6

primary

school

students

Children's Depression

Inventory; Adaptation

Partnership Growth

Affection Resolve; attending

boarding school; single

child; SES; school

performance

Wang et al., 2011b

Henan 250 LBC, 212

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=14.0,

7-18

Friendship Quality

Inventory; Children’s

Loneliness Scale; Children’s

Depression Inventory;

economic status

Wang W et al., 2014

Liaoning 952 LBC, 952

controls

One or both

parents migrated

Primary

school

students

Symptom Check

List-90; Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire; Trait Coping

Style Questionnaire; Social

Support Rating Scale;

58

relationship with peers and

teachers; parents’

education; caregiver type

Yang et al.,

2013

Hunan 2110 LBC,

2026 controls

One or both

parents migrated

School Year

3,5,8, and11

(approximate

age 9-18)

Children's Hope Scale;

SDQ; duration of parental

migration; co-resident

household members

Yang, et al.,

2010

Anhui 416 LBC, 525

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=12.1,

SD=2.2

Children's Depression

Inventory; SES; single child

or not; parents’ divorce;

self-report body type

Zhang et al., 2007

Anhui 491 LBC, 393

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=10.54,

SD=1.57

Social Anxiety Scale for

Children; education style of

parents and teachers

(intellectual or not); amount

of pocket money; health

status; level of learning

difficulties

Zhao 2006 Sichuan 160 LBC, 154

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=11.8,

SD=0.8

Piers-Harris Children’s

Self-Concept

Scale; Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire for Children;

age at separation; duration

of separation

Zhao et al.,

2012

Ningxia 926 LBC,

1091 controls,

One or both

parents away for

over 6 months

Mean=10.05

(5-16)

Self-report: Piers Harris

Self-Concept; Child

Loneliness Scale; Social

Anxiety Scale for Children.

Caregiver report:

Caregiving behaviors, level

of care; closeness with

parents; child’s relationships

with peers and teachers.

Zhao et al., 2015

Henan 378 LBC, 351

controls

One or both

parents currently

away

Mean=13.7,

SD=2.3

Mental Health Test

; duration of parental

migration; parents’

education; relationship with

teachers, peers and

59

neighbors; intensity of

parental care;

communication with

caregiver; caregiver’s

attitude toward child

educaion

Zheng et al., 2014

Hubei 156 LBC, 123

controls

One or both

parents migrated

12-14 Social Support Rating

Scale; Mental Health Test;

Resiliency Scales for

Children & Adolescents

Zhou et al.,

2011

Sichuan 291 LBC, 430

controls, 670

urban migrant

children

Both parents

migrated

Mean=12.3

SD=1.53

The Healthy Kids Resilience

Assessment; SES

Zhu 2016 Sichuan,

Anhui,

Henan,

Guangxi

1251 LBC,

704 controls

One or both

parents away for

over 6 months

Mean=11.1,

SD=1.1

The Gansu Survey of

Children and Families

(Internalizing and

externalizing behaviors)

Composition of family and

caregivers; SES; parents’

occupation; house location;

migration prevalence in the

village

Zhu et al., 2014

Guizhou 545 LBC,

1024 controls

One or both

parents away for

over 6 months

Mean=12.71,

SD=1.85

Mental Health Test; Coping

Style Short Questionnaire;

ethnicity; school year

Table 3.3: Summary of reviewed quantitative studies that were not conducted in

China

Author, Year Location Sample Definition of

LBC

Age Key measures

Adhikari et al.,

2013

Thailand 519 LBC, 511

controls,

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

aged 3-5 and

9-11

SDQ (parent-report)

Physical health

Mental health status

60

of primary caregivers

Adumitroatie et

al., 2013

Romania Case control

177 LBC, 107

non-LBC

One or both

parents away

Mean=16.82

(14-19)

Child Parental

Acceptance-Rejection

Questionnaire; The

Adult Personality

Assessment

Questionnaire

Aguilera-Guzman

et al., 2004

Mexico 106 LBC, 194

controls,

Father

periodically

absent for 6+

years

aged 11-14 Stressors and

compensators from

relationship with

absent father, peers,

family, and their

communities, and

essential facts about

the teenagers.

Crawford et al.,

2009

Inner city

New York,

USA

35 LBC, 731

controls

Children who

were

separated

from mother

for at least

one month

before age 5

Borderline personality

disorder (BPD)

symptoms,

Child and maternal

risk factors, Insecure

attachment

Graham &

Jordan, 2011

Indonesia,

the

Philippines,

Thailand,

and

Vietnam

1916 LBC

(including

farther/mother/both

working overseas

for 6+

months),1960

controls, aged 3-5

and 9-11

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

3-5

9-11(Caregiver

report)

SDQ

Jordan &

Graham, 2012

Indonesia,

the

Philippines,

Thailand,

and

Vietnam

N=1523, about half

LBC half controls,

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

aged 9-11

(Caregiver and

self report)

General Happiness

(1Q, incl parent

report), school

enjoyment (1Q),

school performance

(1Q, incl parent

report)

61

family functioning

(APGAR)

caregiver mental

health (SRQ 20)

Lahaie, et al.,

2009.

Mexico parents from 755

households of LBC

At least one

family

member who

had migrated

to the US in

the last 5

years, 754

controls.

Parents reported:

behavioral or

academic troubles at

school, whether

dropped out of

school, any emotional

problems

Mazzucato et al.,

2015

Ghana,

Nigeria,

Angola

(Schools)

1747 in Ghana,

1344 in Angola,

1690 in Nigeria

One or both

parents away

for 3 months

11 to 21 SDQ; care

arrangements, SES,

school performance,

health, and

psychological well-

being.

Pottinger, 2005 Jamaica Case control:

27 LBC; 27

controls

aged 9-10

Unspecified Academic

achievement

(diagnostic tests)

Self-esteem

(Piers-Harris

Self-Concept Scale)

Children’s thoughts

and experiences

regarding migratory

separation

Child behaviour

Senaratna et al.,

2011

Colombo,

Sri Lanka

Case control:

253 pairs of LBC

and controls

matched by age,

gender, and

neighbourhood,

mothers

working

overseas

minimum 12

months

aged 5-10. Behaviour (Child

Behaviour Check List)

Socio- demographic

and Risk-factors

Information

Questionnaire

School performance

and attendance

62

Smeekens et al.,

2012

Philippines 108 LBC, 97

controls, aged

13-18

One or both

parents

working

abroad

13-18 Physical health

(Physical Health

Questionnaire)

Missing parents or

not

Perceived stress (The

Homesickness

Questionnaire)

Loneliness

Avoidant coping

(Coping Scale for

Children and Youth)

Tomsa & Jenaro

et al., 2015

Romania

(Schools)

Case control

163 LBC, 163

non-LBC

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

Mean=13.5,

12 to 15

The State-Trait

Anxiety Inventory for

Children; The Short

Mood and Feelings

Questionnaire; Anger

Expression Scale;

Children's Coping

Strategies Checklist

Vanore et al.,

2015

Moldova

(household

survey)

471 LBC, 1508

non-LBC

One or both

parents living

abroad for at

least 12

months

consecutively

at the time of

the survey

Mean=10.8 (4

-17)

Caregiver

report

SDQ

Wickramage et

al., 2015

Sri Lanka Case control

410 LBC, 410

comparison (some

under 5 and no

SDQ results)

One or both

parents away

for over 6

months

aged 1-17 SDQ,

Nutritional status,

parent SES and

mental health

3.2Quantitativestudies

63

Atotalof68paperswereincludedinthefinalreview;36ofthemwerepublished

inEnglishand32publishedinChinese.ThemajorityoftheEnglish-language

studies,i.e.22paperswerebasedonresearchconductedinChina(Table3.1).

Others(Table3.2)wereinSouth/SoutheastAsia(six),LatinAmerica(four),

EasternEurope(three),Africa(one,acrossthreecountries),andtheUSA(one).

AllChinese-languagestudieswereaboutLBCinChina.

Inafewcases,multiplearticleswerefoundtobefromthesamestudysample.

Threearticles(Adhikarietal.,2013;Jordan&Graham2012;Graham&Jordan,

2011)useddatacollectedintheCHAMPSEA(ChildHealthandMigrantParentsin

SoutheastAsia)project.Jiaetal.(2010)andJian&Tian(2012)werebasedonan

identicalsamplefromShandong,China,whilelookingatdifferentpsychosocial

measures.Similarly,apairofresearcherspublishedtwostudies(Dong&Zhang,

2013a&2013b)ondifferentChinesejournalsbasedonthesamesamplein

Yunnanprovincebutdifferentmeasures.Also,Gaoetal.(2010)andGaoetal.

(2013)useddifferentgroupsofthesamesampleinGuangdong,China.

3.2.1Characteristicsofthestudysamples

TheconceptofLBC,i.e.childrenlivingapartfromoneorbothmigrantworker

parent(s),hasbeengenerallyconsistentinallincludedstudies.However,the

specificdefinitionintermsofthedurationofmigrationvariedinidentifyingthe

LBCinthestudypopulations.Manystudiesexaminedthedurationofparent-child

64

separation(untilthetimeofsurvey),andsetaminimumeligibilitycriterionfor

LBC,rangingfrom6to12monthsexceptonestudy.Othersdidnotspecifythe

duration,butdefinedtheLBCgrouponlybyquestionsregardingthemigration

statusofparents,orwholivedorcaredforthechildren.SomeChinese-language

studiesdidnotevendefinetheLBC,astheterminChinese(留守儿童)already

indicateschildrenofmigrantworkers.Yetonlythreestudies(Huang&Li,2007;

Wuetal.,2015;Adhikarietal.,2013)lookedatchildrenwhowerepreviously

left-behindbutcurrentlylivingwithbothparents,andcomparedthemwithnever

left-behindchildren.

Moststudiesonlyincludedschool-agechildren,andcollecteddatabyself-report

instruments.Fourstudiesrecruitedpre-schoolagegroups(Crawfordetal.2009,

Graham&Jordan2011,Taoetal.2014,Vanoreetal.,2015),andused

caregiver-reportdata;twoofthese(Graham&Jordan2011,Vanoreetal.,2015)

triangulatedcaregiver-reportandself-reportresultsfortheolderchildreninthe

studies.

LBCwerealsogroupedbymother-only,father-only,orboth-parentmigration.

Threestudies(Senaratnaetal.,2011;Luoetal.,2011;Fanetal.,2012)includedin

thisreviewonlyfocusedononeofthesethreegroups,andonearticle(Graham&

Jordan,2011)excludedtheboth-parentawaygrouptocomparetheothertwo

groups.

65

Inmostcountries,fathersaremorelikelythanmotherstobecomethemigrantin

afamily.Parreñas(2008)specificallylookedintothepracticeof“transnational

fathering”andtherelationshipbetweenmigrantfatherandchildren.Yetthe

numberoffemalemigrantsfromcertainSouth/SoutheastAsiancountriesisclose

tomalemigrants,ifnotlarger.Inparticular,Senaratnaetal.’s(2011)studyonly

investigatedthewellbeingofchildrenleftbehindbymothers,since65%oflabor

migrantsfromSriLankaarefemale.Whenbothparentswereaway,grandparents

usuallybecamecaregiversoftheLBC,acrossallcountries.

Whilemoststudiesfocusedoncomparingmigrationpatternsbasedonwhich

parent,orwhetherbothparentshadmigrated,veryfewlookedintotheeffectsof

differentcaregiversonchildwellbeing.Theliteraturetendedtoassumethatifthe

motherdidnotmigrate,sheshouldbetheprimarycaregiver;orifbothparents

wereaway,onegrandparentshouldbeprimarycaregiver.However,care

arrangementsmaybemorecomplexthantheseassumptions,andthe

identificationofprimarycaregivermaydifferbetweendifferentrespondents.

Variousfactorsassociatedwithparentalmigrationandchildpsychosocial

wellbeingwereexaminedintheliterature,includingdemographiccharacteristics,

socioeconomicstatus,familyrelationships,functioningandsupport,aswellas

school,peer,andcommunityvariables.Thesecategoriesandthecommon

indicatorsareoutlinedinasummaryframework(Figure3.2).

66

Figure 3.2: Summary framework of the quantitative literature

Socioeconomic contexts

Parental migration Family relationships,

functioning and support

Parent-child relationship, family

dynamics, family function and

social support

School, peers, and community

School performance, school

engagement, peer relationship,

neighbor relationship, community

development.

Socioeconomic status

Household income, remittance,

wealth status, education level,

Demographic characteristics

Age, age at separation, gender,

family composition

Child psychosocial wellbeing

Quality of life, mental health

and resilience, psychosocial

strengths and difficulties,

self-concept and self-esteem

67

3.2.2ComparisonbetweenEnglish-languageandChinese-languagestudies

AlthougharticlespublishedinEnglishcoveredmanycountriesaroundtheworld,

themajorityofthemwereabouttheLBCinChina.StudiespublishedinChinese

journalsprovidedfurtherperspectivesabouthowtheissuesrelatedtoLBCwere

viewedandaddressedbytheChineseacademiaandpolicy-makers.

Ingeneral,studiespublishedinChinesewereoflowerquality,withlessrigorous

samplinganddatacollectionprocessesandlesssophisticateddataanalysis.Most

Chinese-languagestudiesadoptedasimplestudydesign.Manyofthemexplored

theoverallmentalhealthstatusofLBC,byemployingageneralmentalhealth

scaleormultipleinterrelatedpsychosocialoutcomevariables.Instruments

developedbyChineseresearchers(forchildreninChina)andinternational

researcherswerebothused.Thereportingwasgenerallyfocusedonvarious

descriptivecharacteristicsofthechildpopulation,ratherthanthemechanismsof

thechallengesfacingtheLBC.

TheEnglish-languagestudiestendedtobemorespecificregardingthe

dimensionsofwellbeingthatwereexamined.Theauthorsusuallylookeddeeper

intothesocioeconomicstatusandotherhousehold-levelfactorsthatmayaffect

childwellbeing,andfittedregressionmodelsthatincorporatedavarietyof

independentvariables.Theoriesfrommultipledisciplinessuchaschild

developmentandfamilystudieswereoftenreferredtointhebackgroundand

68

discussion,whereastheinterdisciplinaritywasoftenlackingamong

Chinese-languagestudies.

Nevertheless,theonlytwolongitudinalstudiesretrievedinthereviewwereboth

publishedinChinese.Theyofferedimportantinsightsabouttheimpactof

parentalmigrationoveracoupleofyears’time,atacrucialstageofearly

adolescence.Howeverthetwostudieshadasmallsamplesizeandhighdrop-out

rates.Thestudydesignwasalsosimplewithfewmeasuresaboutfamily

characteristics.

Inthefollowingsectionsofthischapter,whennecessary,thelanguageofthe

articlewasnotedifitwasChinese,inordertobettercomparewiththe

English-languagestudiesfromdifferentperspectivesintheLBCliterature.

3.2.3Happinessandqualityoflifemeasures

SeveralstudiesexaminedthehappinessandlifesatisfactionamongLBCin

comparisonwithnon-LBC(Jordan&Graham,2012;Grahametal.,2012;Wen&

Lin,2012;Suetal.,2012;Gaoetal.,2010;Jiaetal.,2010;Huetal.,2015),andit

wasgenerallyshownthatLBCtendedtobelesshappyandlesssatisfiedwithlife

andschool.AnimportantlongitudinalstudypublishedinChinese(Fanetal.,2013)

suggestedthattheself-reporthappinesslevelsignificantlyreducedamongLBC

overthe2.5-yearstudyperiod,whilethelevelinnon-LBCremainedunchanged.

69

However,theoutcomevariablesinthesestudies(Jordan&Graham,2012;

Grahametal.,2012;Wen&Lin,2012;Gaoetal.,2010;Jiaetal.,2010;Fanetal.,

2013)wereonlybasedonasinglequestionaskingthechildrenabouttheir

happinessorlifesatisfaction,whichmayhaveover-simplifiedrealexperiencesof

bothLBCandnon-LBC.

Moreover,Jiaetal.(2010)andHuangetal.(2015)lookedintoruralChinese

children’s“healthrelatedqualityoflife”,aconceptthatincludesdomainsrelated

tophysicalandmentaldisorders,throughhouseholdsurveysusingThePediatric

QualityofLifeInventory(PedsQL)scale.Amongchildrenaged2-18acrosssix

provinces,Huang(2015)foundthatLBCwereworseoffinPedsQLoverallscores,

withlowerphysical,emotionalandsocialfunctionings,ascomparedtootherrural

children.Jiaetal.(2010)showedsimilarresultsinasmallersampleofschool-age

children,exceptthatthephysicalhealthsubscalescoresdidnotshowsignificant

difference,indicatingpsychologicalchallengesintheLBC.

Whilethe“healthrelatedqualityoflife”maybeausefulindicatorofchild

wellbeingingeneral,itisnotcloselyrelevanttothechallengesfacedbytheLBC.

Similarly,measuresinthePedsQLinstrumentwerealsosupposedtoberelatedto

physicalandmentaldisorders,especiallyinpediatriccaresettings.Infact,there

hasbeennoclearevidenceregardingdisadvantagesintermsofphysicalhealth.

Theprolongedseparationfromparentsislikelytoaffectqualityoflifethatis

relatedtopsychologicalandsocio-behavioralchallenges,ratherthandiseasesor

70

disorders.Hencetheresultsfromstudiesusinghealthfocusedsurveytoolsmay

notbefullywarranted.

3.2.4Mentalhealthstatus

SeveralChinese-languagestudieslookedintothementalhealthstatusofchildren

inChina.A100-itempsychometricscalenamely“MentalHealthTest”(MHT),

designedbyChineseresearchers(Zhou,1991),wasoftenusedonmiddleschool

childrenintheChineseliterature.Itincludedeightcontentscales:learning

anxiety,interpersonalrelationshipanxiety,lonelinesstendency,self-accusation

tendency,sensitivenesstendency,physicalsymptoms,horrortendency,and

impulsiontendency.FivestudiesinthisreviewusedMHTandallfoundtheLBC

grouphadworsementalhealth(Zhaoetal.,2015;Luetal.,2014;Huang&Li,

2007;Zhengetal.,2014;Zhuetal.,2014).Inparticular,LBCshowedahigherlevel

ofanxietysymptomsthannon-LBCinallthesestudies;threestudiesindicated

thatLBCtendedtobemorescaredofstressfulsituationsthantheirpeers(Zhaoet

al.,2015;Luetal.,2014;Huang&Li,2007).

AnothercommonlyusedpsychometricstoolforChineseadolescentswas“Chinese

MiddleSchoolStudentMentalHealthScale”.Basedonthisscale,twostudies

(Chenetal.,2011;Liuetal.,2014)foundnosignificantdifferenceinmentalhealth

statusbetweenLBCandnon-LBC.Importantly,Liuetal.’s(2014)longitudinal

studysuggestedthatduringthe2-yearperiodbetweenthefollow-upandbaseline,

thementalhealthstatusofLBCandcontrolsshowedasimilaramountofdecline;

71

nosignificantdifferencewasidentifiedbetweenthetwogroupseitheratbaseline

orfollow-up.

Lingetal.(2015)usedtheYouthSelf-Reportscaleandidentifiedhigherlevelof

mentalhealthproblemsinaggressiveandexternalizingandinternalizing

behaviors,somaticdisorders,anxiety/depression,andsocialproblemsinLBC

thannon-LBC.BymetricsofPreschool-agedChildMentalHealthScale,Taoetal.

(2014)foundamongpreschoolersaged3-5thatLBCwerenotworsethan

controls.

DespiteanoveralldisadvantageamongLBC,mixedfindingsfromtheabove

studiesalsosuggestedthecomplexityofLBC’smentalhealthstatus,andrevealed

certainspecificdimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeingthatwereworthfurther

investigation.Thescreeningtoolsusedinthesestudiesprovidedanoverall

assessmentofchildren’smentalhealth,insteadoffocusingoncertaintypesof

disorders.However,despitethecomprehensiveness,themeasureswerestill

focusedonthesymptoms,insteadofdimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeing.The

resultsmaythusunderestimatetheimpactofparentalmigration,since

disadvantagesofLBCmaybedemonstratedfromspecificpsychologicaland

behavioralaspects,whicharenotrelatedtomentalhealthdisorders.Thetwo

mentalhealthscalescommonlyusedinChinawerenotusedinanyothercountry,

andthusthescoresandstudyfindingscannotbeusedtomakeinternational

comparisons.

72

3.2.5Resilienceandpositiveyouthdevelopment

Resiliencewaspointedoutinsomearticlesasapsychologicalperformancethat

hadapositivesignificanceforthementalhealthofchildren,despiteadverse

situationssuchasprolongedparentalabsence.Afewofthesestudiesattempted

tomeasureresilienceasakeyoutcomevariable.

IntheChinese-languageliterature,theHealthyKidsResilienceAssessmentwas

usedbythreestudies,toexploreexternalandinternalresilienceconstructs

associatedwithchilddevelopment.Withverysimilarstudydesign,bothZhouet

al.(2011)andHanetal.(2012)investigatedthreegroupsofchildreninsuburban

areas:LBC,urbanmigrantchildren,andchildrenlivingwithbothparents.Both

studiesfoundnosignificantdifferencebetweenLBCandnon-LBC.Incontrast,

resultsfromotherstudies(Dong&Zhang,2013a;Dong&Zhang,2013b;Dong&

He,2014;Zhengetal.’s2014)basedonquestionnairesdesignedforChinese

studentsdemonstratedlessresilienceinLBC.Liuetal.’s(2014)longitudinalstudy

measuredthesameoutcomeamongagroupofmiddleschoolstudentsatYear7,8

and9.TheresultsimpliedatrendofdecliningresilienceamongLBC,butonlyat

Year8didtheLBChavesignificantlylowerresiliencethannon-LBC.InSoutheast

Asia,Jordan&Graham(2012)articulatedresilienceasacombinedoutcomeof

multiplemeasuresofgeneralhappinessandwell-beingaspects,andfoundgreater

resiliencewasassociatedwithlongerdurationsofmaternalabsence.

TheinvestigationaroundresiliencewassimilartotheperspectiveofPositive

73

YouthDevelopment(PYD),implyingabeneficialeffectofdifficultsituations.Wen

etal.(2015)probedintothePYDaspectsofCompetence,Confidence,Caring,

Character,Connection,throughahostofquestionsthatweresimilartotheones

inSDQ.HoweverlittledifferenceinthesePYDoutcomeswasdetectedbyparental

migrationstatus.Nevertheless,thepositivepsychologyperspectiveisan

interestingdirectiontofurtherexploringLBC’soverallpsychosocialwellbeing,

takingintoaccountthebeneficialinfluenceofparentalmigration,forexamplevia

economicandsocialremittances.

3.2.6Psychosocialstrengthsanddifficulties

TheStrengthsandDifficultiesQuestionnaire(SDQ)wasusedasaprimarysurvey

instrumentinfourofthereviewedpapers.Itisawidelyusedchildpsychosocial

wellbeingquestionnaireandhasbeenvalidatedinmultiplecountries(Goodman,

2007).Itcomprisedof25itemsin5hypothesizedsubscales:emotionalsymptoms,

(somatic,unhappy,worries,nervous,fears)conductproblems(tempers,obedient,

fights,lies,steals),hyperactivity,peerproblems,andpro-socialbehaviors.

TheCHAMPSEAproject

AspartoftheCHAMPSEA(ChildHealthandMigrantParentsinSoutheastAsia)

study,GrahamandJordan(2011)usedtheemotionalandconductsubscalesof

SDQasmeasurementsofpsychologicalwellbeingamong3,876children(including

74

1,960LBC)inIndonesia,Thailand,Vietnam,andthePhilippines.Theresultswere

inconsistentacrosscountries.OnlyinIndonesiasignificantlyhigheremotional

distresswasfoundamongLBCbytransnationalmigrantsascomparedtochildren

livingwithbothparents,afterchildageandgenderwereaccountedfor.However,

inthePhilippinestherelationshipwasintheoppositedirection,thatisLBCwere

lessvulnerabletoemotionalproblems.Withregardtochildren’sbehavior,onlyin

ThailanddidtheresultsshowincreasedoddsofLBCexperiencingconduct

problemsascomparedtonon-LBC,whileFilipinoLBCwerelesslikelytohave

conductproblems.TheauthorsattributedtheadvantagesamongLBCtothestrong

civilsocietysupportorganizationsinthePhilippines.

Inaddition,Adhikarietal.(2013)examinedtheoverallSDQscoresamongthe

ThaichildrenintheCHAMPSEAstudy.Nosignificantdisadvantagewasshownin

LBC,althoughchildrencurrentlylivingwiththeirmotherswhohadreturned

homefrommigrationmayhaveexperiencedmorepsychologicalproblems.

TheCHAMPSEAstudieshighlightedthecontext-specificityofLBC’swellbeing,as

noconsistentcorrelationbetweenpsychosocialwellbeingandparentalmigration

wasfoundevenamongthefourcountriesinthesameregion.Also,some

limitationsmayweakentheconclusionsfromthisstudy.First,thechildmeasures

wereallreportedbycaregivers,whomayhaveunder-estimatedchildren’s

distressduetoparentalmigration.Thiswaspointedoutbythesameauthorsina

laterpaper(JordanandGraham,2012)basedonthesamesamplecomparingthe

75

self-reportandcaregiver-reportresults.Also,theCHAMPSEAsampleswere

selectedfromareasofhighout-migration,wheretheoverallsocioeconomic

developmentbenefitedsignificantlyfromoverseasremittances.Intheseareas

bettercopingstrategiesandstrongersocialsupportnetworksmayhavebeen

developedfortheLBC,becauseoftheleft-behindcommunity’sabilitiesin

mobilizingconsiderableamountofresources.Itwasalsoquestionablewhether

thestudysampleswererepresentativeoftheentireLBCpopulationinthe

respectivecountry.

OtherstudiesusingSDQ

FourstudiesinChinausedSDQtomeasurechildoutcomes;amongthemonlyJiang

(2013)didnotidentifysignificantdifferenceinpsychosocialoutcomesbetween

LBCandnon-LBC,basedoncut-offscoresthatdefinedemotionalandconduct

problems.Fanetal.(2010)demonstratedthatLBChadsignificantlylowerlevelsof

psychosocialwellbeingfromallfivesub-scalesofSDQ,whileonlyhyperactivity

andpro-socialbehaviorremainedsignificantlydifferentafteradjustingfor

demographicvariables.Similarly,Huetal.(2014)foundworseoutcomesinLBC

fromallSDQsub-scalesthroughbivariateanalyses,butnoneofthedifferences

weresignificantanymoreaftercontrollingforfamilyandschoolcharacteristics.

Yangetal.(2013)suggestedamongtheLBC,thosewhowereleftbehindbytheir

motherhadhigherlevelofdifficultiesthanthoseleftbehindbytheirfatherorboth

76

parents.Theauthorsalsofoundthatsenseofhopewasanimportantfactor

contributingtoLBC’swellbeing.

InSriLanka,Wickramageetal.(2015)obtainedresultsfromthreeversions(self,

parentandteacherreport)oftheSDQforeachschool-agechild.Thecomposite

scoresinthefivedomainswerecalculatedaccordingtoavalidatedpredictive

algorithmofSDQ,generatedfromalargecommunitysampleinBritain.Theresults

showedsignificantlymoreLBCchildrenwereinthe“borderline”or“abnormal”

categories(43.3%)thanthecomparativechildren(33.6%).Thedifferencewas

alsosignificantinemotionalandhyperactivitysubscales.

AstudyinMoldova(Vanoreetal.2015)onlyusedoutcomesfromtheemotional

andconductsubscalesinthecaregiver-reportedSDQ,andthescoreswere

convertedfromcontinuoustocategoricalvalues.Forboys,havingamigrantparent

correspondedtoahigherprobabilityofanabnormalconductproblemsscore,but

notforgirls.Emotionaloutcomesdidnotshowsignificantdifference.Parental

migrationdidnotbearasignificantinfluenceontheemotionalsymptomsscale.

Mazzucatoetal.’sstudy(2015)inthreeAfricancountriesfoundthatchildrenwith

oneorbothmigrantparentshadhigherlevelsofpsychologicaldistressthan

childrenlivingwiththeirparents.Therewasnosignificantdifferencebetween

internationalandinternalmigration,inGhanaandNigeria;butforAngola,

internationalparentalmigrationhasagreaternegativeimpactonchildren's

psychologicalhealth.

77

TheSDQtotaldifficultiesscorehasproventobeavalidmeasureofpsychosocial

wellbeingacrossvarioussettings,andthereforetheinstrumenthasbecome

popularinstudiesonLBC,aspecialbutgenerallyhealthypopulationwithout

clinicallyrelevantrisksformentalhealthproblems.TheSDQisausefultoolfor

comparingoutcomesbetweengroupsofchildren,buthasnotbeenwidelyusedfor

clinicaldiagnosisofmentalhealthconditions.TheinitialdesignersofSDQdid

provideacomputerizedalgorithmtopredictchildpsychiatricdiagnosesonthe

basisofSDQscores(Goodman,etal.2000).Howeveritrequiresthequestionnaires

tobecompletedbyparent,teacher,andthechildhim/herselfforeachindividual

case.Somestudies(Jordan&Graham2011,Wickramageetal.,2015)usedan

estimatedcut-offscoreofSDQoritssubscales,anddichotomizedtheoutcomein

theiranalyseswithoutcomparingmeanoutcomescores.Thisapproachmay

underminetherobustnessofSDQandlosecertainamountofinformation.

3.2.7Emotionalsymptoms

Loneliness

SevenpapersinChinausedtheChildren’sLonelinessScale(CLS)scoreasthe

outcomemeasure(FourinEnglish:Liuetal.,2010;Jia&Tian,2010;Suetal.,2012;

Lingetal.,2015;threeinChinese:Wangetal.,2011b;Zhaoetal.,2012;Dong&

Zhang,2013a);the16-itemscaleisoneofthemostreliablemeasuresofitskind

78

withaCronbachalphaof0.80orabove(Liuetal.2010).Allthesestudiesexcept

one(Wangetal.,2011b;whichfoundqualityoffriendshiptobeakeyfactorof

wellbeing)concludedthatLBCweremorevulnerabletolonelinessthanchildren

livingwithbothparentsinruralareas.SimilarstudiesinthePhilippinesreported

associationbetweenparentalmigrationandlonelinesswithothermeasurements

(Asis,2006;Smeekensetal.,2012).

AlthoughtheconcreteimpactonLBC’soverallwellbeingremainsunclear,it

appearsthatlonelinessisverycommonamongLBC,whichcanbeexplainedasa

directconsequenceofparentalabsence.Onespecificweaknessofthesestudies

wasthelackofconsiderationofotherfamilyandcommunitycharacteristics.

Particularly,familystructureandcarearrangements,aswellasmigration

prevalenceandsocioculturalcontexts,maybecloselyassociatedwithboth

migrationpatternsandloneliness.Aslonelinessisarelativelysubjective

experienceinsteadofamentalhealthdisorder,theinterpretationofitshouldbe

basedonvariouscontextualfactors.Associationswithothermentalhealth

symptomsmayrevealcertainmediatingeffects,aslonelinessappearstobea

directconsequenceofparentalabsence.

Depression

StudiesalsoexploredindicationsofmentalhealthconditionsamongLBCbyusing

variousscreeningtoolsforspecifictypesofmentaldisorders.Althoughtheresults

79

didnotnecessarysuggestclinicaldiagnosis,strongnegativeimplicationsof

parentalabsenceweredemonstratedinmoststudies.

Children’sDepressionInventory(CDI)wasthemostcommonlyuseddepression

scaleinamongthereviewedstudies.Animportantstudy(Heetal.,2012)showed

that15.6%ofleft-behindschoolchildrenhadadepressionrisk,significantlyhigher

thanthecontrolsafteradjustingfordemographicsandsocioeconomicstatus.The

studywascarriedoutinaruralcountyofChina’sHubeiProvince.Thedepression

symptomscoresdidnotdifferbetweenchildrenwithamigrantmother,father,or

bothparentsaway.SimilarstudiesinEnglish(Wangetal.,2015a)andChinese

(Houetal.,2015;Wangetal.,2011a;Wangetal.,2011b)thatappliedCDIalso

foundhigherdepressionprevalence(rangingfrom12.1%to24.8%)amongLBC

thancontrols.Thesamplesacrossthesestudiesincludeddiversegeographicareas

acrossmainlandChina.Additionally,alsobasedonCDI,Wangetal.(2015a)noted

thatboth-parentmigrationwasassociatedwithhigherlikelihoodofdepression

thanfather-ormother-onlymigrationinChongqingmunicipality,whereasWang

etal.(2011b)foundinHenanthatchildrenleftbehindbyoneparentwereless

likelytobedepressed,comparedtobothnon-LBCandchildrenleftbehindbyboth

parents.

Lingetal.’s(2015)studyadoptedanotherpopulardepressionscreeningtool,

DepressionSelf-RatingScale(DSRS)forChildren,inasmallsampleinHunan,

China.ThestudyfoundhigherdepressionscoreintheLBCgroupthanthecontrol

80

group,butthedifferencewasnotsignificant.MeanwhiletheAnxiety/Depression

subscalefromtheYouthSelf-Report,appliedinthesamestudy,indicatedworse

outcomesinLBC.Usingacut-offscoreofDSRS,aChinese-languagestudy(Liuetal.

2011),found27.1%ofLBChaddepressionrisk,muchhigherthantheproportion

amongnon-LBC(13.9%)inasmallsampleinHebeiprovince.

Arecentstudy(Ren&Treiman,2016)appliedtheCenterforEpidemiological

StudiesDepressionScaleforChildren(CES-D),andfoundnosignificantdifference

indepressionsymptomsbetweenruralLBCandruralchildrenlivingwithboth

parents.However,itisnoteworthythatthisstudyoversampledthemore

populatedvillages,whereavailabilityofresourcesrelatedtochildwellbeingmight

confoundtheresults.Withthesamedepressionscale,twostudiespublishedin

Chinese(Lanetal.,2009;Heetal.,2011)demonstratedhigherlevelsofdepression

inLBCthannon-LBC,afteradjustingforfactorsincludingsocioeconomicstatus.

Differentdepressionprevalencefromthesamesurveytoolsuggeststhevariation

ofthescaleofchallengeforLBC.Studiesmaynotbeabletoproperlyidentifythe

impactofparentalmigration,withoutusingtheinstrumentthatbestsuitedforthe

targetchildpopulation.Adjustingforcovariatesatmultipledimensionsisalso

importantinillustratingacomprehensivesituation.

Wuetal.’s(2015)studyprovidesanexcellentexampleoftheinvestigationof

familyandcommunitylevelvariables,amongbothcurrentandpreviousLBC.After

81

adjustingforfamilysocialcapitalandcommunitysocialcapital,childrenwhowere

currentlyleft-behindexhibitedsignificantlyhigherlevelsofdepression,than

nativeruralchildren(thosewhowereneverleftbehindormigratedwithparents).

Childrenwhowerecurrentlylivingwithbothparentsbuthadbeenleftbehindby

theirmigrantparents,showedsignificantlylowerlevelsofdepressionthanthe

nativeruralchildren.However,thesmallsamplesize(N=591)andthefive

categoriesofmigrationstatusresultedinverysmallandunequallysizedgroupsof

childrenintheanalysis,whichwasalimitationofthestudy.

Anxiety

Luoetal.(2011)usedtheState-TraitAnxietyInventorytoexaminethestate

anxiety(anxietyaboutanevent)andtrait-anxiety(anxietylevelasapersonal

characteristic)symptomsamongchildreninalargesampleacrossfiveChinese

provinces;theyfoundthatsubjectswhoexperiencedseparationwithfathershave

increasedstate-anxietybutnottrait-anxiety.Tomsa&Jenaro(2015)appliedthe

sameinstrumentinasampleinRomania,andfoundthatLBChadhigherlevelsof

bothstateandtraitanxiety.Anxietyscoreswerepredictedbycopingskills,

depression,andanger,controllingforthequalityoftherelationshipswithparent,

andsociodemographiccharacteristics.

Zhaoetal.(2014)foundincreasedsocialanxietyinLBCascomparedwiththeir

peersinruralAnhuiProvince,China.ThehigherSocialAnxietyScalesforChildren

82

(SASC)scoresinLBCwereassociatedwithlowerqualityoflife,poorerfamily

function,physicalabuse,beingfemale,havingmoresiblingsandminorities.Earlier

studiespublishedinChinese(Zhangetal.,2007;Zhaoetal.,2012)indicated

similarresultsfromthesamescale,showinghigherlevelsofsocialanxietyinLBC

thannon-LBC.Zhangetal.(2007)furthersuggestedthatLBCwhoweregirls,

younger,lackedpropercare,andwerelesshealthyweremorevulnerable.

Althoughthestudiesseemtoshowtheassociationbetweenparentalmigration

andanxiety,thespecificmechanismshavenotbeenclearlyelicited.Inparticular,

Zhaoetal.(2014)examinedvariousaspectsofwellbeinganditspotential

determinants,butthesefactorsareyettobeconnectedtoprovideaconvincing

explanation.Onereasonmaybethatanxietyaccompaniesmanymentalhealth

conditions,andmaynotbeagoodindicatorofLBC’spsychosocialchallengesdue

toparentalabsence.

3.2.8Behavioralissues

Studieshaveexaminedchildbehaviorsthatarerelatedtomentalhealthor

psychosocialwellbeing.Theirresults,inChina,SriLanka,andMexico,respectively,

suggestedthatLBChadmorebehavioralproblems.Lingetal.(2015)examined

behavioraloutcomesfromtheYouthSelf-Reportquestionnaire,andrevealed

higherrisksofexternalizingbehaviors,internalizingbehaviors,somaticdisorders,

anxiety/depression,socialproblems,andloneliness,inLBC.InSriLanka,

83

Senaratnaetal.(2011)reportedthatLBCweremorelikelytohavementalhealth

problems,basedonthescoresfromtheChildBehaviorCheckList(CBCL-S).

SimilarresultswerealsofoundinMexico(Lahaieetal.,2009)althoughthe

outcomemeasurementwasonlyaskingthecaregiverwhetherthechildrenhad

behavioralproblems.

Overall,thesestudiesshowedhigherprevalenceofbehavioralproblemsinLBC.

Yettheconnectionsbetweenparentalmigrationandbehavioralchallengesare

rarelydelineated.Lingetal.(2015)setagoodexampleofinvestingmultiple

dimensionsofbehavioralwellbeing,althoughotherfactorsinthechild’sfamily

andcommunityweremissedoutintheanalysis.Interpretationoftheunadjusted

effectsofparentalmigrationonchildoutcomesshouldalwaysbecautiousasmany

factorsmayinterferewithcorrelations.

NoneoftheChinese-languagepapersinthisreviewfocusedonbehavioral

problemsaskeyoutcomeindicators.Yetsomestudiesexploredbehavioralaspects

ofwellbeingmetrics.Zhaoetal.(2006)andGao(2010)reportedthatLBChad

higherlevelsofbehavioralproblemsthantheirpeers,accordingtothePiers-Harris

Children’sSelf-ConceptScale.Yangetal.(2013)notedthatamongLBC,senseof

hopewaspositivelyassociatedwithpro-socialbehaviors,basedontheresults

fromtheStrengthsandDifficultiesQuestionnaire.Thesefindingssuggestedthat

behavioralissuesinLBCmayentailavarietyofaspects,andwerecloselylinked

withotherdimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeing.

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Additionally,someEnglish-languagestudiesconductedinChinahavefounda

higherprevalenceofhealth-relatedriskbehaviorsinLBC.Gaoetal.(2010)

examinedthedifferencesinhealthbehaviorbetweenLBCandnon-LBCinrural

China.BasedonaquestionnaireadaptedfromChineseandinternationalsurvey

instruments,theirresultsdemonstratedthatLBCwereathigherriskofskipping

breakfast,lowerratesofphysicalactivity,havingeversmokedtobacco,suicide

ideation,andbeingoverweight.Gaoetal.’s(2013)studybasedonasimilarsample

furtherindicatedthatwhilematernalmigrationincreasedtheadolescent’s

smokingrisk,paternalmigrationseemedprotectiveforsmoking;theimpactof

parentalmigrationonsmokingwaspartiallymediatedbyself-efficacy.Wen&Lin

(2012)alsofoundthatLBCtendtohavemoreunhealthybehaviorsbyasking

whetherthechildsmoked,usedillicitdrugsorbingedonalcoholinthelastmonth.

ThesestudiesindicatedthatLBCseemtohaveconsiderablehigherhealthrelated

riskbehaviors,althoughtheirphysicalhealthwasnotfoundtobeproblematic.Yet

themorein-depthquestionmaybeaboutthequalityofcareintheabsenceof

migrantparents,andtheexistingstudieslargelyfailedtoexploretheintermediate

mechanismsthatcausedriskybehaviors.

3.2.9Self-conceptandself-esteem

Self-conceptisbroadlydefinedasaperson’sperceptionofhim/herself,and

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typicallyreferstohowonefeelsaboutone’sworthacrosstheevaluative

dimensionssuchassocial,academic,behavioralandphysicaldomains(Marsh&

Hattie,1996).ThePiers-HarrisChildren’sSelf-ConceptScale(CSCS)isa

self-reportquestionnaireaskinghowchildrenmayfeelaboutthemselves,asa

broadrangeofpsychologicalhealthassessmentsbysixdimensions:behavior,

intellectualandschoolstatus,physicalappearanceandattributes,anxiety,

popularity,andhappinessandsatisfaction.

FivestudiespublishedinChineseusedthisscale(Liuetal.2010;Zhaoetal.,2009;

Zhaoetal.,2012;Gao,2010;Zhaoetal.,2006),allofwhichsuggestedsignificantly

loweroverallself-conceptlevelascomparedtonon-LBC.Thetwo

English-languagepapersusingthesamescalesfurtherreportedthatLBChad

loweroverallself-conceptscoresinallsubscalesofPiers-HarrisCSCSexcept

physicalappearance(Liuetal.2010)andbehavioral/intellectualconceptscores

(Zhaoetal.,2009)intherespectivestudies.Additionally,someChinese-language

studiesindicatedthelowerself-conceptinLBCmaybeassociatedwithearly

separationfromparents(Zhaoetal.,2006)andlongerdurationofparental

migration(Gao,2010).HoweverinJamaica,Pottinger(2005)foundnodifference

inself-conceptbetweenLBCandnon-LBCaccordingtoPiers-HarrisCSCS

measurement,butthesamplesizewastoosmall(only54)todrawvalid

conclusions.

Asimilarbutlessgeneralpsychologicalinstrument,RosenbergSelf-esteemScale,

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wasusedbyafewotherstudies.Zhanetal.(2014)indicatedthatLBCwhose

parentsbothmigratedhadlowerself-esteem,andparentalmigrationseemedto

havefurtherreducedself-esteeminchildrenwithinitiallowself-esteem.Luoetal.

(2011)indicatedthatchildrenleft-behindbyfatherhadlowerself-esteemthan

thoseleftbehindbymotherandthenon-LBC.Incontrast,Adumitroatieetal.

(2013)foundinRomaniathatself-esteemwashigherinteenagerswithboth

parentslivingabroad,ascomparedtotheteenagerswhoseparentswereinthe

country.

Althoughself-conceptdemonstratesanoverallwellbeingstatusofthechild,the

existingstudieshavenotseparatelyinvestigatedfactorsinfamily,school,and

communityenvironmentsthatmayaffectdifferentdimensionsself-conceptin

differentways.Self-esteem,whichcanbeseenasoneaspectoftheself-concept

measures,appearstobecontext-specificandmaybemoredependentonhow

migrationisviewedinthelocalcommunity.Thebiasduetoself-reportshould

alsobeconsidered,asmoststudiesdidnottriangulatestudyfindingswithchild

outcomesreportedbyotherrespondents.

3.2.10Factorsassociatedwithwellbeinginleft-behindchildren

Age(attimeofsurvey)

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Childrenindifferentagegroupsrespondandadjustdifferentlytomajorlife

changessuchasparentalmigration.Theeffectofagemayvarydependingonthe

measuresofpsychosocialoutcomewhencomparingLBCwiththeircounterparts.

Thetransitionfromchildhoodtoadolescenceinvolveschangesinmultiple

domainsincludingphysical,sexualandsocialdevelopmentwithaconsiderable

rangeofindividualdifferencesintheageatwhicheachofthesechangesoccur.

Fanandcolleagues(2011)demonstratedthatyoungerLBCgenerallyhadmore

emotionalandbehavioralproblemsthanolderLBC(meanageofLBC=12.2±2.2

years)asismeasuredbytheSDQquestionnaire,evenafteraccountingforthe

durationofbeingleftbehind.AChinese-languagestudy(Zhangetal.,2007)also

foundthatyoungerLBChadhigherlevelofsocialanxiety,ascomparedtotheolder

ones.BothWuetal.(2015)andLanetal.(2009;publishedinChinese)foundolder

childrentendedtohavemoredepressivesymptomsthantheyoungerones.Liuet

al.(2014)furtherreportedthatyoungerchildren,bothLBCandnon-LBC,had

betteroverallmentalhealthstatus.

YetHuangetal.(2015)demonstratedthatolderagewasassociatedwith

improvementinhealth-relatedqualityoflifeamongLBC.Interestingly,Wangetal.

(2015a)revealedaU-shapedage-specificdepressionprevalencecurve:10–12

yearsagegrouphasthelowestrate,andtheyounger(middlechildhood:7–9years

group)orolder(adolescent:13–15yearsgroup,16–17yearsgroup)agegroups

haveahigherrate.

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Ageasavariableintheabovestudiesispotentiallycorrelatedwithavarietyof

wellbeingfactorsthatemergeatdifferentstagesofchildren’slife.Asaresult,the

effectsofagemayvarydependingondifferentpsychosocialoutcomes.While

youngerLBCmightfeelparentalseparationsimplyasabandonment,someolder

childrenexperienceambivalentfeelingsofacceptance/respectand

grief/resentment,whileatthesametimebeingmoreawareofthefamily’s

situationandparents’effortsandsacrifices(Reyes,2007).However,asthe

transitionintoadolescenceinvolvesvariousphysicalandpsychologicalchanges,

childrenmayalsoencounterdifficultiesinadaptationthusbecomingmore

vulnerabletotheeffectsofparentalmigration(Heetal.,2012).

Ageatanddurationofseparation

Childageatwhichthemigrantparentsfirstdepartedhomewasfoundtobe

anotherimportantfactor,inrelationtomultipleaspectsofpsychosocialwellbeing,

especiallyintheempiricalstudiesconductedinChina.Thiswassimilartothe

theoreticalliteraturesummarizedinthepreviouschapter,whicharguedthat

separationfrommigrantparentsmaycauseadverseaffectsfromapsychological

developmentperspective.

Liuetal(2009)suggestedthatchildrenwhowereseparatedfromparentsata

youngeragehadmoresymptomsofanxietyanddepression,basedonasampleof

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LBCacrossthreeprovincesinChina.Thiseffectwasespeciallypronouncedfor

childrenwhowereseparatedfromtheirmothersorfrombothparents.Luoetal.

(2011)foundinchildrenwithanabsentfathertheseparationfromthefatherfor

childrenaged7to12waslinkedwithgreaterstate-anxiety,comparedtootherage

groups,andgirlsseparatedfromtheirfatherbefore2years,andcurrentlyin

middle/highschoolshowedlowerself-esteem.Fanetal.(2010)alsodemonstrated

thatchildrenwhowereleft-behindatanearlieragetendedtohavemore

emotionalproblemsandlesspro-socialbehavior,accordingtoSDQscores.An

earlierstudy(Zhaoetal.,2006)publishedinChinesenotedthatyoungerageat

separationwasassociatedwithintrovertpersonalityandlowerself-conceptabout

physicalappearanceandattributes.AlongitudinalstudyconductedinNewYork

evensuggestedthatextendedmaternalseparations(definedasatleastone

month),beforeage5independentlypredictlong-termrisksforoffspring

borderlinepersonalitydisordersymptoms(Crawfordetal.,2009).

Thedurationofparentalabsencealsomatteredaccordingtothereviewed

literature.Fanetal.(2010)foundthatlongerseparationfromparentswas

significantlycorrelatedwithmorepsychopathology,especiallyemotional

symptoms.Similarly,Liuetal.(2009)showedthatseparationfromparentsbefore

7yearsoldwasassociatedwithmoresymptomsofanxietyanddepression,

especiallyforchildrenleft-behindbymothersorbothparents.Lingetal.(2015)

indicatedthatlongdurationofseparationhadanegativeimpactonthechild’s

psychologicaldevelopment,forchildrenabove6yearsoldatthetimeofseparation.

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ForLBCunder6yearsatthetimeofseparation,theimpactofdurationinfluenced

onlyproblemswiththoughts.ManyChinese-languagepapersalsoincluded

durationofparentalmigrationasavariableintheirsurvey;mostofthemfound

longerseparationwascorrelatedwithworsepsychosocialoutcomes(Dong&

Zhang,2013b;Dong&He,2014;Luetal.,2014a;Zhaoetal.,2015;Luetal.,2014b;

Gao2010;Fanetal.,2013).Inparticular,alongitudinalstudy(Fanetal.,2013)

foundthatlongerdurationofparentalmigrationpredictedincreasednegative

emotionsattheendofa2.5-yearstudyperiod.

Yetsomepapersreportednosignificanteffectsfromthedurationofparental

migration(Yangetal.,2013;Jiang2013;Zhaoetal.,2006).Otherstudieseven

suggestedlongerseparationmightimprovechildresilience.Huangetal.(2015)

alsoshowedchildrenwhoseparentshadmigratedforalongerduration,scored

higherinqualityoflifemetrics.Jordan&Graham(2012)foundgreaterresilience

inchildwellbeingwasassociatedwithlongerdurationsofmaternalabsence.

Gender

AmongstudiesusingSDQ,bothFanetal.(2010)andHuetal.(2014)found

left-behindgirlsweremorelikelytohaveemotionalsymptoms,whereasboyshad

higherlevelsofproblemsinhyperactivityandpro-socialbehaviors,accordingto

resultsfromSDQscores.Huetal.(2014)andJiang(2013)comparedtheSDQ

scoresbetweenboysandgirls,andsuggestedthatboyshadhigherlevelof

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difficultiesinconduct,peerrelationship,andprosocialbehaviors.Wickramageet

al.’sstudy(2015)inSriLankaalsorevealedhigherlikelihoodofanypsychiatric

diagnosisinleft-behindboysthangirls,basedonstandardizedcompositionSDQ

scoresreportedbyparent,teacherandself.

Manystudiescomparedthewellbeingoutcomesbetweenboysandgirls.Wuetal.

(2015)andZhaoetal.(2014)foundthatgirlshadhigherlevelsofdepressive

symptomsandsocialanxiety,respectively,thanboys.Similarly,Liuetal.(2009)

indicatedthatfemalestudentshadhigherlevelsoftraitanxietyanddepression

thandidmalestudentswhenbothparentsleftforthecities.Similarly,a

Chinese-languagestudy(Jiang2013)foundgirlswereworseoffinvariousmental

healthmeasures.Meanwhile,afewotherstudiespublishedinChinesesuggested

thatboysweremoredisadvantaged,intermsofsocialsupport(Zhengetal.,2014)

anddepressivesymptoms(Yangetal.,2010).

Someotherstudiesidentifiedwellbeingdisadvantagesrelatedtoparental

migrationamonggirls.Luoetal.(2011)foundfemalemiddle/highschool

studentswhowereseparatedwithfatherbefore2years,sufferedfromlower

self-esteem.Zhanetal.(2014)indicatedthatLBCgirlswhosefatherorboth

parentsmigratedouttoworkinothercitiesareinclinedtoscorelowerinthe

self-esteemtestthanboys.Incontrast,Zhouetal.(2011)andZhu(2016)found

amongboysthatLBChadworsementalhealthstatusthannon-LBC.Gaoetal.

(2010)reportedthatascomparedtonon-LBC,left-behindteenagegirlsinChina

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weremorelikelytousesubstancesandhaveemotionalproblemsandexpress

sadness,whilstleftbehindteenageboysweremorevulnerabletobeing

overweightandaddictedtotheinternet.

StudiesconductedincountriesotherthanChinaimpliedthatthesocio-cultural

contextsplayedcertainrolesinthegenderdisparitiesofchildwellbeing,especially

thecommunitieswheretraditionalgendernormsstillprevail.Aguilera-Guzmanet

al.(2004)showedthatleft-behindboysinMexicofeelthepressureoftheirroleas

providers,andfemaleLBCsfeltthepressureofhavingtodomorehousework,such

ascookingorwashingclothes.Theauthorssuggestedthatgender,notfather's

absence,appearstobethemostimportantriskfactorforpsychologicaldistress.

Tomsa&Jenaro(2015)foundboysappeartousemoredistractionstrategiesto

copewithvarioussituations,whereasgirlsseemtoexperiencemoreanger.

Parentalmigrationmayaffectboysandgirlsindifferentways.Manystudies

elicitedasimilarpattern:girlsseemtodemonstratemoreemotionaldistressor

internalizingproblems,whereasboystendedtohavemorebehavioralor

externalizingproblems.Hencegendereffectsmayvarybetweendifferent

wellbeingoutcomes,yetmoststudieswereunabletodistinguishbetweenthem.

Additionally,socioculturalcontextsplayasignificantroleingendernorms,which

shouldbefurtherexploredindifferentsettings.

Patternsofparentalmigration

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TheimpactofmigrationonLBC’swellbeingmayvaryacrossdifferenttypesof

migranthouseholds,i.e.familieswithfatherormotherorbothparentsmigrating,

leavingchildrenbehindinthecareofgrandparents,otherrelatives/friendsor

evenalone.

Manystudiescomparedtheeffectsofone-parentandboth-parentmigration.For

example,Suetal.(2012)foundchildrenwithtwoparentsmigratingreportedthe

lowerleveloflifesatisfactionthanchildrenwithonlyonemigrantparentandthe

non-LBCgroup.Gaoetal.(2010)demonstratedthatcomparedtothosewithone

migrantparent,childrenwithbothparentsabsentweremorelikelytoengagein

riskbehaviors,tohaveemotionalandmentalproblemsandtobeoverweightor

stunted.Incontrast,Li&Tao(2009)indicatedthatchildrenleftbehindbyone

parentweresignificantlymorelikelytohavesuicidethoughts,comparedto

childrenleftbehindbybothparentsaswellasnon-LBC.

Otherscomparedmother-onlyandfather-onlymigration,anddemonstratedmixed

results.Somestudiessuggestedthatchildrenlivingwithfathersandleftbehindby

mothersseemedmoredisadvantagedthantheotherwayaround.Gaoetal.(2010)

revealedthatchildrenwithamigrantmotheronlyweremorevulnerableto

behavioralrisks,comparedtothosewithfather’sabsenceonly.Wen&Lin(2012)

indicatedthatchildrenleftbymigrantmothers(butnotfathers)arethemost

disadvantagedtypeofparentalmigration,intermsofhealthbehaviorandschool

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engagement.InRomania,Adumitroatieetal.(2013)foundteenagersleft-behind

onlybymothershadalowerlevelofpsychologicaladjustmentcomparedwithboth

thegroupsoffather-absenceandboth-parentabsence,especiallyintermsof

aggressiveness,self-esteem,self-adequacyandworldview.Asis(2006)described

howchildrenleftbehindbymothersinthePhilippineshadworseemotionalhealth

comparedtochildrenoffathermigrants,althoughnostatisticalsignificancewas

examined.Wen&Lin(2012)pointedoutthatthisdisadvantageseemspartly

attributabletodeficiencyinfamilycohesionandfamilysupportinmother-only

migranthouseholds,withchildrenparticularlyreluctanttoseetheirmothers

migrate.Inmanysocietiestheprevailinggenderscriptofmotheraschildren’s

nurturerandfatherasbreadwinnerscouldshapeLBC’sexperiencewithregardto

mothersabsence(Grahametal.,2011).

Ontheotherhand,therearealsofindingsindicatingthegreaterimpactoffather’s

absencethanmother’s.Luoetal.(2011)reportedthatafather’sabsencehada

greaterinfluenceonthestate-anxietyandself-esteemofleft-behindadolescents

thanthatofthemother’s.Vanoreetal.(2015)notedthatthemigrationoffathers,

butnotthemothers,resultedinworsepsychosocialoutcomesforchildren.Dreby

andStutz(2012)exemplifiedthat,byunderstandingthesacrificeoftheirmigrant

mothermakesinordertosupportthem,LBCmayseetheirmother’smigration

moreacceptableovertimeandderivehighereducationalaspirationinreturn.

Meanwhile,Heetal.’s(2012)studyondepressionandZhaoetal.’s(2014)studyon

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socialanxietyalsoindicatednosignificantdifferenceintheirfindingsamongthree

subgroupsofLBC(father,mother,andbothparentsaway).Graham&Jordan’s

study(2011)basedonSDQresultsalsoconcludedthattherewasnoevidencein

anyofthecountrysamples(Indonesia,Vietnam,Thailand,andthePhilippines)

betweenthefather-migrant/mother-caregivergroupand

mother-migrant/father-caregivergroupinpsychologicaldisordersthanchildren

ofamigrantfather,althoughonlyoneofthesetwogroupsappearedsignificantly

betterofforworseoff,ascomparedtothenon-LBCgroupineachofthefour

countries.

Father,mother,orboth-parentmigrationmayalsoaffectdifferentaspectsofchild

wellbeing.Wenetal.(2015)foundfather-onlymigrationcorrespondedtohigher

educationalaspirationsandhighlevelsofnoproblembehaviors;mother-only

migrationwaslinkedtobetterself-ratedhealth,and;both-parentmigrationwas

associatedwithhigherschoolgradesandhighereducationalaspirations.Lietal.

(2012)suggestedthatmother-onlymigrationwaslinkedwithsmokingbehaviors

andviolenceunderalcoholinfluence,andboth-parentmigrationlinkedwith

frequentdrinkingandmoretimeontheinternet.

Studiesthatinvestigatedchildren’spreviousexperienceofbeingleft-behindalso

showedmixedresults.Adhikarietal.(2013)foundinThailandthatmother’s

earliermigrationhistoryhadasignificant,independentassociationwith

psychosocialdifficulties.Huang&Li(2007)showedbothcurrentandprevious

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LBChadworsementalhealthstatusthannon-LBC.However,Wuetal.,(2015)

indicatedthatchildrenwhohadpreviouslybeenleft-behindtendedtoexperience

fewerdepressivesymptoms.

Giventhecomplexityofpatternsofparentalmigrationandfamilystructure,a

majorgapintheliteraturewasthelackofinvestigationontheprimarycaregiver

livingwiththechild.Whetherthefather,motherorbothareawaydoesnot

determinetheprimarycaregiverathome.Children’sopinionsaboutwhocaresfor

themthemostmayalsoreflectcrucialfamilycharacteristics.Meanwhile,a

variationacrossdifferentcontextsisobservedregardingthedifferencesbetween

typesofparentalmigration,whichsuggeststheimportanceofconsidering

socio-culturalsettingswhenanalyzingtheimpactofmigrationtypeonLBC.

Genderrolesandnormsmaypotentiallyshapetheparent-childrelationshipand

children’sexperiences.Localtraditionmayalsoleadtoadominanttypeofmigrant

(suchasmigrantfathers)andconsequentlyatypeofcommunitysupportnetwork

comprisedoftheremainingfamilymembers.

Caregiversandsiblings

InChinaevidencesuggeststhathavingoneparentathomeisbetterforthe

well-beingofLBCthanlivingwithgrandparents(Jia&Tian,2010;Zhaoetal.,2009;

Huang&Li,2007).ChildreninthecareofgrandparentsinChinaandSoutheast

Asiaappearedtobemorepsychologicallyadvantagedthanthosewhowerecared

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byotherrelativesorfriends(Zhaoetal.,2009;Fanetal.,2010;Jiang,2013;

Graham,2011;Senaratnaetal.,2011),andoldercaregiversseemedmore

favorabletochildren’swellbeingthanyoungercaregivers(AdhikariR,etal.2013;

Fanetal.2010).MexicanLBCwhoweretakingcareofthemselveswerefoundto

bemuchmoredisadvantagedthanotherLBC(Lahaieetal.2009).

ItisalsonoteworthythatchangesofcaregiverscouldhavenegativeeffectsonLBC.

Senaratnaetal.(2011)foundinSriLankathatchangeofprimarycaregiverwas

twiceormoretimesassociatedwithbehavioralrisks.Mazzucatoetal.(2015)

foundthatchildrenlivingintransnationalfamilieswhochangedcaregiversoneor

moretimeshadworsepsychologicalwell-being,ascomparedtothatofchildren

livingwithbothparentsandwhohaveneverchangedcaregiver,inGhana,Nigeria,

andAngola.

Thispatternoftheeffectofdifferentcaregiversseemstobequiteconsistentacross

countriesfromthereviewedliterature.Agradientofpsychosocialwellbeingis

observedinrelationtocaregiverarrangements,withchildrencaredbyoneparent

atthetop,followedbygrandparents,otherfriends/relatives,andLBClivingalone

atthebottom.

Withregardtootherhouseholdmembers,Senaratnaetal.(2011)identifiedthat

nothavinganeldersiblingwasassociatedwithmorebehavioralhealthproblems

inLBCinSoutheastAsia.Inaddition,Adhikarietal.(2013)andZhanetal.(2014)

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examinedtheeffectofsiblingsasacontrolvariableamongallchildren,andfound

moresiblingswascorrelatedwithbettermentalhealth.However,inChina,some

reviewedstudiesfoundbeingasinglechildtobeaprotectivefactorforchild

wellbeing.Zhengetal.(2014)andJiangetal.(2013)indicatedthatbeingasingle

childwasassociatedwithhighersocialsupportandgreaterresilience.Zhaoetal.

(2014)foundthatamongLBC,childrenwithfewersiblingstendedtohavelower

levelsofsocialanxiety.Additionally,Yangetal.(2010)andWangetal.(2011a)

suggestedthatwhethertheLBCwassinglechildornotdidnotaffecttheir

wellbeing.

DespitetheOneChildPolicy,manyLBCstillhadsiblingsathome,althoughthere

seemedtobemixedeffectsofhavinganysiblings,especiallywhenavailabilityof

resourcesforchilddevelopmentwasconsidered.Whilecaregiversandsiblings

comprisedLBC’sco-residenthouseholdmembers,moreinsightsregardingthe

relationshipsintheextendedfamily,includingthemigrantparents,were

necessarytobetterunderstandthedisruptedfamilystructure.

Familyrelationships

SeparationbetweenLBCandtheirparentsdoesnotnecessarilymeanthereisno

communicationbetweenthem.Moderncommunications,suchasinternetand

mobilephones,contributetokeepingtheabsentparents“virtuallypresent”.They

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mayalsovisithometomaintainrelationshipswithchildrenandsustainthefamily

functionfromafar.

InChina,themostimportantdaysforfamilyreunionareduringtheChineseNew

Year,whenmostmigrantswillreturnhomeintheone-weekpublicholiday.Ina

studyincluding1024LBCwithmigrantfathersacrossfiveprovinces,Luoetal.

(2011)notedthatover50%offatherscouldcomehomeateveryChineseNew

Year,whiletherestvisittheirhomelessfrequently;22%ofLBCcontactedtheir

fatherseverydaybyphone,andmorethan65%contactedthemeveryweek.Suet

al.(2012)reportednearly60%ofLBCwithtwoparentsmigrating(n=283)would

“always”contacttheirfathersand70%ofthemwoulddosowiththeirmothers.

However,LBCintransnationalfamiliesinothercountriesmaynotbeabletosee

theirimmigrantparentsasoften.Forinstance,inthePhilippinesmigrantworkers

mayvisittheirfamiliesathomeeverytwoyearswhenrenewingtheircontractsor

lessoftenforthehigh-skilledworkers(Asis,2006),andmanyundocumented

LatinoimmigrantsinAmericadonotvisittheirhomecountryatall,sincetheyare

undocumentedandhencenotallowedtocrossbackintotheUS.

Nevertheless,thepresenceofmigrantparentsthroughcommunicationorhome

visitsseemstobenefitthepsychosocialwellbeingofLBCacrossdifferentcontexts.

Jia&Tian(2010)demonstratedthatLBCwhohadbadrelationshipandlow

frequencyofcommunicationwithparentswerepronetoencountermore

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loneliness.Liuetal.(2010)examinedwhetherandhowLBCliketheirmigrant

parentsandcaregivers,andtheresultsfrombothquestionswerepositively

associatedwithchildren’sself-concept,aswellasthefrequencyofhomevisitsand

communication(formigrantparents).However,simplemeasuresof

communicationfrequencymaynotreflectthequalityofparent-childrelationship,

sinceitthechildmayunwillinglytalkwithmigrantparentsoverthephoneunder

pressureofco-residentcaregivers.

Wangetal.(2015a)furtherlookedintothecharacteristicsofcommunication

betweenLBCandtheirmigrantparents.Thestudyshowedtheprotectivefactors

fordepressioninLBCincludedhighfrequencyofparent-childcommunication,

communicationbytelephone,andtalkingaboutdailytrivia,learningexperience,

schoollife,andfeelings.

AfewChinese-languagestudiesexploredanotherperspectivebyaskingabouthow

closewasthechildwithmigrantparents,orhowmuchtheparentscaredforthe

child.Hanetal.(2012)showedthat,“veryclose”parent-childrelationshipwas

linkedwithhighersenseofsecurityinLBC,althoughtheeffectdisappearedafter

adjustingforresiliencemeasures.Zhaoetal.(2012)andZhaoetal.(2015)found

that,higherextentofcarethechildreportedtoreceivefromtheparentswas

associatedwithbettermentalhealthoutcomes.

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Relationshipbetweentheparentsasoneorbothofthembecamemigrants,wasa

crucialcharacteristicofthefamilyenvironment,butveryfewstudiesincluded

parentalmaritalstatusasavariable.SomeauthorssuchasWuetal.,(2015)

excludedchildrenofdivorcedparentsintheirsample.Yanetal.,(2010)notedthat

childrenofdivorcedparentsweremorelikelytohavedepressionsymptoms.Liuet

al.(2014)examinedtherelationshipbetweentheparentsandfoundittobean

importantpositivecorrelateofchildmentalhealth.YetHuetal.(2014)found

divorcewasnotassociatedwithpsychosocialstrengthsanddifficulties.

Despitethelong-termphysicalabsenceofmigrantparents,theirrelationshipwith

thechildappearedtobeanimportantwellbeingfactor.However,fewstudies

examinedotherrelationshipsinthefamilythatmaybemeaningfulinchild

development,suchastherelationshipbetweentheparents.Therelationshipsthat

involvedcaregiverswerealsorarelyexamined.Alternatively,thefamily

environmentmightalsoberegardedasavariable,andtheoverallcharacteristics

ofthehouseholdwereexaminedbysomestudiesasiselaboratedbelow.

Familyfunctionandsocialsupport

Twostudiesexaminedchild-reportfamilyfunctionusingAPGAR,arapidscreening

toolwithquestionsaboutadaptation,partnership,growth,affection,andresolve.

Zhaoetal.(2014)showedpoorerfamilyfunctionwaslinkedwithhighersocial

anxietyinLBC.Jordan&Graham(2012)furthernotedthatchildassessmentof

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familyfunctioning,anexplanatorymeasureacrosswellbeingmeasures,seemedan

importantfactorinvariationinchildwellbeingbeyondthemigrationeffects.The

familyfunctioningseemstobeanimportantaspectoffamilycharacteristics,yetits

definitionmayneedfurtherclarificationintermsoftherelevancetochildcare.

Inadditiontofamilyfunctioning,socialsupportmayprovideimportantresources

thatbenefitchildpsychosocialwellbeing.Severalstudiessuggestedsocialsupport

wasaprotectivefactorofLBC’swellbeing(Chenetal.,2011;WangWetal.,2014;

Zhengetal.,2014;Fanetal.,2013;Liuetal.,2014;Taoetal.,2014;Wuetal.,2015).

Forexample,Zhengetal.(2014)foundthatLBChadlowerlevelofsocialsupport

thanthecontrolgroup,andhighersocialsupportwasassociatedwithbetter

overallmentalhealth. Taoetal.(2014)showedthatlesssocialsupportforLBC

maybeanimportantriskfactorfortheirmentalhealth,althoughLBChad

significantlybetterfamilyeconomicstatusthannon-LBC.

Morespecifically,alongitudinalstudy(Fanetal.,2013)publishedinChinese

revealedthat,socialsupportparticularlymediatedthepredictivecorrelation,

betweenfamilyatmosphereatbaselineandemotionalwellbeingatthefollow-up

surveyafter2.5years.Wuetal.(2015)alsoconcludedthatparentalmigration

influencedchildren'smentalhealththroughthemediatingeffectsoffamilyand

communitysocialcapital.Thesestudiesillustratethepositionoffamilyandsocial

supportonthepotentialcausalpathwaysbetweenparentalmigrationandchild

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wellbeing,andunderscoredtheimportanceofadequatesupportfromoutsidethe

nuclearfamilyinimprovingLBC’ssituations.

Socioeconomicstatus

Thehouseholdeconomicsituationandparent/caregiver’seducationallevelscan

positivelyaffectchildwellbeingandmaymediateorconfoundtheimpactof

migrationonLBC.Whilemigrationwasusuallyaimedathigherincome,the

relativesocioeconomicstatusofmigranthouseholdspriortoparentalmigrationis

unknown.Therefore,theLBCmaynotalwaysenjoyeconomicadvantages

comparedtotheirpeers.

MoststudiesinChinathatcomparedeconomicstatusbetweenLBCandchildren

livingwithbothparentssuggestednosignificantdifferences(Heetal.,2012;Jiaet

al.,2010;Liuetal.,2010;Suetal.2012;Wen&Lin,2012).YetWenetal.(2015)

notedthatthehighestfamilyincomelevelwasfoundintwo-parentmigration

familiesandthelowestfoundinnon-migrantfamilies.Taoetal.(2014)andGaoet

al.(2010)alsosuggestedhighersocioeconomicstatusinmigrantfamilies,using

indicatorsofself-reportannualincomepercapitaandthepossessionof

multi-storeyhouse,respectively.Zhaoetal.(2014)furthersuggestedparental

educationlevelswerelowerinLBCthannon-LBC,althoughthisdidnotshow

associationwithsocialanxietyinmultivariateanalysis.

104

YetFanandcolleagues(2010)foundthattheleft-behindfamilieshadlower

economicstatusthanothers,andtheLBC’semotionalandconductproblemswere

significantlycorrelatedwithlowerfamilyeconomicstatusandlowereducation

levelofparentsandcaregivers.Wenetal.(2015)showedthatfather'seducation

wasinfactthelowestinboth-parentmigrationfamiliesamongallmigration

types.

AfewstudiespublishedinChineseindicatedbettersocioeconomicstatuswasa

protectivefactorforwellbeingoutcomesamongLBC,takingintoaccountof

parentalmigrationandothercovariates.Jiang(2013)showedthatself-report

familyincomestatuswaspositivelyassociatedwiththechild’spsychosocial

strengths.Dong&Zhang(2013b)andWangetal.(2014)foundLBCwhose

motherhadhighereducationlevelweremorelikelytohavebetterpsychological

outcomes.Inaddition,Gao(2010)notedthathighereducationlevelofthe

caregiverwasalsolinkedwithhigherself-conceptoftheLBC.

WhilemoststudiesimpliedlinksbetweenhigherSESbetterpsychosocial

wellbeing,theimpactofparentalmigrationoftenseemedtobeindependentfrom

thedifferencesinSES.Wenetal.(2015)indicatedthatincreasedincomein

migrantfamilieshelpedexplainsomeoftheimpactpatternsofparentalmigration

onchildwellbeing.However,Lahaieetal.(2009)demonstratednoassociation

betweenmonthlyremittancesandanyoftheacademic,behavioral,oremotional

outcomesamongLBCintheirstudyinMexico.Jordan&Graham(2012)further

105

notedthattheyfoundnoevidenceofamoderatingeffectofhighersocio-economic

statusonparentalmigrationinSoutheastAsia,associo-economicindicatorsare

consistentlyassociatedwithvariationsofwellbeingregardlessofparental

migrationstatus.

Mostofthemeasurementsofsocio-economicstatuswererathercrudeinthe

reviewedliterature,whichmakestheresultsdifficulttointerpretorcompare.For

example,somestudiesonlyusedasingleproxyindicatortoindicateeconomic

status,suchashousingtype(Gaoetal.,2010),andchildreninapublicorprivate

school(Smeekensetal.,2012).Otherindicatorssuchasself-reportedhousehold

income(Jia&Tian,2010;Jiang,2013)andwealthlevel(Suetal.,2012;Liuetal.

2010;Wen&Lin,2012)werealsoover-simplifiedandsubjecttoreportingbias.

Thewealthindex,calculatedfrommultipleindicatorsmaybeabetterapproachto

demonstrateeconomicstatus(Graham&Jordan,2011;Fanetal.,2010).

School,peers,andcommunity

Outsidethehousehold,theextantliteraturealsolookedintoLBC’spsychosocial

wellbeingintheirschoolandcommunityenvironments.English-languagestudies

conductedinChinaindicatedthatLBCweremorelikelytodropoutofschool(Gao

etal.2010)orhavelowerschoolengagement(Wen&Lin,2012)comparedto

non-LBC.ThreeChinese-languagestudies(Lanetal.,2009;Liuetal.,2011;Wang

etal.,2011a)furthersuggestedthatinadditiontoparentalabsence,lowerschool

performancemayincreasedepressionriskinChinesechildren.YetJordan&

106

Graham(2012)foundinSoutheastAsiathatLBCshowednodifferenceinschool

performanceandenjoyment,althoughlongerdurationofparentalmigration

seemedtohavenegativeinfluenceonschoolperformance.

Incontrastwiththeabovestudies,astudyinGuangxi,China(Wenetal.,2015)

foundfather-onlymigrationcorrespondedtolowerincidenceofproblem

behaviorsandhighereducationalaspirations,comparedwithnot-left-behind

children.Both-parentmigrationwasassociatedwithhigherschoolgradesand

highereducationalaspirations.

Thesecontradictoryfindingsimplythecomplexityintheeffectsoffactors

associatedwithLBC’swellbeingintheschoolenvironment.Aninterestingstudy

publishedinChinese(Houetal.,2015)investigatedtheeffectsofschoolclass

compositionintermsoftheproportionsofLBC,childrennotlivingwithparents

forotherreasons,andchildrenlivingwithbothparents.Theresults

demonstratedthathigherproportionofchildrenfrom“normal”familieswas

associatedwithlowerself-esteeminLBC.

Interactionwithpeers,whetheratschoolorinthecommunity,mayreflectan

importantaspectofachild’ssociallife.Someotherstudieslookedintotheeffects

oftheoverallrelationshipwithpeersonchildwellbeing.ThreeChinese-language

papers(Zhaoetal.,2012;Wangetal.,2014;Zhaoetal.,2015)reportedthat

positiverelationshipwithpeerswasassociatedwithbetteroverallmentalhealth.

107

Wangetal.(2011b)morespecificallymeasuredqualityoffriendshipwithpeers,

andfoundbetterfriendshipwerelinkedwithlesslonelinessanddepression.

Outsidethechild’sfamilyandschool,twostudiesalsoincludedvariables

regardingcommunity-levelcharacteristics.Houetal.(2015)foundthatchildren

livinginalow-crimeneighborhood,whichwasusedasaproxyindicatorofbetter

communitydevelopment,werelesspronetodepression.Zhaoetal.(2015)

reportedthatbetterrelationshipwithneighborswasassociatedwithbetter

overallmentalhealthoutcome.However,thesestudiesdidnotincludeany

economicstatusmeasuresoranyothercommunity-levelvariables,andthusthis

linkmaybeconfoundedbymanyotherfactors.

108

Table 3.4: Summary of reviewed qualitative studies

Author, Year

Location Sample Age Main measures

Arnold

2006

African

Caribbean

women

(who migrated to

the UK)

20 women (retrospective

study)

35 to 50 In-depth interviews

using the Separation–

Reunion Interview

Schedule

Asis 2006 LBC in the

Philippines

Adolescent children of

migrants (n=11), left-behind care-givers

(n=8) and community

workers involved in

organizing families of migrants (n=4)

About 10 to 12 Focus group

discussions

Coe 2011 Ghana (a

suburb of

the capital city Accra)

24 LBC 8 to 22 Focus group

discussions

Dreby

2007

USA and

Mexico

44 migrant parents in the

United States and 60 LBC

and 37 of their caregivers in a number of sites in

Mexico.

Pre-adolescent

s, adolescents,

and young adults

In-depth interviews

Dreby &

Stutz, 2012

Mexico 51 children of migrants

and 30 of their caregivers in Mexico.

16 were aged

between five and eight, 12

between nine

and twelve, 10

between thirteen and

fifteen, and 13

sixteen or

older

Structured interview

with the younger children and a semi-

structured one with

the older children;

interviews with young adults were open

ended

109

Graham et

al. 2012

Indonesia

and

Philippines

32 LBC (16 in each

country)

10 to 12 Semi-structured

interviews

Hoang & Yeoh,

2015

Vietnam 15 LBC, 37 caregivers 12 to 15 (children)

In-depth interviews

Hoang et

al., 2015

Indonesia,

Philippines, Vietnam,

Thailand

50 caregivers and 16

children in each country

9 to 11

(children)

In-depth interviews

Liu 2009 Jiangxi,

China

38 LBC, 32 caregivers, 15

teachers

Under 18

(children)

In-depth interviews

Murphy

2014

Jiangxi,

China

41 caregivers (parents), 59

children (33 were matched

pairs), 12 teachers

not reported In-depth interviews

Pantea

2012

Romania 24 grandmothers not reported In-depth interviews

Parennas 2008

Philippines 69 young adult children of migrant parents

young adults Open-ended interviews

Pribilsky 2001

Ecuador At least two family members in each of the 15

households (e.g. a father

and a child, mother and a

child, husband and wife)

not reported Open-ended interviews

Ye & Pan,

2011

Anhui,

Henan,

Hunan,

Jiangxi, and Sichuan,

China

Mixed methods: qualitative

sample not reported

not reported Structured and

semi-structured

interviews; group

interviews

Zou 2012* Guizhou 3 fathers and 6

grandparents from 4

families

Not reported Semi-structured

interviews

Zhang et

al., 2015*

Hunan 28 LBC and their caregiver

and teacher

Students at

Year 8

Semi-structured

interviews

110

*:StudiespublishedinChinese

3.3Qualitativestudies

Atotalof16qualitativestudiesacrossavarietyofgeographicalregionswere

includedinthereview(Table3.3),onlytwoofthemwerepublishedinChinese

(Zou,2012;Zhangetal.2015),and14werepublishedinEnglish.Amongthe

English-languagestudies,threewereconductedinChina,threeinLatinAmerica,

fiveinSoutheastAsia(threewerebasedontheCHAMPSEAproject),oneinAfrica,

oneinEasternEurope,oneinWesternEurope(retrospectivestudy).

3.3.1Migrationdecision

Accordingtostudiesinmultiplecountries,mostchildrenwereabletounderstand

theirparents’decisionofmigrationasfulfillingtheirroleofsecuringbetter

economicstatusforthefamily.Theywereabletorecognizethattheincreased

incomewouldnotonlyimprovetheireconomicwellbeing,butalsocovertheir

schoolcosts.

Hencemostchildrenseemedtosupportthedecision,andsomeindicatedthatthey

thinktheparentswereforcedtoleavethembehind.Althoughchildrenwould

111

rathernotlettheparentsgo,theyhadtoacknowledgetherealitythattheparents

areaway,andlearntolivewithit.Murphy(2014)foundamongmanyChinese

left-behindgirlsthattheystressedthematerialbenefitsoftheirfathers’migration,

whilebeingemphaticthattheywantedtheirmotherstoliveathome.

Yetthedecisionstomigrateorreturnweremadealmostexclusivelybytheparents

onbehalfoftheirchildrenandfamily’sbestinterests.Children’svoiceswere

largelyabsentduringthedecision-makingprocess.Parentsalsomakedecisions

aboutwhetherchildrenshouldstayathomeormigratewiththem.Childrenare

oftenthelastinthelinktomoveabroad,inpartbecauseofparents’concerns

aboutthedangersandcostsofchildren’smigrationaswellastheirdesirethat

childrenbeeducatedintheirhomecountry(Hondagneu-Sotelo,1994;Levitt,1998;

Massey,Alarcon,Durand,&Gonzalez,1987).

AreturnmigrantfatherinVietnam,interviewedbyHoang&Yeoh(2015,p186),

smiledasheexplained“itisusastheirparentswhomakethedecision.Theyarejust

kidsandtheyallwouldsaythesamethingwhentheyhavetobeseparatedfromtheir

mom.”

Consequently,asHoangetal.(2015)alsofound,somechildrenputupresistanceto

theirparent’simminentdeparture,beggingthemtostayoraskingsomeoneelsein

thefamilytointervenesothatthemigrantwouldchangehisorhermind.Even

aftergraduallygettingusedtotheabsenceofparentsandacceptingtheeconomic

112

reasonsoftheirdecision,thechildrenwouldnotcomfortablyaccepttherationales

oftheextendedseparation.AsYe&Lu(2011,p373)foundinaChineseLBC’s

narrationsduringgroupinterviews:

I’malwayswonderingwhymyotherclassmatescanhaveparentallovewhileI

can’t.ThisquestiondrovememadandIfeelsoboredwithlife.Myparentshave

beenworkinginthecityfor11yearsandtheyonlycamebackduringSpring

Festival.SometimesIthinkmydadwon’twantmeanymore.

InMexico,accordingtoself-report,childrenhadlittleagencyontheirfamily

decision-makingprocesses,withparentstendingtomakethemostofthedecisions

(Esteinou,2004).Transnationalfamilies,attimes,evensentchildrenbackhome

whentheymisbehavedintheUnitedStates(Grasmuck&Pessar,1991).

Interestingly,Dreby’s(2007)qualitativestudysuggestedthatchildrenmay

manifestagencyinshapingfamilies’migrationtrajectories,byexpressingfeelings

ofpowerlessnesswithdisplaysofemotionalwithholding,especiallyamong

youngerLBC;indoingsotheypressuredparentstoreturntoMexico.Adolescent

childrenwereabletomakemoredirectclaimstotheirparents’limitedresources,

evenbyactingaggressivelytofamilymembers.Forexample,inordertofulfilltheir

ownmigrationaspirations,manyolderchildrenpressureparentstomigrateusing

thefamily’ssocialcapital.

113

3.3.2Gendernormsandsocio-culturalcontext

Similar to findings fromquantitative studies, qualitative interviewselicited that

migrant fathers and mothers play different roles in migrant families. This is

largelydeterminedby the gendernorm in the local community and society.On

one hand, the absence of the roles that parents used to play in the care

environmentmayhavevariouseffectsonthechild,acrossmigrantfamilieswith

differentstructures.Ontheotherhand,children’sviewsonthedepartureoftheir

parentsmayalsodependonthelocalsocio-culturalsetting,whichleadtovariable

experiences.

Inmostsocio-culturalsettings,mother’sroleisassociatedwithemotional

intimacy,domestichouseworkandmostofotherchildcaretasks.Theleft-behind

motherswithnopaidemploymentoftenassumeboththediscipliningofchildren

andproductiveroles,suchasagriculturaltasks,previouslyundertakenbytheir

husbands(Hugo,2002).Meanwhile,father’sroleisassociatedmostlywith

economicprovisionsforthefamily.Migrantfathersmayfurtherrepresentan

advancedmodernlifestylethatthechildcouldliveupto.Theyalsocommand

respectthroughprovidingresourcestomeettheirchildren’sneedsandaspiration

ofbeingasuccessfulmigrant,ratherthandirectlythroughstrictforce(Pribilsky

2001).

114

Theshiftsinparentalrolesduetomigrationmaybeinterpreteddifferentlyby

children.Graham(2012)notedthatinSoutheastAsia,children’sstrongersenseof

abandonmentaftertheirmotherslefttoworkabroadmaybeduetotheprevailing

genderscriptsformothers,as“lightsofthehome”or“nurturers”.Similarly,in

Mexico,Dreby(2012)suggestedthatFathers’periodicabsences,although

distressing,donotdisruptchildren’slivesasmuchaswhenbothparentsmigrate.

InChina,Murphy(2014)foundthatchildrenlearnedthatlifeworkinginthecities

is“bitter”forthemigrantfathers,andsoistheirmothers’livingathometaking

careofthefamily.Yet,thestudyshowedthatchildrenfrommother-onlymigrant

householdsdidnotshowasmuchappreciationtotheirco-residentfathers.Inthe

study(Murphy,2014)agirlwhosefatherwasalocalvillageaccountant,saidher

mothersacrificedmuchforherandhersisterwhileherfatherenjoyedaneasylife.

3.3.3Emotionalandbehavioralimpact

Evenifthechildreluctantlyacceptedthefactofparents’migration,theseparation

andlosswouldstilldisturbthechildrenverymuch,asmanybecameemotional

whenrecallingthemomentofdeparture(Hoang&Yeoh,2015).Qualitativestudies

elicitedvariousemotionalexperiencesofLBCinresponsetothedepartureand

extendedabsencefromhome.Manychildren,atallagelevels,demonstrated

negativefeelingsofloneliness,vulnerability,abandonment,andevensymptomsof

depressionandanxietyaftertheirparents’departures(Dreby,2007).

115

Astheemotionalbondsbecamefragileduetothelongdistance,childrenmay

perceiveastronglackofparentalloveandmanifesteddeficitsofhappiness.Asa

girlinLiu’s(2009,p78)studysaid:

IfeelthatIhavereceivedlittlemotherlovebecauseIhavelivedapartfrom

myparentsfromaveryyoungage.Inthedepthsofmyheart,Ithirst

desperatelytostaywithmyparents.

Grahametal.(2012)foundthattheabsenceoftheirmothermaycreate

vulnerabilitiesrelatedtoseekingemotionalsupport.Somechildren’snarratives

indicatedtheirresponsetofeelingsadwasnottotellanyoneandkeptitasa

“secret”,ortheywouldfeel“embarrassed”,evenbytalkingwithgrandmother.

Parreñas(2008)notedthatchildrenoftenvoicedtheirfeelingofan“emotional

gap”,orasenseofdiscomfort,uneaseandawkwardnessthattheyfeeltoward

migrantfathers.Thismaycapturetheambivalencethattheyfeeloverthe

unfamiliaritythathasdevelopedfromtheprolongedseparation.

Childrenwhoseparentshadbeenworkingabroadforalongtimemayhavebeen

usedtotheirsituation.Forthesechildren,thecycleofmigrantparents’departure

andreturncanbemorepainfulthantheprolongedseparationitself.Forexample,

Asis(2006,p61)foundinthePhilippinesthatchildrenofseafarersparticularly

116

sufferedfromemotionalturbulenceduringtheirparents’shortvisitsbackhome.

Onechilddescribedsuchexperiences:

Iwouldratherthatmyfatherdoesnotleave.Whenheleaves,Iwouldrather

beinschoolandnotseehimgosothatIdon’thavetothinkthatheisleaving.

WhenIgethome,theywouldaskme,‘Whydidyounotcomewithus?’Iwould

say,‘Ijustdon’twantto.’Idon’tlikegoingthroughthat.It’slikethatevery

year.

However,theexistingresearchdidnotdelineateconcreteaccountsofchildren’s

emotionalexperienceswhenmissingorthinkingabouttheirmigrantparents.

Somestudiesmentionedthattheinterviewshadtobepausedorsuspended,

becausechildrenstartedtocryortheiremotionsbecametoointensetobe

expressed(Coe,2011;Murphy,2014).Suchsituationsthemselvesimpliedthe

psychologicalvulnerabilityofLBC.

Thelinksbetweenparentalmigrationandthechild’sbehavioralwellbeingmaybe

morecomplex,andfewstudieswereabletoarticulatethemechanismsbywhich

parents’absenceaffectedchildbehaviors.Zhangetal.(2015,p58)arguedthat

discriminationagainsttheLBCatschool,especiallybyotherstudents,maycause

significantpsychologicalburden;thechild’sperceptionofandresponsetothe

discriminationwouldleadtoproblematicbehaviors.Accordingtoachild’s

narrative:

117

Inmyfirstyearofmiddleschool,peopleknewthatmyparentshaven’tbeen

livingathome,sotheolderstudentswouldbullymeandsaytheydon’tlikeme,

andslapmeintheface…Ididn’tdaretofightbackbecausetherewerealotof

them.ButI’mreallypissedoff,soafterschool,Ibroketheirbicycles.

3.3.4Communication

ItisimportanttosustaincommunicationbetweenLBCandmigrantparentsover

timeanddistance,asameanstocompensateforcaredeficitswhichleft-behind

childrenexperience,sincetheiremotionalbondswerealreadyfragileaftersucha

longphysicalseparation.

Ingeneralsuchdistantcommunicationismaintainedonaregularbasis,overthe

phone or via the internet. However, the quality of communication was often

reportedasinadequate,accordingtochildren,parentsaswellascaregivers.Many

timeschildrenacteduninterestedwhentheirparentscalledhome.Asamigrant

motherstatedinDreby’s(2007,p1055)study:

Theonlythingthatmakesmefeelbadlyaboutmysoniswhenhedoesn’twant

totalktome.Sometimesthereisalittlebitofdistancebetweenusandhe

doesn’twanttotalk.

118

Manyco-residentcaregiversalsoplayedanactiveroleinpromptingthechildto

talkmorewiththemigrantparentsoverthephone.Anaunt-caregivermentioned

(Dreby,2007,p1055):

Ididn’twantmysistertothinkthatIwastellinghimnottotalktoher.So

sometimesIwouldtrickhimtogethimtotalktoheronthephone...My

sisterwouldcrywhenhedidn’twanttotalktoher.

Howevercaregiver’sencouragementorevenmanipulationdidnotseemtobenefit

theparent-childrelationshiporchangechildren’sattitudestowardparental

migration.Graham(2012)notedthatoftentimesthecommunicationwas

ineffective,aschildrenwereunwillingtosharetheirproblemswithmigrant

parents.Thebarriersincludedfearofbeingreprimanded,thegeographical

distance,andconcernaboutaddingburdentotheirparents.

Children’spassivityintransnationalcommunicationwasalsodemonstratedbythe

factthattheylettheparentstaketheleadinphoneconversations.Parentsalso

madefrequenteffortstodisciplinetheirchildrenfromafar(Hoang&Yeoh,2015).

ContentoftheconversationstendedtofocusonthelifeofLBCratherthanallow

thechildtogettoknowabouttheirparents’livesawayfromhome.Suchrepetitive

phoneconversationswithoutfullyengagingthechildcanexacerbatetheemotional

distance,leadingtoasenseofdetachmentandaloofness.AsaVietnamesegirlsaid

ofhermigrantmother(Hoang&Yeoh,2015,p189),

119

Sheoftentalksaboutourfamily....Irarelyaskheranything,partlybecauseI

amshy.Also,Idon’tlikeaskingherquestions.Mymomalwaysaskstoomany

questionssoIneveraskherback.Sheaskstoomuch,onethingafteranother.

SheasksifIdowellatschool,howmydadandgrandmotherareandhowwell

ourrelativesdo,etc.’

Inaddition,theemotionaldistancewasevenmanifestedinchildrenwhentheir

migrantparentsreturnedhome.Parreñas(2001)elicitedasenseofsocial

discomfortandemotionaldistance’betweenFilipinomigrantfathersandtheir

left-behindchildren.Dreby(2007)suggestedalevelofemotionalwithholdingin

LBCintheirinteractionswithmigrantparents,bothwhentheywereawayand

backhomeforashortvisit.AChinese-languagestudy(Zou,2012,p839)

conductedinGuizhouprovincerevealedthatcertainpositivechangeduringthe

temporaryreunionwasunabletolastlong,accordingtoagrandparent

(translatedbytheauthorofthisthesis):

Whentheparentscamebackhomewithallthefancygiftslikebikeandtoys,

thekidbecameveryinterested.Butaftertheparentsweregone,thegood

impressionaboutthemquicklydisappeared…Whentheycalledhome,thekid

wouldn’tevenanswer,orjustsayafewwordsandthen“bye-bye”.

120

3.3.5Education

Remittancesfrommigrantparentsmaybenefitchildren’seducationprospects

withbothincreasedeconomicresourcesandheightenededucationalaspirations.

InEcuador,Pribilskly(2001)foundthatmigrationflowstotheUShavedrastically

improvedschoolattendance,whichwashistoricallyhamperedbyhigh

matriculationfeesandafamily’sneedforchildren’slabor.Education

opportunitiesmaynotonlypreparestudentsforlimitedopportunitiesinthelocal

economy,buthelpachievedreamsofpermanentlylivingintheUS.

Acknowledgingparents’sacrificeandeffortsworkingawayfromhome,some

childrenwereabletodrawonthelong-distanceencouragementmigrantparents

andkeepconsiderableself-disciplineonstudy.Forexample,aleft-behindgirlin

Hoangetal.’s(2015,p271)studywasconstantlythetopstudentinherclass.She

waswellawareofwhyherfatherhadtobeseparatedfromthefamily,andforher,

studyinghardatschoolwastheonlywayshecouldsupporthim.Accordingtoher

mother:

Sheisgladbecauseherfather’smigrationmeansearningmoney.Occasionally

shecomplainsthatshemisseshimandwantshimtocomeback...Shewishes

herfathercouldstaywithher...Sheisneverabsentfromschool.Shegoesto

schooleveryday,neverskippingclassesevenwhensheisill...untiltheteacher

ordershertostop.

121

Hearingtheircaregivers’speakabouttheirmothers’sacrificesmaymotivatethese

childrentostudyharderanddowellatschooltojustifytheirmothers’selflessness.

Agrandparentcaregiverdescribedherapproachforhergranddaughter(Dreby,

2012,p84):

Well,lastyearshefailed[waskeptbackayear]andIsaid,Cindy,youhaveto

studyandmakeaneffortatschoolbecauseyourmomisn’ttheresufferingand

workingsothatyoudonothinghere.Sheissacrificingherselftheresothat

youhaveabetterlifehere.Youhavetotakeadvantageofhersacrifice.

IncontrastwithchildrenfromlowerincomesettingsinLatinAmerica,thehigher

educationalaspirationofChinesechildrenleadsthemawayfromthemigration

pathsoftheirparents.Infact,forfamilieswithconsiderableeconomicchallenges,

childrenwouldonlycontinueschoolingiftheydowell,otherwisetheywouldhave

tojointhemigrationworkforcebeforehigherorevensecondaryeducation.This

createdconflictingfeelingsinsomechildren:eventhoughtheyacceptedthe

importanceofstudy,theyhadcometodoubtthattheirowngradeswouldbegood

enoughforthemtoavoidmigration(Murphy2014).Forexample,aboyfeltthat

hisgradeswerenotgood.Hesaidthathewaswaitingforayearwhenhewouldbe

oldenoughtomigrate.Hesaidthatschoolnowheldlittleinterestforhimandthat

onlytheinternetcafealleviatedhisboredom,whileregrettingthatthestudyroute

wasclosedtohim.

122

Theemotionalrepercussionsoffamilyseparation,andtheresentmenttheyfeel

abouttheirparentsbeingaway,canalsocauseloweracademicachievementor

educationalaspiration.Especiallyamongchildrenwhowereleftbehindbyboth

parents,manychangesinthechildren’sdailylivesaftertheirparentsleavecan

imposeemotionalburdens,aswellaspracticalburdensincludingmorehousework,

ontheireducationalachievements.

Dreby’s(2012)studyinMexiconotedatenthgrader,whosefathermigratedfirst,

saidthatafterhismotherleftwhenhewasintheseventhgrade,hehadahard

timeatschool.Hebecamereallyclosetohismothersincehisfather’sdeparture.

Sincebothhisparentsleft,hedidnotwanttostudybecausehemissedhismother

toomuch.Dreby(2007,p1058)alsoreportedseveralcasesinwhichtheLBC

droppedoutfromschoolafteraseriesofbehavioralchangesandactingoutafter

parents’departure.Aleft-behindmotherinthestudysaid:

Everythingwasdestroyed[afterthefatherleft].Everyonewassadanddidn’t

eatwellanymore.Someofthemwereinsolentandrudetome.Ithinkthat

they[herchildren]lackedapaternalfigure.

Coe(2011,p19)reporteda19-year-oldboywhoattributedhislackofacademic

successinsecondaryschooltohismotherleavingfortheUnitedStates:

123

Shehadallthetimeforallofus,especiallyourstudies.Iwasverygood.There

werethingssheusedtodotohelpme,wakingmeupatdawnandsittingby

me...Sincesheleft,everythingturnedupsidedown,especiallymystudies.I

wasn’tgettinganyhelpfromanyone,somyacademicperformancein

[secondaryschool]wasgoodthough,butnotwhatIexpected.

3.3.6Careenvironmentintheleft-behindfamilies

Theeffectsofparentalmigrationonchildrenareusuallydependentonthequality

ofcarethechildreceivesfromhissurrogatecaregiver(Hoang&Yeoh,2015).Most

studiesreportedgrandparentsastheprimarycaregiversintheleft-behindfamilies,

especiallyifbothparentswereaway.However,children’sexperiencesand

attitudestowardgrandparentalcarevariedconsiderably.Ingeneral,childrenwho

wereleft-behindatveryearlyage,evenbeforetheyhadanymemoriesabout

migrantparents,tendedtobecloserwiththeirprimarycaregiverathome.

Forexample,Arnold(2006)interviewedwomenwhowereleft-behindinthe

Caribbean.TheywereveryyoungwhentheirmothersmigratedtotheUK,and

typicallyittookmorethanadecadeformotherandchildtoreuniteintheUKasif

forthefirsttime.Onewomanreportedretrospectivelyabouthergrandmother,

(Arnold,2006,p164):

124

IwassowelllookedafterandIwashappy;mygrandmotherwasmyworld.I

rememberherasafascinatingwomanwholovedme.Itwasjustawarmclose

relationship.

Itisalsonotablethatmostofthewomeninthisstudywhohadstrongattachment

withtheirprimarycaregivers(mainlygrandmothers)spokeofthepainofthe

separationfromthem;yetmorepainfulwasthetraumaticexperienceofreunion

withtheirmotherswhowerestrangerstothem.

InGhana,Coe(2011)foundthiscloserelationshipwithgrandparentsevenin

difficulteconomicsituations.A16-year-oldgirlwhosemotherandgrandfather

migratedtoSouthAfricawasinterviewed.Shewasbeingraisedbyher60-year-old

grandmotherwhowasillmuchofthetime,partlybecausetotheeconomic

deprivation.Thegirlexplained(Coe,2011,p12):

[Ialsolove]mygrandmother.Eventhoughshedoesn’thaveanything,she

helpsme.Shestrugglestogetmoneytogiveme.Ifmygrandmotherdoesn’t

haveanythingatall,shewillgoaskpeopleforhelpsothatwecaneat.

Grandparents’maynothavethenecessarysupportinchildcare,duetotheir

reducedmobility,insufficientdisposableincomefromremittances,andthe

simultaneousmigrationofseveralfamilymembers.(Hochschild,2000;Silver,

2006;Piperno,2006,2007;McGuire&Martin,2007;Lutz,2008;Pham&Hill,

125

2008).Yettheymayneedtocopewithchildren’scontestationoftheirauthority,

relationshipwiththeco-residentparentespeciallydaughter-in-law,divorceofthe

parents,oremotionalepisodesofthechild(Pantea,2012).Consequently,some

studiesindicatedchildren’sadverseexperienceslivingwithgrandparents.

Dreby(2012)interviewedayoungwomanwhowereleft-behindduringlate

adolescence,whopreferredlivingwithhermotherandexplainedthat(Dreby,

2012,p85):

Itisn’tthesame[livingwithhergrandparents].Wehavesmallproblems....Itisn’tthe

sametypeofaffection.Wedon’tfeelthesameaswithourmother.

InArnold’s(2006)studyintheCaribbean,awomanwasleftwithhermaternal

extendedfamily,alongwithseveralotherchildren.Shesadlyrecalled(Arnold,

2006,p163):‘‘Mygrandmotherhadtoomanychildrentolookafter;therewasnot

enoughlovetogoaroundandIfeltleftout.’’

3.4Summary

3.4.1Overviewandgapsintheliterature

Ingeneral,mostquantitativestudiesinthisreviewindicatedworsepsychosocial

wellbeingoutcomesinLBC,ascomparedtootherruralchildren;fewidentified

benefitsofparentalmigration.Whilesomestudiesusedoverallmeasuressuchas

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qualityoflifeandbehavioralproblems,thedisadvantageofLBCisalsoquite

consistentacrossindividualdimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeingandmental

health.

Afewgapswereidentifiedinthecurrentliterature.First,longer-termimpactof

parentalmigrationwasrarelyexplored,asonlyafewstudiesattemptedtolook

intothepreviousexperiencesorlong-termeffectsofbeingleftbehind,and

providedsomesuggestivefindings,yetlackofstronglongitudinalevidencemakes

itdifficulttoreachvalidconclusions.Second,therelationshipdynamicsbetween

migrantparentsandLBC,akeyvariablefollowingtheirseparation,remained

uncleardespiteoffindingsoncertaindescriptivecharacteristics;thequalitative

andquantitativestudiesdidnotpresentsolidevidenceonthemechanismsleading

towellbeingdisadvantagesinLBC.Third,howtheleft-behindfamilyandtheir

socialenvironmentsprovidecareandsupporttochildrenhasnotbeen

comprehensivelyassessed.Althoughalltheabove-mentionedaspectsweresubject

tomethodologicalandpracticalchallenges,thisthesisaimedtoprovidefurther

insightsintothesegapsintheliterature.

Giventhecomplexmechanismsbywhichparentalmigrationaffectschild

wellbeing,varioustypesofpotentialcovariateswereexploredintheliterature.

However,duetomethodologicalandpracticalconstraints,noconcrete,

comprehensiveframeworksofLBC’spsychosocialwellbeingwereproposedinthe

literature.Nevertheless,thereviewedarticlestogetherrevealedanoutlineof

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potentialdeterminants.Similartowhatwassummarizedinthepreviouschapter

ontheoreticalperspectives,crucialfactorsofchildwellbeinghavebeenidentified

withinthechild’sfamilyandcommunity,althoughthedirectionandsizeofthe

effectsvariedacrossdifferentcontexts.Someofthesecovariateswerealsofound

topotentiallymediateormoderatetheimpactofmigration.

3.4.2Contributionofthereviewtothecurrentqualitativestudy

Theliteraturereviewedinthischaptercontributestobothempiricalstudiesin

thisthesis.Forourqualitativestudy,thereviewprocessformulatedquestions

thatactedasastepping-offpointduringinitialobservationsandinterviews.The

micro-levelinsightsfromthequantitativeliteraturetookaclose-upviewpointon

familiesandindividuals,andpinpointedsomeofthewellbeingconceptsand

factorstobeinvestigatedinthecurrentqualitativestudy.

Duringthereviewofqualitativeliterature,theauthordidnotattemptto

synthesizeorapplyanydeductivereasoningprocess,andpersistentlyavoided

impositionofpredeterminedunderstandingandexistingframeworksonthe

currentstudy,byreflexiveinterpretationandconstantcomparison.Hence,the

frequentlyoccurringthemesinthequalitativeliteratureweresimplycategorized

inthischapter.Nevertheless,thecrudesummaryalsodemonstratedthatthe

existingstudiesmostlyfocusedonindividualexperiencesandrationalesof

migrationfrompersonalperspectives,ratherthanconsideringthefamilyasaunit

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ofanalysis.Therewasalackofinsightsintowellbeingoutcomesrelatedtofamily

relationshipsanddynamicsinthesocialenvironment(suchasreturnmigration),

whicharetobefocusedonthecurrentqualitativestudy.

Theuseofrelevanttheoriesinmigration,familystudies,andchilddevelopment,

wasalsoscarceandincomprehensive.Thecurrentqualitativestudythusaimedto

buildontheexistingknowledge,exploremoreintothegaps,andcontributeto

boththeoreticalandempiricalliteratures.Asdataanalysisinthecurrent

qualitativestudyproceeded,thereviewedliteraturecontributedtofurthering

conceptualandtheorydevelopment.Moredetailsabouttheseprocesseswillbe

clarifiedintheintroductionandmethodssectionsofChapter5,thequalitative

study.

3.4.3Contributionofthereviewtothecurrentquantitativestudy

Theliteraturereviewalsoinformedthecurrentquantitativestudy.Althoughthe

quantitativestudyinthisthesiswasbasedonsecondarydataanalysis,theauthor

washighlyinvolvedintheinitialquestionnairedesign,byreviewingthesurvey

instrumentsandscreeningtoolsintheextantliterature,andselectingtheonesthat

weremostpertinenttoLBC’spsychosocialwellbeinginourstudysitesinZhejiang.

HighrelevanceofthestudiesfromtheCHAMPSEAprojectcontributedtothe

decisionofselectingSDQasthecorecomponentofourquestionnaire.Anumberof

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variablesfromtheliteraturewerereferredtobytheauthorindesigningother

questionnaireitems.

Considerablegapsstillexistedinthequantitativeliterature,despiteavarietyof

psychosocialwellbeingmeasuresandcontrolvariableshavingbeenanalyzed.

Aboveall,sincethepreviousstudiesrarelyentailedsolidtheoreticalgroundwork,

investigationinthecurrentqualitativestudywasguidedbytheoretical

perspectivespresentedinChapter2regardingmigration,familystudies,andchild

psychology.Inlightofacomprehensivetheoreticalunderstandingoftopicsrelated

toLBC’spsychosocialwellbeing,thecurrentqualitativestudylooksintotheareas

oftheissuewhichtheextantliteraturewasunabletofullyaddress,aswasshown

aboveintheliteraturesummaryframework(Figure3.2).

First,thepreviousexperienceofbeingleft-behindwasinvestigatedbyveryfew

studieswithvariouslimitations;itthusbecameafocusthroughoutthisthesisand

pervious-LBCwasanalyzedseparatelyfromcurrent-LBC.Second,inorderto

improvethedepthofdataanalysisintheliterature,thecurrentstudyaimedto

distinguishtheeffectsoffamilycharacteristicsotherthanparentalmigrationon

childpsychosocialwellbeing,andtherolesofsupportforLBCpotentiallyfromthe

socialenvironment.Interactioneffectsbetweenthekeycovariatesandparental

migrationwerefurtherexplored,toelucidateanyexacerbatingandmitigating

effectsonchildwellbeing.Third,asfindingsfromtheliteraturewaslargely

context-specific,thecurrentquantitativestudyattachedsignificantimportanceto

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exploringcontextualfactorsthatwerespecifictothestudysites,andhowthey

mayhaveshapedthesocialandfamilysystemsandtherelationshipdynamics

relevanttoLBC’swellbeing.

3.4.4Puttingempiricalstudiesintocontexts

Despitesomecommonalityregardingparentalabsenceandlackofcare,findings

fromthereviewedstudieswerehighlycontext-specific,asthemigrationdecision

anditsimpacttendtoberootedinlargersocialenvironments.Manyspecific

characteristics,suchasculturalandsocioeconomicfactors,makeitdifficultto

extrapolatethefindingstoanothercountryofevenanothercommunityofthe

country,withoutdetailedunderstandingaboutlocalsettings.Also,aswas

discussedinthepreviouschapter,theoriesaroundthefamilyandsocio-ecological

systemsofchilddevelopmentdelineatetheimportantrolesofbroadercontexts

outsidethehousehold.Hence,thenextchapterexaminesthelocalsocial

backgroundofthestudysites,andpolicyandadministrationsystemsthatwere

relevanttomigrationandchildwellbeing,inordertobetterunderstandthe

settingsandrationalesoftheempiricalchapters.

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Chapter4 Studycontexts

4.1Introduction

Theprevioustworeviewchapterspresentedhowparentalmigrationmayaffect

childpsychosocialwellbeingthroughmultiplemechanisms,inwhichvarious

potentialconfoundingormediatingfactorswereinvolved.Asidefromthe

characteristicsofthefamilyrelationshipsandhouseholdenvironment,the

considerablevariabilityoftheempiricalstudyresultsisalsoattributedtovastly

differentsocioeconomic,culturalandpoliticalcontextsglobally.Therefore,itis

necessarytolookintoourspecificstudycontextsbeforethenexttwoempirical

chaptersofthisthesis.

Thischapterprovidesadescriptionofthelargercontextsofourempiricalstudies,

withafocusonsocioeconomicdevelopmentandmigrationinthestudyareas,

andpolicyandadministrationsystemsthatarerelevanttothewellbeingofrural

familiesaffectedbymigration,fromnationalleveltolocalcommunitylevel.These

contextsprovidecrucialbackgroundinformationofthedesignand

implementationofbothqualitativeandquantitativestudiesinthisthesis,and

mayinformtheinterpretationofthestudyresults.

4.2Studyareasandpopulations

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Datainthisthesiswascollectedfromsamplesofchildrenandfamilymembers,

acrossfivecountiesintwoChineseprovinces,ZhejiangandGuizhou.Thetwo

provincesrepresenttherichestandpoorestpartsofChina,respectively,and

thereforemayreflectdifferentpatternsofimpactonLBCduetosocioeconomic

developmentstatus.

EthicalapprovalwasreceivedfromboththeEthicsReviewCommitteeof

UniversityCollegeLondonandZhejiangUniversitypriortothefieldstudy.

Participantswererecruitedfrommigrant-sendingruralareasinZhejiangand

GuizhouProvinces,China.ThreecountiesinwesternZhejiang,includingKaihua,

Jiande,andJiangshan,andtwocountiesinsoutheastGuizhouProvince,Guiding

andLongli,wereincludedinthestudy.Zhejiangisawealthyeasterncoastal

provinceinChina,butitswesternmountainousareaisrelativelyunderdeveloped,

withahighlevelofout-migration.GuizhouisoneofthepoorestChinese

provinces,althoughthetwocountiesinthisstudy,locatedneartheprovincial

capital,rankatmediumlevelinGDPacrosstheprovince.Figure4.1presentsa

mapshowingthelocationsofthetwoprovinces.

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Figure 4.1: Location of the study provinces

4.2.1SocioeconomicdevelopmentandmigrationinZhejiangProvince

ZhejiangisawealthyeasterncoastalprovinceinChina,andithasbeentakingthe

leadinthecountry’surbanizationandeconomicboomsincethe1980s.In2014

Zhejiangranked5thinGDPpercapitaamongall31provincialleveladministrative

regionsinMainlandChina,onlyafterthreemunicipalities(Tianjin,Beijing,and

Shanghai)andJiangsuProvince(NationalBureauofStatistics,2014).Yet,much

liketheentirecountry,significantdevelopmentgapsexistbetweendifferentareas

Guizhou

Zhejiang

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oftheprovince.ThemountainousareainwesternZhejiang,whereourstudies

wereconducted,isrelativelyunderdeveloped,withahighlevelofout-migration.

Zhejiangisbothafeederandreceivingprovinceformigrantworkers;therearean

estimated17.8millionmigrantworkersinZhejiangaccordingtoa2005

populationcensus,around40%ofwhichareintra-provincialmigrants(Zhanget

al.,2008).AccordingtoDuanandcolleagues’(2013)estimatebasedonthe6th

NationalCensusin2010,approximately1.2millionchildrenofmigrantworkers

wereleft-behindinruralZhejiangin2010,accountingfor30%ofallrural

childrenintheprovince.

EconomicvitalityinZhejiangislargelyconcentratedinaboutsevenlargecitiesin

theeasternpartoftheprovincealongthecoast,whichisamajor

migrant-receivingarea.Incontrast,westernZhejiangisrelatively

underdevelopedandhasbecomeamigrant-sendingarea,withmassivenatural

reservesthatlimittheindustrialexpansion.Jiandeenjoysahugelakeareathat

provideshigh-qualitywaterformillionsofpopulation,andthereforemanylocal

industriesareunderconstraintsinordertoprotectwatersources.Similarly,the

sourceofQiantangRiver,themotherriverofZhejiang,isinKaihua,wherethe

governmentenforcesstrictpoliciestolimitthesizeofindustryandprotectthe

naturalenvironment.

ThethreecountiesincludedinourstudiesarealllocatedinwesternZhejiang,

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farawayfromthedevelopedcoastalcitiesintheprovince.BothKaihuaand

JiangshanareunderQuzhouprefecture.Jiandeisundertheadministrationof

Hangzhouprefecture,yetitisnexttoQuzhouprefectureandover140kilometers

fromHangzhouCity.WhileKaihuaisthepoorestamongthethree,theoverall

socio-economicdevelopmentandmigrationpatternsaresimilaracrossthese

counties,andthusKaihuaistakenasanexample.Thisisalsobecausethe

qualitativestudy(Chapter6)wasexclusivelyconductedinKaihua.

4.2.3IntroductiontoKaihua,themainprojectsite

OurmainprojectsiteswereinKaihuaCounty(population350,000).Kaihuais

underthejurisdictionofQuzhoucityanditislocated300kilometersfrom

Hangzhou,theprovincialcapital,inthewesternmostportionofZhejiangonthe

borderwithbothAnhuiandJiangxiProvinces.Itspopulationincludesover99.5%

Hanethnicity(NationalBureauofStatistics,2008)whoseethno-cultural

backgroundissimilartoruralareasacrossthethreeprovinces.

KaihuaisoneoftheleastdevelopedcountiesinZhejiangProvinceandatypical

migrant-sendingareainthetri-provinceregion;itsGDPin2010rankedatthe

47thplaceamongthe58countiesinZhejiang.Thisislargelyduetothefactthat

Kaihua’sindustrialdevelopmentisrestricted,asthesourceoftheQiantangRiver

isinthecountyaswellasmanyecologicalreserves.About85%ofthecountyis

mountainousareas,andtheforestcoverageover80%.

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AccordingtoasurveybyKaihuaWomen’sFederation(2013),about55%of

school-agechildreninthecountywereleftbehind.Two-thirdsofthesewere

left-behindbybothparentsandtypicallylivewithgrandparentswhoareilliterate.

Theotheronethirdlivewithoneparent,usuallythemother,whilethefather

migratestowork.Mostyoungparentshaveoneortwochildren,asasecondchild

wasallowedifthefirstwasagirl,thoughthispolicyhasbeenrelaxedrecentlyand

nowallcouplesareallowedtwochildren.

Inthe1990s,Kaihuausedtobeahighlyindustrializedcounty,anumberof

forestry,cement,papermaking,andchemicalplantsarealloverthetownships

andvillages.Consequently,theenvironment,especiallythewatersourcefora

massivepartoftheprovince,becamehighlypolluted.Intheyearof2000,

Kaihua’sleadershipsetupthestrategyof“acountybasedonecological

environment”,whichbecameaturningpointofKaihua’sdevelopmententering

thenewcentury.In2006,duringavisittoKaihua,Mr.XiJinping,thePartyChiefof

ZhejiangProvinceatthetime,highlypraisedtheecologicalenvironmentand

encouragedthecountytodeveloptheeconomybytakingadvantageofthe

well-reservedenvironment.

Inrecentyears,anewtypeofindustry,processingfactoriesofsuppliedmaterials,

emergedinKaihua,andbecameamajordriveofthelocaleconomy.These

processingfactoriesmainlyassemblesmallproducts,whichrequireverylimited

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trainingandcauselittlepollution.Anumberoflocalworkersarenowemployed

bythisindustry,andconsequentlytheout-migrationflowsareheldbacktosome

extent.Inthemeantime,tourismisalsoboominginKaihuathankstothe

preservationofthenaturalenvironment.Thenumberoftouristsincreasedby30%

fromyear2013to2014;thecountyissettobeanecologicalfunctionalarea,asa

“nationalpark”system,withonly10%landsforindustrialuse(Li,2015).

4.2.2SocioeconomicdevelopmentandmigrationinGuizhouProvince

GuizhouisoneofthepoorestChineseprovinces.Itisalandlockedprovince

locatedinsouthwestChina.In2014GuizhourankedthelastplaceinGDPper

capitaamongall31provinces,municipalities,andautonomousregionsin

MainlandChina.Historically,Guizhou’sdevelopmenthasbeenconstrainedbythe

weakinfrastructureandthefrailecologicalenvironment.Thecurrent

urbanizationandindustrializationprocessisfacedwithmajorchallenges

includinghugegapsbetweenurbanandruralareas,andinadequatesocial

services.

Guizhouisamajormigrant-sendingprovince.Amongthe8.6million

out-migrationpopulation,over70%chosetomovetoanotherprovince.Thereare

overthreemillionleft-behindchildreninZhejiang,accountingfor40%ofallrural

childrenintheprovince.Children’seducationattainmentinGuizhouisof

particularconcern:about5%ofruralchildreninGuizhouarenotenrolledin

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China’snine-yearcompulsoryeducation,whichisthe8thhighestproportion

acrossMainlandChinaprovinces;andLBCareslightlymorelikelytodropout

thannon-LBC.NeglectandlackofprotectionforLBChascausedsevere

consequencesinGuizhou.Afewhorribleincidentsthatoccurredoverthepast

fewyearsintheprovincehavedrawnattentionfromacrossthecountryregarding

thewellbeingofLBC.TheworstonewhichhappenedinJune2015involvedthe

deathsoffourLBCfromthesamefamily.Thefoursiblings,oneolderbrotherand

threeyoungersisters,committedsuicideathomeinBijie,Guizhouwherethey

werelivingwithoutanyadultcaregiver,bydrinkingpoisonouspesticide.

Governmentofficialswerealreadyawareoftheirsituationbutfailedtotake

effectiveactions.

Thetwocountiesinthisstudy,GuidingandLongli,rankatmediumlevelinGDPin

Guizhouprovince.Theyarelocatednexttoeachotheratsouth-centralGuizhou

neartheprovincialcapitalGuiyang.BothcountiesbelongtotheCentralGuizhou

EconomicZone,akeyareawithstrategicpriorityintheprovince’sdevelopment.

AccordingtoadevelopmentplanoftheEconomicZone,itaimstobecomeabase

ofemergingindustries.However,thecurrentsocioeconomicstatusoftheentire

areaisstilllaggingbehindinSouthwestChina,andthusalargenumberof

workingagepopulationhavemigratedtootherprovinces.

4.3Policyandadministrationcontexts

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Migrationasasocialphenomenonisnotonlydrivenbyintheeconomic

developmentimpetusandgapsacrossurbanandruralChina,butalsoshapedby

theratheruniquesocio-politicalsystemsintheChinesesociety.Infact,the

economicadvantageintheeasterncoastalareascanbeseenasaresultofthe

ReformandOpening-upstrategyadoptedbytheCentralGovernmentsince1980s

(Caietal.,2002).

Thepopulationcontrolstrategiesstartedinthesameperiod,knownastheOne

ChildPolicy,hadfar-reachingimplicationsonthestructureofChinesefamilies

andthewellbeingoftheirchildren.Thetop-downimplementationofsuchpolicies

requiresastronggovernmentadministrationsystematgrassrootslevel,whichis

organizedindifferentpatternsacrossthecountryandoftenunfamiliartothe

outsideworld.Inthissection,theimplementationpatternofthefamilyplanning

policyandgovernmentadministrationsystemsinthestudyareaswillbe

introduced,withafocusontheWomen’sFederation,angovernmentbody

responsibleforchildwelfareandprotection.

4.3.1FamilyplanningpolicyinChina

AcommonmisunderstandingofChina’sOneChildPolicyisthatallfamiliesacross

theentirecountryareonlyallowedtohaveonechild.Inpractice,beforethe

recentmajorshiftedtoTwoChildPolicy,therewerealreadymultiplevariations

oftheOneChildPolicyacrossdifferentareasanddifferentpopulationgroupsin

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China.Thelocalpoliciesmayevendifferwithinaprefectureoracounty.

Acommonrelaxedversionofthepolicywasthe“OneandHalfChildPolicy”.It

meansthatifthefirst-bornchildisagirl,thentheparentsareallowedtohavea

secondchild;butnotathirdchild.Beforetherecentpolicychange,someversions

oftheTwo-ChildPolicyhadalreadybeenappliedtomanyruralareasinChina,as

wellascertainpopulationgroups,includingparents(someareasrequiredone

parent,whilesomerequireboth)fromanethnicminoritygroup,orifboth

parentsareonlychild.Uptothreechildrenwereallowedforethnicminoritiesin

ruralareas(Guoetal.,2003).

InmostofprojectsitesinZhejiangandallsitesinGuizhou,theOneandHalfChild

Policyapplied.ThereareahighernumberofethnicminorityfamiliesinSouthern

Guizhou,whowereallowedtohavetwochildren.

4.3.2Ruralgovernmentadministrationsystem

China'sadministrativesystemcomprisesanestedhierarchyofauthorities.Under

thecentralstate,indescendingorder,thereareprovinces,prefectures(cities),

counties,townshipandvillagelevels(Chung,2008).

Townships(XiangZhen;乡镇)thathavelargereconomy,area,andpopulation

(especiallynon-agriculturalpopulation)arenamedasZhen(镇).Othersare

141

namedasXiang(乡).InKaihua,thereare18townshipsincludingnineZhensand

nineXiangs.Atownshipgovernsanumberofadministrativevillages,and

occasionally,Communities(urbanizedneighbourhoods).Thereareonlynine

CommunitiesinKaihua,fivearenearcountycenterinChengguanZhen,threein

HuabuZhenasanotherurbanizedcenter.

An“administrativevillage”iscomprisedofseveral“naturalvillages”.The

governmentbodyisonlyattheadministrativevillagelevel.Overthepastdecade,

thegovernmentadministrativeunitsatcommunitylevelinruralareashavebeen

undergoingamergingprocessinmanypartsChina,largelyduetothedecreaseof

ruralpopulation.InKaihua,fromtheendof2010toearly2011,thegovernment

wentthroughtheprocesstoreducethenumberofadministrativevillagesfrom

449to255.Similarly,thenumberoftownshipswasreducedfrom27to18inyear

2005(ZhejiangOnline,2011).

Thevillagegovernmentbodyisoftenreferredasthe“TwoCommittees”(两委):

VillagePartyBranchCommitteeandVillagersCommittee,whicheffectivelywork

asoneentityandisoftenreferredtoasVillageCommittee(村委会).Headsof

thesetwocommitteesrespectivelyareVillage(Party)Secretary,thetopleaderof

thevillage,andVillageDirector,thesecondincommand.Usuallythereisatleast

onefemalestaffamongmembersofthetwocommittees.

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4.3.3Women’sFederation(WF)system

TheWFhasrepresentationatcounty,township,andvillagelevelinKaihua.The

countylevelWFhaseightstaffcurrently.EachtownshipgovernmenthasaWF

staff(TownshipWFPresident),butmostofthemtakeotherresponsibilities

outsideWFaswell,suchasfamilyplanning,healthandsanitation,orgeneral

administrativeaffairs;theworkofWFisnormallylessdemandingorconsidered

lessimportant,especiallyascomparedtofamilyplanning.

ThetitleoftheWFrepresentativeatvillagelevelisliterally“DirectorofVillage

ConferenceofWomenRepresentatives”(村妇女代表大会主任),or“Directorof

WomenRepresentatives”(妇女主任),oneineachvillage.AllWFstaffatvillage

levelworkpart-time.TheWFrepresentativeisnormallyafemalememberofthe

TwoCommittees,whoalsotakesvariousresponsibilitiesapartfromwomen’sand

children’saffairs.InmostvillagesinKaihua,theWFrepresentative’sprimary

appointmentisactuallyFamilyPlanningCommissioner,whoreporttothelocal

familyplanningdepartment,amuchmorepowerfulagencyatalllevelsofthe

Chinesegovernment,ascomparedtoWF.Insomenaturalvillagesthereisalsoa

“WFLiaisonOfficer”,whowouldpreviouslybethevillageWFrepresentative

beforethevillagemergingprocess.TheWFrepresentativeisresponsibleforchild

wellbeing,thussheusuallyoverseestheaffairsrelatedtotheChildren’sClubs.

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4.3.4Rolesofgovernmentagenciesonchildprotectionandintervention

programs

Unlikemanyothercountries,civilsocietyinChinaisnotwelldevelopedandthus

unabletobeactivelyengagedinchildprotection.Consequently,government

agenciesortheiraffiliatedorganizationsplayanessentialroleinsafeguarding

children’swelfare.Inthisregard,navigationwithinsuchadministrativesystems

becomeshighlyimportant.BesidesbetterunderstandingofLBC’swellbeingbased

oninformationprovidedbylocalgovernmentsandcommunityleaders,effective

supportfromgovernmentagenciesisalsocrucialinplanninganddelivering

interventionprograms,inordertoimprovethesituationofthesechildren.

Thestudiespresentedinthisthesiswerecarriedoutwithsubstantialsupport

fromlocalgovernmentagenciesandvillagecommittees,especiallyWomen’s

Federationanditsstaffmembers.Basicknowledgeaboutthechildwelfare

governancesystemhelpedusbetterunderstandtherolesofstakeholders,in

ordertoeffectivelyobtainrelevantinformationandadministrativesupport.

Moreover,ourinterventionprogramaimedatsafeguardingLBC’swellbeingwas

carriedoutinclosecollaborationwithWomen’sFederations.Ononehand,at

countylevel,WFofficialswereinvolvedinprojectplanning,andourintervention

programwasgivencertainpoliticalpriorityatalllevelsofWFsbrancheswithin

thecounty.Onetheotherhand,thegrassrootsWFrepresentativescomprised

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mostvolunteersinourChildren’sClubs,andbecameavigorousworkforcein

deliveringprogramservicestochildreninthecommunities.

4.4Summary

Understandingofthestudycontextsprovidescrucialinformationwhen

examiningwellbeingchallengescausedbyacomplexsocialphenomenon.Forthe

quantitativestudy,manyvariablesassociatedwithchildpsychosocialwellbeing

statusarerootedinthelocalsocioeconomic,culturalandpoliticalsettings.Forthe

qualitativestudy,experiencesofchildrenandperceptionsoffamilymembersare

alsocloselyrelatedtothelargerenvironmentsinthemigrant-sendingaswellas

themigrant-receivingareas.Specificcommunityandpolicycharacteristicsas

wereintroducedinthischapterinformedthedesignandimplementationofour

empiricalstudies,andmayhelpbuildlinksbetweenourfindingswiththosefrom

similarcontextstheexistingliterature.

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Chapter5 Experiencesofchildren,andrelationships,careand

supportinthefamilieslivingapart

5.1Introductionanduseofextantliterature

Thischapterpresentsaqualitativestudybasedonin-depthinterviewsofleft

behindchildren,theirmigrantparents,andresidentcaregiversintheruralareas

ofKaihuaCounty,westernZhejiangProvince.

Inthepreviouschapters,thereviewofboththeoreticalperspectivesand

empiricalstudies,aswellastheunderstandingofthelocalsocio-politicalcontexts,

providedcrucialinsightsfrommacro-tomicro-levelsforthequalitativestudyon

thepsychosocialwellbeingofLBC.Yetthischapterisnotfocusedontesting

hypotheses,butratheraimedtodevelopanewtheoreticalframeworkgrounded

inempiricaldatacollectedinthefield,withlimitedinputsfromtheextant

knowledge.

AlthoughthereviewinChapter3onlyretrievedafewqualitativestudiesabout

China,thefirstissuesidentifiedintheliteraturehelpedclarifythesubjectmatter

ofthecurrentstudy:theexperiencesofchildrenandperceptionsoffamily

membersinrelationtochildpsychosocialwellbeingundertheimpactofparental

migration,aswellastheinterrelatedfactorsinthefamilyandsocial

environmentsandthemechanismsthroughwhichtheyaffectLBC.

146

Literaturewasusedasaneffectiveanalytictooltostimulatethinkingand

heightentheoreticalsensitivityinthequalitativedataanalysis.Memoswerekept

alongwithliteraturereviewprocesstorecordthenewfindingsandideasfrom

theempiricalstudies,aswellasthepropositions,valuesandcontextlinkedwitha

giventheory,includingthepossibleshortcomingsofthetheory.Thememos

chronicledthemannerinwhichtheauthor’sthinkinghadchangedasaresultof

accessingextantknowledge,andenhancedtheauthor’ssensitivitytothe

meaningswithoutforcingexplanationsonthedata(Strauss&Corbin,1998,p.

47).

Forinstance,migrationtheoriesbecameimportantreferenceswhenexamining

therationalesbehindmigrationasperceivedbyfamilyandcommunitymembers;

thisperspectivehasoftenbeenignoredbypreviousresearchonLBC’swellbeing.

Thesocio-ecologicalapproachofhumandevelopmentandfamilysystems

theoriesshedlightonthecomplexenvironmentsinwhichthechildlives,when

lookingintotherangeofdynamicsbetweenchildren,migrantparents,and

caregivers.Theauthorwasthusinspiredtoexaminethechild’sreciprocal

interactionswiththeimmediatefamilyenvironment,aswellastheimpactofthe

largercontextsatcommunityandsocietylevelsofthehumanecologicalsystem.

Thetiminganddurationoftheseprocessesinchilddevelopmentwerealso

consideredvariablesofwellbeing.

147

Inthelaterstagesofdataanalysis,theextantliteraturealsoassistedtheoretical

sampling,bydirectingtosituationsthattheauthormightnothaveconsidered

otherwise.Atachmenttheory,forexample,wasreferredtoinordertoidentify

multiplerelationshippatternsbetweenparentsandchildren,overdistanceand

followingareunion.

Inthemeantime,theauthoractuallybecamemoreawareofpossibleunhelpful

preconceptions,byconstantlyreflectingontheideasthattheauthorhasbeen

exposedtowhileengagingwiththeliterature.Arespectfulyetcriticalstance

towardsextanttheoriesandempiricalfindingswasadopted,beforeincorporating

anyextantconceptsintothenarrativeofthisstudy.

Althoughtheliteraturereviewwasconductedbeforethequalitativefieldwork,

bothchapters2and3werewrittenupafterthequalitativeanalysiswas

conducted.Infact,theauthor’sreflectionsandinsightsfromtheempiricaldata

considerablyinfluencedthestructureofthereviewchaptersanddiscussions

abouttheextantknowledge.

5.2Methods

Ingeneral,theauthorfollowedStraussandCorbin’s(1998)groundedtheory

approachofdataanalysis,withcertainmodificationstobetterfitwiththeaims

andconditionsofthisresearchproject.Thisapproachincorporatedboth

inductiveanddeductiveanalyses,asopposedtoGlaser’s(1992)classicgrounded

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theorywhichpredominantlyfocusesoninductivereasoning.Furtherelaborations

ofthecodinganddataanalysisprocesseswillbeprovidedintheSection5.2.5

below.

5.2.1Studyarea

ThestudywascarriedoutinKaihuacounty,westernZhejiangprovince,atan

initialphaseofalargerprojectthatinvolvedmoreprojectsareas.Moredetailed

informationaboutthecontextsofthestudyareawasprovidedinChapter4.

AlthoughthequantitativestudyofthelargerprojectincludedGuizhouProvince,

wewereunabletocarryoutthequalitativestudyinGuizhou,duetosignificant

practicalandfundingconstraints.Thisqualitativestudywasonlysupportedbya

smallresearchgrantoveroneyear;onlyduringtheimplementationofthe

qualitativeprojectdidourteamwinalargergrantwhichwastosupporttheLBC

researchandaninterventionprograminbothZhejiangandGuizhouprovinces,

overafive-yearperiod.Inaddition,ourChinaprojectteammemberswereall

basedinZhejiang.

WecollaboratedwiththelocalKaihuacountybranchoftheWomen’sFederation

(WF),whichhadrepresentationattownshipandvillagelevelsaswell.Therewas

aWFofficialineachtownshipandaWFstaffmemberineachvillage.Thevillage

WFrepresentativewasalsoamemberofthevillagecommittee.KaihuaWFwas

consultedaboutthedesignandimplementationoftheproject.HowevertheWF

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representativesdidnotinterferewiththeresearchprocess,soinvestigatorsin

thisstudyremainedindependentfromanygovernmentagency,withoutany

obligationorrestrictionindatareportinganddissemination.Moreinformation

regardingtheimplicationsofWF’sinvolvementwillbepresentedattheendofthe

methodssection.

5.2.2Sampling

Intheinitialstage,apurposefulsamplingapproachwasadoptedtomaximizethe

possibilitiesofobtainingdataandleadsformoredataontheresearchquestion.

Aspurposefulsamplingiscommoninallqualitativestudies,itmayalsobeusedat

theinitialstagesofthetheoreticalsamplingapproachingroundedtheory.

Specifically,Glaser(1978,p45)notedthatresearchersmaybeginbytalkingtothe

mostknowledgeablepeopletogetalineonrelevanciesandleadstotrackdown

moredata,andwhereandhowtolocatethemselvesforarichsupplyofdata.

Inthisstudy,wereachedouttovillageleadersandWFstaffmemberstoobtain

anonymousinformationaboutmigrantfamiliesinselectedvillages,inorderto

includecommunities,familiesandindividualsfromwhichdiversetypesof

experiencesmayemergeinrelationtorural-to-urbanmigration.Thesefamilies

andchildrenhadvariousbackgroundsintermsofhouseholdsocio-economic

characteristics,familystructure,caringarrangements,andchildageatthe

beginningofmigration.

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Asthestudyprogressed,inthelaterstagesofsampling,wecontinuedtochoose

children,familiesandcommunitieswhichwouldmaximizeopportunitiestoelicit

dataregardingvariationsalongdimensionsofcategories,andthatdemonstrated

whathappenedwhenchangesoccured.Ifnewcategorieswerediscovered,

additionalparticipantswererecruitedtoreflecttheseparticulardimensions.

Whenanoverallstorylinestartedtobeformulated,somefurthersampleswere

addedtoverifythestorylineandrelationshipsbetweencategories,andtofillin

poorlydevelopedcategories.

Whenselectingspecificcommunitiesforthestudysitesandpopulations,a

two-stageclustersamplingmethodwasemployedtoachievecertaingeographical

representativenessandpopulationcoverageinKaihua,byselectingonevillage

fromeachselectedtownship.Itisnoteworthythatweaimedatconductingfamily

groupinterviewsincludingallmembersineachfamily,althoughinmostcases

thiswaspreventedforpracticalreasonsbecausenotallfamilymemberswere

abletoparticipateduringtheshortfieldvisitperiodinthevillage(often1day),

especiallyatChineseNewYearwhenmanycommunityactivitiesandhousehold

choreslimitedpeople’savailability.Eventuallyinterviewswereconductedwith

25children,17parents,and13grandparents,from29families,across12villages.

Theageofthechildrenrangedfrom7to14(mean=10.93,SD=1.77).Thefamily

compositionandmigrationpatternsofallinterviewedfamiliesareshowninTable

5.1,withindividualsonthesamerowfromthesamefamily.

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Table 5.1: Demographics, family composition, and migration pattern of

interviewed migrant families

Index child Co-resident adult Migrant parent

Child age when

left-behind Sex Age Sibling

Girl 10 1 elder sister Mother Father only 2

Boy 12 1 younger sister Mother Father only 10

Girl 11 None Other relatives Both parents 5

Girl 11 None Grandparents Both parents 2

Girl 9 1 elder sister Mother & Grandma Father only Right after birth

Girl 10 1 younger brother Mother & Grandparents Father only Unknown

Boy 10 None Grandma Both parents 3

Girl 14 1 elder sister Mother Father only Right after birth

Boy 12 None Grandparents Both parents 4

Boy 13 1 younger brother Grandparents Both parents 1

Girl 8 1 younger brother Grandparents Both parents Right after birth

Boy 14 None Grandparents Both parents 1 (with parents

from 5 to 7)

Boy 11 None Grandparents Both parents A few months

Girl 11 None Grandparents Both parents 3

Boy 11 None Grandpa Both parents 4

Girl 12 1 younger brother Mother Father only 6

Girl 10 1 elder sister Mother Father only 5

Girl 9 None Grandparents Mother only 9

Girl 7 1 elder sister Grandparents Both parents 3

Boy 12 None Grandma Both parents 5

Girl 10 None Grandparents Both parents 4

Boy 12 None Grandparents Both parents 5 or 6

Boy 13 None Grandma Father only* 11

Boy 13 None Grandparents Both parents 3

Boy 10 None Mother & Grandma Father only 1

Boy 12 None Mother Father only Unknown

Girl 12 1 elder sister Mother & Grandparents Father only Right after birth

Boy 9 None Grandma Both parents 4

Girl 13 None Grandparents Both parents 7

Boy 8 1 elder brother Grandparents Both parents 5

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5.2.3Interviewpreparations

Interviewswereconductedduringtwoperiods.Thefirstperiodwas2nd

Septemberto18thNovember2013,rightafterschoolsstarted,followingthesome

children’sreturnfromvisitingtheirparentsinthecitiesduringthesummer

holiday.OneofthemostimportantChineseholidaysforfamilyreunion,

Mid-AutumnFestival,fellon19thSeptemberin2013.Thesecondperiodwasfrom

20thJanuaryto16thFebruary2014aroundChineseNewYearthatfellon31st

January2014.Mostmigrantworkerswouldreturnhomeduringthisholiday

season,andsomemaystayuntiltheLantern’sFestival,the15thdayintothe

ChineseNewYear.Thesetwoperiodswerechosenmainlyinordertorecruit

moreparticipants,bothchildrenandmigrantparents,inthequalitativestudy.

TheauthorwasintroducedtotheleadersofKaihuaCountyWFatthestartofthe

fieldwork,byaco-investigatorofthelargerLBCprojectwhowasaffiliatedwith

ZhejiangUniversityandwasinvolvedinotherresearchprojectswithinthecounty.

Inthefollowingweek,theauthorhadafewmeetingswiththeWFleadersto

introducethequalitativestudywithinthelargerproject.Theauthorrequested

logisticsupportfromtheWFanddiscussedaboutsomespecificfieldwork

arrangements.OneoftheVicePresidentsofKaihuaWFwasappointedasthefocal

personforthisstudy,andshecontinuedtoprovidecoordinationsupportforthe

authorafterthesemeetings.

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TheVicePresidentofferedalistofnamesandcontactinformationofalltownship

WFofficialsinKaihua,andbrieflyinformedthemabouttheoverallaimsofthe

studyandthefieldwork.Onedaypriortoeachfieldtrip,theauthorwouldcontact

thelocaltownshipWFofficialbyphone,brieflyexplainthepurposesofthetrip,

andcoordinatewithspecificinterview-relatedlogisticarrangements.

Aswasmentionedintheprevioussectiononsampling,weapproachedleadersas

wellasmembersofthecommunity,atthestartofeachfieldtrip,oneortwodays

beforechildrenandfamilieswererecruitedinthevillage.Particularlytheauthor

wouldmeetwiththeWFofficialandoneortwoothermembersoftheVillage

Committee.Inthesemeetingstheauthorwouldrequestgeneralinformation

aboutthevillageanditsfamilies,suchaskeysectorsinthelocaleconomy,the

scaleofout-migration,theoverallwellbeingstatusoftheLBC.Theauthorwould

alsobrieflygooverthesamplingmethodology,andselecttheparticipantstobe

approachedfortheinterviewsindependentlyorwiththehelpofvillageleaders,

basedontheirinformationregisteredatthevillagecommittee.

Indoingso,theauthorconductedapreliminaryinvestigationintochildren’s

householdandphysicalenvironmentsinthecommunity,andhowlargersocial

systems,suchaslocalindustryandsocialsafetynet,wereinteractingwiththe

child’simmediateenvironment.Thiswaspartlyinspiredbythesocio-iconological

approachofBronfenbrenneretal.’s(1998),astheauthoredrecognizedthe

importanceofexploringthelargerecologicalsysteminwhichchilddevelopment

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occurs,andelicitingtheconnectionsbetweendifferentvariablesofthecontext,

familyandindividualcharacteristics,andchildwellbeingoutcomes.Moredetails

relatedtothesocio-ecologicalmodelofhumandevelopmentwillbepresentedin

theresultsanddiscussion.

5.2.3Interviewprocedure

Homevisitappointmentsweremadeadaypriortotheinterview.Theselected

familieswerevisitedtorecruitchildren,parentsand/orcaregiverswhowere

present.Childrenwhowerenotathomewererecruitedatthelocalcommunity

centerwheretheyusuallyspenttimeafterschool.

Thestudypurpose,theinterviewprocessandtopicswereexplainedtoall

participants,andinformedconsentfromallintervieweeswasobtainedbeforethe

interview.Additionally,aparentorcustodialcaregiverofallinterviewedchildren

alsosignedaconsentform.Foryoungerchildren,theconsentwasobtainedfirst

fromtheirparentorcaregiver;thentheauthorexplainedthestudytothechildin

moreplainlanguage,inthepresenceoftheparentorcaregiver,alongwithwhom

theauthortooktheopportunitytoexplainanythingthatwasnotcleartothechild.

Ifnoparentorcaregiverwerepresentattheinterviewsite,afamilyvisitwas

conductedtodelivertheconsentform.Aftercaregiverconsentwasobtained,an

adultvolunteeratthecommunity,usuallyateacherorcommunityleaderwho

knewthechildwell,wouldaccompanythechildandprovidesupportduringthe

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interviewprocess.Participantswereguaranteedthatwithdrawalfromthestudy

wouldnotaffectanybenefitfromthecommunityorgovernment,andthe

interviewwouldstopatanytimeifthechild,anyparent/caregiverorthe

accompanyingvolunteerfeltuncomfortabletocontinue.

Wealsohadmadearrangementstoprovidealocalcounselingserviceforany

children(orparents/caregivers)whofelttheywantedtofurtherexploreareasof

difficulty.Theseparticipantsmaymakeappointmentswiththehelpoftheauthor,

usingtheresearchteam’sconnectionsatthePsychologicalCounselingand

TherapyCenteratQuzhouThirdHospital.Theteamwouldfacilitatethe

transportationandotherlogisticsinaccessingtheservice.

InterviewswereconductedinMandarinChinesewithsomehelpfromtheWF

personneliftheinterviewees,mostlytheelderly,usedlocaldialect.TheWF

representativestendedtobeawell-trustedcommunitymember,thustheir

presencemostlyfacilitatedthecommunication.Interviewswereaudio-recorded

andtranscribedverbatimwithspecificconsentfromtheparticipants.

Observationalnoteswerealsotakenoninterviewees’behaviorsandfacial

expressions,aswellasinteractionswhenmultiplefamilymemberswere

interviewedconjointly.Ofparticularnote,afewchildrenbecameupsetand

tearfulduringtheinterview.Inthesecases,wesuspendedtheinterviewand

attemptedtocomforttheparticipant.Wecontinuedonlyifthechildandanadult

familymemberexpressedthewishtocontinue;ifthechildstillappearedsilent

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andsadafterafollowingquestion,theinterviewwasthenterminated.Ifthechild

expressedneedstotalkwithpsychologicalserviceproviders,theauthorwould

offerhelpinaccessingtheservice,followingtheproceduredescribedinthe

previousparagraph.

Eachinterviewfloweddifferentlyastheresearcherandtheparticipant

dynamicallyco-constructedtheinterview.Interviewswithchildrenwere

semi-structuredandbeganwithquestionsongeneraldemographics(age,school

year,familymembers,primarycaregiverathome),andparents’migrationstatus.

Thenquestionscoveredtopicsincludingfeelingstowardseparationwith

parent(s),communicationwiththemigrantparent(s),carefromandrelationship

withthecaregiverathome,schoolperformanceandafter-schoolactivities.

Questionswereadaptedtothechild’sage,posingmoresimpleanddirect

questionstoyoungerchildrenandrelativelymorein-depthquestionswitholder

children.Interviewswereconductedwithparentsandgrandparents,using

similarbutrephrasedquestionstoexploreadultfamilymembers’perspectives.

Additionally,weaskedparentsandgrandparentsaboutincentivesandconcerns

aboutmigration,itspotentialimpactontheirchildren’swellbeing,andwe

exploredtherationaleofmigratorydecisionsintermsofinternalandexternal

familycontexts.

5.2.4Rolesofthelocalcollaborator

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KaihuaWFwasconsultedaboutthedesignandimplementationoftheproject.

HowevertheWFofficialsdidnotattempttointerferewiththeresearchdesign

andfieldworkprocess.TheauthorwouldrequesttheaccompanyingWFstaff

membertostepoutfromtheinterviewroomifpossibleafterthegreetingand

introduction,unlessspecificrequestsforfacilitationorinterpretationweremade

bytheinterviewees,inwhichcasetheWFrepresentativewasoftenafamily

friend.

Ingeneral,theinvolvementofWFanditsstaffmembersdidnotaddtothebiases

inparticipantresponsesorcomplicatetheethicalimplicationsinthestudy.First,

theco-InvestigatorwhointroducedtheauthorusedtoworkwiththeKaihuaWF

onotherresearchprojectsofZhejiangUniversity;heandtheWFleadershad

establishedastrongrelationship.Theauthorwasintroducedasamemberofthe

ZhejiangUniversityresearchteam,andthusquicklygainedtrustduringtheinitial

meetings.Second,unlikesomeofthemoresensitivesocialchallengesthatmay

directlycausesocialinstabilityandresistance,theChinesegovernmenthad

largelytakenastancetoidentifytheissuesrelatedtoLBCandadvocateonthe

needsofeffectivesolutions,despitethelackofconcreteactions.TheStateCouncil

andmultipleministrieshadreleasedstatementsandguidelinesonstrengthening

thecareandsocialprotectionforLBC(GovernmentofChina2013;StateCouncil,

2016).TheKaihuaWFwereunlikelytobeconcernedaboutKaihuaLBC’s

psychosocialdifficultiesbeingdiscovered,whichweremuchlesstroublingthan

thehorribleincidentsinvolvingsuicideormurderthatwerereportedfromother

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moreremotepartsofthecountry.Third,theWFstaffmemberdidnotgainaccess

toanyconfidentialorsensitiveinformationabouttheinterviewedfamilies

throughtheauthor.

Lastbutnotleast,theKaihuaWFhadalargelyneutralattitudetowardsthe

potentialimpactofourresearchoutcomesontheirwork.AlthoughWF’sfuture

collaborationwithourteamespeciallyontheinterventionprojectmayaddtothe

meritsoftheagencyandbenefititsleaders’performance,theofficialsalso

indicatedthattheywereunwillingtobemuchactivelyengagedtacklingtheLBC

issues.Thiswasbecauseoftheirlimitedresourcesonanumberofpriorityissues,

andtheirconcernthatmoreparentsmaybecomeusedtorelyingonthe

governmenttosupportthecareofLBC,withouttakingresponsibilitieswhen

followingthedecisionofmigration.

5.2.5Analysis

Theanalysisoftheinterviewdatafollowedtheprinciplesofgroundedtheory

approach(Strauss&Corbin,1998),asithelpedtoconstructatheoretical

explanatoryunderstandingofthesocialphenomenonofmigratoryseparation.

Experiencesandperceptionsoffamilymemberswereinvestigated,including

relationshipdynamics,actionsandreactionsinmanagingthesituationof

parent-childseparationandchildcareprovisionintheleft-behindfamily.

Perspectivesofmultiplemembersofthesamefamilyweretriangulatedtohelp

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overcomethelimitationsofself-reportsandtoimprovetheunderstandingofthe

relationshipandpsychosocialsupportmechanismsintheextendedfamily.

Dataweregatheredandanalyzedsimultaneously,andcontinuallycheckedand

revisedthroughouttheresearchprocess,includingchangestointerview

questions,asnewtheoreticalideasemerged.Memosweretakentogenerate

explanationsoftheemergingconcepts,andfurtherdevelopthekeycategoriesas

wellastherelationshipsbetweenthem,whichhelpedtheauthorcompare

findingsfromthecurrentstudywiththeliterature,inorderto“becomesensitive

tomeaningwithoutforcingourexplanationsondata”(Strauss&Corbin,1998,p.

47)

Wefollowedtheprocedureofopen,axial,andselectivecoding,accordingtothe

methodsproposedbyStraussandCorbin’s(1998,p96)groundedtheory

approach,whichreliedmoreondeductivereasoningthananotherbranchof

classicGroundedTheory(Glaser,1992).Dataanalysisinthisstudyemphasized

theuseofdeduction,verificationandvalidationonemergingquestionsand

patterns,inadditiontothekeyinductionprocessesintheinitialandlaterstages

ofcoding.

Inthefirstphaseoftheanalysis,allofthetranscriptdata,primarilyfrom

interviewswithchildrenandparents/caregivers,wereopencodedinorderto

nameanddefinethepreliminarycategoriesandtheirdimensions,astheoretical

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conceptswereallowedtoemergeinductively.Maincategoriesthatemergedfrom

experiencesandnarrativesoffamilymembersincludedrationalesofmigrationin

thefamilycontexts,emotionalconnectionsinattachmentrelationship,careand

supportintheleft-behindfamily,andreturnmigrationduetoconcernsabout

childcareanddisciplining.

Thenextphaseaxialcoding(aprocessthatisuniquetoStraussandCorbin’s

approach)embodiedacombinationofinductiveanddeductivereasoning.Data

wasputbacktogetherafterbeingfracturedinopencoding,bymakinglogicaland

meaningfulconnectionsamongthecategoriesthatweremostsalientin

participants’lives.Theemergingconceptsweretestedagainstandfittedintoa

pre-determinedparadigmmodel,aswasproposedbyStrauss&Corbin(1990,p.

96).Theadaptedmodelinthisstudyfocusedonthecontextthatgaveriseto

migration,theconditionsinwhichmigrationandparent-childseparationwas

embedded,theinteractionalrelationshipsandstrategiesinresponsetothe

separationandfamilyconditionsfollowingparentalmigration,andthe

consequencesofthestrategiestodealwiththesesituations.Thismodelwas

furtherdevelopedastheconceptualframeworkofthisstudy,toincorporate

qualitativefindingsthatcomprisedtheessentialcomponentsofthestorylineof

thisthesis.

Inthefinalstageofthecoding(knownasselectivecoding),weselectedand

organizedthemaincategories,andconceptualizedhowthesubstantivecodes

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mayrelatetoeachotherashypothesestobeintegratedintothetheory(Holton,

2007,p.255).Dataanalysisandmemo-writingbecameincreasinglyconceptual,

throughconstantcomparisonbetweenincidentsandcategoriesfromthedata,

andwithcertaininputsfromtherelatedtheoreticalperspectivesintheliterature.

Acorevariable,themechanismsofmanagingtheimpactofmigration,eventually

emerged,asitspropertiesbecamedenseandtheoreticallyintegrated,and

accountedformostofthevariationoftheleft-behindexperience.

5.3Results

5.3.1Overviewofmigrantfamilies

MostfamiliesinKaihuacompliedwiththe“one-and-a-half-childpolicy”,atypical

variationoftheOneChildPolicyinruralChina:ifthefirstchildisagirl,thena

secondchildisallowed,butnotathird.SoatypicalKaihuafamilycompriseda

singlechild,oranelderdaughterplusayoungerson,ortwodaughters.Amongall

interviewedfamilies,ifbothparentslivedawayfromhome,childrenwereusually

caredforbygrandparents,especiallythegrandmother(exceptonechildcaredfor

byheraunt);theco-residentparentinoursamplewasalwaysthemother.Some

co-residentmotherswerealsoprovidingdailycareforchildren’sgrandparents

whoweretoofrailtoliveindependently;intwocases,themotherdidnotmigrate

becauseofherownphysicaldisabilityorchronicconditions.

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Grandparentswerewillingtotaketheresponsibilityofcaringforgrandchildren.

Whenbothparentswereaway,onegrandparentwouldnaturallybecomethe

primarycaregiver.Infacttoprovidesupportforchildcareisavirtualexpectation

ofgrandparentsinChineseculture(Shortetal.,2001).Theyalsohavemoretime

forchildrenthanworkingparentsevenwhentheparentsliveathome.However,

theeducationlevelofgrandparentswasgenerallylowinKaihuaandall

grandmothersweinterviewedwereilliterateorsemi-literate.InruralKaihua,

manyfemaleelderlyweredeprivedofeducationopportunities,andtheyhaveled

shelteredlivesoftennotventuringfarfromtheirvillages.

BecauseZhejiangisoverallawealthyprovince,mostpeoplefromKaihua

preferredmigrationtocoastalrichcitieswithintheprovince,about200to300

kilometersaway.Othermigrantsalsochoseworkinsmallercitiesthatarecloser

toKaihua.Mostchildrenseemedtohavethechancetoreunitewithmigrant

parents,betweentwoandfivetimesayear.ChineseNewYearisthetimewhen

almostallfamilieswouldgettogether;thesummerholidayisanotherchancefor

themigrantstotaketimeoffandspendmoretimewiththeirchildren.When

possible,someolderchildrenwouldalsovisittheirmigrantparentsinthecity

duringschoolholidays.

5.3.2Householdsocioeconomicrationalesofmigration

Thedecisionofmigrationwasmadebasedonvariouscomponentsofthefamily

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context.Ingeneral,ourinterviewresultssuggestthat“toearnmoremoney”was

theprimaryincentiveformigration,duetobetteremploymentopportunitiesand

higherincomeinlargecities,comparedtoKaihuawherefarmingisthe

predominantlivelihoodactivityandthescaleoflocalindustryisverylimited.Yet

thedecisionsaboutmigrationwereusuallynotmadeindividually,butjointly

takenbyandforthewholehousehold.

Manyintervieweesmentioned“everybodyhasgonetothecitiestowork”and“we

havetomakealivingandsupportthefamily,especiallyafterhavingachild”.

Somealsosaidthat“wehavetoleavebecausetherearenojobshereexcept

farming”.TheoverwhelmingmajorityofChinesepeasantshavenopension(Wang,

2006).Parentsoftenmentionedtheneedtoensuresomecapitalfortheiroldage.

Forthebestchanceofsurvivalandpossibleprosperityamonghousehold

members,notleastthechild,parentsfelt“there’snootherway”buttomigrateto

thecities.Aresidentmotherilluminatedthisrationalevividly:

Franklyspeaking,peoplehavetoleadalife,andlifeneedsmoneytobeled.If

onlytherewassomewherecloserwecouldearnsomemoney,wewouldn’t

leave...It’slikewegooutandearnmoneyjustforthekids.Iftheygotohigh

schoolorcollege,youhavetosaveupthemoneyforthem.Andwe’renot

youngnow,andwewon’tbemakingmuchmoneywhenwegetold.

Iftheeconomicsituationhadallowedthemtostay,themigrantswouldclearly

164

prefertolivewiththechildrenintheirhometown.Itseemedthattomigratewas

essentiallyadecisionbythewholehousehold,onethatwasnotmadelightly.

Moreover,itwasnoticeablethatevenaftertheinitialmove,theeconomicgains

frommigrationwereoftenweighedagainstotherintangiblelossinthefamily

relationships,astheykeptmonitoringsituations.Aleft-behindmotherstated:

Her(thedaughter)dadrarelycomesbackhome,justbecausehewantsto

makemoremoney.Hergrandmaisover80yearsoldandsomeonehastotake

careofher.Wehavetwokids–theyalsoneedmoneytogotoschool.Of

courseherdadwantstoseethemmoreoften;buthealwaysgoesoutin

JanuaryandcomesbackinDecember(lunarcalendar).Twoyearsagowe

visitedhergrandpainWenzhouonce,otherthanthatwedon’twanttospend

extramoneyontraveling.

Olderchildrenusuallyhadpositiveperceptionsofthereasonsfortheirparents’

migration,whiletheauthoroftendidnotreceiveclearresponsesfromyounger

children.A12-year-oldboysaid,“Idomisshim(father).Iwishhecouldcome

homemoreoftenandplaywithmeandspendmoretimetogether,butIdo

understandthathehastogoandearnmoney.”Inanothercase,themigrant

motherreportedherhowhersoncopedwiththeharshrealityandbecamemore

considerateofit:

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Yetheknowsthatthefamilycouldn’tsurvivewithoutthemoney,sowehave

togo...Heunderstandsthisandhasbecomemature.Sometimeshesays,“Mom,

nextyearcanyoumovebackhome?”Butafterafewwordstosoothehim,he

isfinewithit.Especiallywhenwestayedtogetherforawhile,hewould

becomemorerelaxedandeasiertocommunicatewith.

AlthoughthenetincomeinurbanareasisusuallyhigherthanruralKaihuafor

individualfamilies,interestinglytherewasnocleardistinctionineconomicstatus

betweenmigrantandnon-migrantfamiliesfromruralKaihua,accordingtothe

communityleadersweinterviewed.Firstly,richermigrantparentsoftenhad

takentheirchildrentoliveinthecitywheretheywork.Secondly,parentsin

impoverishedfamiliestendedtobeforcedtomigrate,inordertomeetfamily

survivalneeds;thesefamilieswereactuallypoorerthanmostnon-migrant

families.Thirdly,localsmallenterprisesinruralKaihuahadprovidedjob

opportunitieswithcomparableincomewithmigrantjobsincities;somelocal

businessmenalsohadbecomewealthierthanmigrantworkers.

Foryoungcouples,constructionand/orpurchaseofanewhouseforthemselves

andtheirfurtherchildren,emergedasanessentialobjectiveofeconomic

activitiesintheextendedfamily.Thenewhouse,oftennotfarfromthevillage

theygrewup,appearedtohaveacriticalculturalsignificanceintermsofgaining

basicrecognitionofindependenceandgrown-upstatusinruralKaihua.Thecost

ofbuildingahouseinKaihuawasestimatedataboutCNY250,000to750,000by

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theinterviewees,ahugeexpenseforalmostallfamilies.Althoughtheirparents

wouldprovidesignificantfinancialsupport,thecoststilloftenledtoheavydebts

equivalenttoseveralyears’incomeoftheextendedfamily.Thenaftergivingbirth

toachild,thefamilyeconomicburdenwasfurtherincreased.Agrandmother

describedherfamily’ssituation:

Tobuildthehouse,wesoldourfarmland,butstillhad190,000yuanofdebts.

Mysonhadmembranitiswhenhewaslittle,socouldn’thandelsophisticate

work,andhestilltookajanitorjobinafactoryandhiswifeworksatthe

sameplace.Yettheydon’tearnenoughmoney,andgrandpa(herhusband),at

70yearsold,stillhastoworkfortheforestryonthemountains.

TheseeconomicconcernsinatypicalfamilyinKaihuaweredrivingmanyyoung

peopleoutofKaihuaintothecities,notonlytomeettheircurrenteconomicneeds,

buttoachievebetterchanceforprosperityamongallfamilymembers,

particularlytheirchildren.Inthisregard,parentsalsoexpressedviewsabout

securingbettereducationopportunitiesfortheirchildreninthefuturethrough

migration,asthequalityofschooleducationinKaihuaismuchlowerthanurban

areas.

LikemanypartsofruralChina,theschoolsysteminKaihuahadundergonea

processwherebyprimaryschoolsinmanyremoteareasweremergedintolarger

schoolsinthepopulatedareas,usuallynearthetownshipcenter.Schoolsinsmall

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villagessimplydidnothaveenoughstudentstorunclasses,becauseanincreasing

numberofchildrenjoinedtherural-to-urbanmigrationflows,andtheoverall

populationsizecontinuedtoreduceduetoyearsofOneChildPolicy.Itwasalso

increasinglydifficulttoretainteachersattheseschools.Asaresult,thecommute

toschoolbecametoolongformanychildren,andsomechosetoliveattheschool

dormitoriesonweekdays.Aprincipalofthetownshipschoolexpressedhis

seriousconcernsabouttheeducationdisadvantagesthatsystematically

underminedchildreninKaihua,orgenerallysimilarruralareasacrossthe

country:

Ourschooldoeshavemoreresourcesatourdisposalthanbefore–butwe

needtospendmoretimeandenergyonchildren.Nowteachersaresobusy

thattheyspendlittletimeoneachkid;andobviouslytheleft-behindonesneed

moreattentionfromtheteachers.Inanycase,tobehonest,thesechildrencan

hardlyclimbupthesocialladderbystudyingatourschool.Inthenational

exams,theywon’tbeabletocompetewiththoseeducatedinthecities.And

sadlyinthissociety,theexamswouldprobablybetheonlywaytosecurea

betterfutureforourkids.

Accordingtoothercommunityleadersandparentsweinterviewed,theeffects

oftheseschoolmergersonchildwellbeingwerecomplex.Infact,thechild

populationhasbeendecreasinginruralKaihua,bothduetothestrict“oneand

halfchild”policyandfamiliesthatmigratedwiththechildren.MostLBChad

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neverlivedinthecitywithparents;butthosewholivedinabetter-offfamily

maycountontheirparentsinbringingthemthecityinnearfuture,where

boththeeconomiccostandqualityofeducationisusuallymuchhigherthanin

Kaihua.

5.3.3Childwellbeinginabsenceofmigrantparents

Thissectionpresentstheexperiencesandperceptionsregardingtheseparation

duetomigrationandtheparent-childrelationshipoverdistance,withafocuson

theconceptsthatdemonstratechildpsychosocialwellbeingstatus.Asadirect

consequenceoftheabsenceofparentsandthedisruptedconnections,emotional

distresssuchaslonelinessanddepressivesymptomsinchildrenwasreportedby

themselves,andparents,andcaregivers.Theadultfamilymembersoftenclosely

monitoredthechildren’sexperiencesandwellbeingstatus,withawarenessofthe

positiveandnegativeeffectsofmigration.

Emotionalattachmentsustainedoverdistance

Themajorityofchildrenexpressedthattheymissedtheirparents,andoftenthink

ofthemwhiletheywereaway.Despiteofthelengthyabsenceoftheparentsin

theirlife,somechildrenmaintainedstrongemotionattachmentwiththeirparents

throughoutacomplexmigrationprocesswhichinvolvedmanyoccasionsof

separationandreunion.Thefeelingsseemedthemostintensewhenmigrant

parentswereabouttoleavehomeagainafterabriefreunion.

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A13-year-oldboyZhuangwasseparatedfromhisparentssoonafterbirth.The

parentswereworkinginShanghaiandbroughthimtothecityforkindergarten

whenheturned4.Zhuangreturnedhomeatage7duetobarrierstoaccessing

publiceducationinShanghai.Yetthefamilywouldreuniteinthecityduringthe

summerholidayeachyear.Zhuangreportedthathe“feltpainful”or“wouldcry”at

hisparents’departure,and“wishedtheycouldspendmoretimeathome”withhim.

Hismotherdescribedthesituationas,“Whenheseesushe’sreallyhappy,and

whenwehavetoseparateagainhebecomessadandupset.”

Anotherfamilyhadamuchdifferentmigrationpattern,andtheparentsshared

detailedaccountsabouthowtheeffectsofmigrationwereperceived.Themigrant

father,Qiang,hadbeenawayfortwoyears,leavingtwochildrenbehindwiththeir

mother,Huan.Thefamilywasinterviewedtogetherwhenthefatherreturnedfor

ChineseNewYear.Theparentsspecificallyexplainedaboutthechallengesforthe

parent-childrelationships.

Huan:Kidsalwaysyearnfortheirdadtocomehome;Xingalwayssaysonthe

phone“dad,whenareyoucominghome?Imissyousomuch.”Jing(the

daughter)isabitquietthough.Isaytothemthebestthingyoucandoisto

studyharder.Yourdadis(workingfor)yourfuture.Ifyoustudyhardthenyou

don’thavetoworkfarawayfromhome;ourfamilywillbehappilygathered

aroundthesametable.

170

Qiang:WhenImissthekidsIcallandchat;whenit’snotbusyatworkIvisit

home-Icomebackfourorfivetimesayear.Thekidsmissmeafterawhile.

Althoughwetalkonthephone,they’renotthatclosetoyouwhenyoudon’t

comehomeoften–theyonlyreportthegoodnews,andI’malsocautious

aboutwhatIsaybecausemywordsmayhurt.Whenathomewe’remore

frankwitheachother.

Boththeson,Xing,andthedaughter,Jing,brieflyexpressedmoderateemotional

distressduetoparentalmigrationinthefollowinginterviews,whichmayalsobe

attributedtotheshortdurationofseparation.Themigrantfatherandthe

co-residentmotheralsodidwellincommunicatingwiththeirchildren,about

dailylifeatschoolaswellastherationalesoffather’smigration.

Whereassomeboysopenlyexpressedtheirfeelingsandevennegotiatedwith

parentsonmigratorydecisions,left-behindgirlstendedtoexperiencesadness

andinternalizeddistresswhencopingwiththeseparation.Rui,an11-year-old

girl,liveswithheraunt,andbothherparentsworkintheprovincialcapital.She

wasinterviewedsoonafteratemporaryreunionduringthesummerholiday

whenshewenttoseeherparentsinthecity:

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MyparentswenttoXiaoshan(AHangzhousuburb)whentheywere18,and

hadmewhentheywere24.IwasbornandraisedinXiaoshanuntilIfinished

kindergarten-thenIcamebacktoKaihua.

Imissmyparentsverymuch.Especiallyatthistimewhentheschooljust

started;itfeelslikeeverythingIseeremindsmeofthetimewhenIwaswith

them.NowwhenIthinkofthemIsometimescryabit.AndthenifIreally

wanttocry,I’dreadabookorsomethingtohelpmestopthinkingabout

them.

Despitethestrongemotionalattachment,Ruishowedcertainresilienceincoping

withtheabsenceofbothparents.Shedidnotshowmuchsadnessevenwhenshe

wastalkingaboutherdifficultfeelings.UnlikemostLBC,Ruigrewupwith

parentsinthecitybeforeelementaryschool,whichmayhavestrengthenedher

relationshipwithparentsasanLBCandhelpedhercopewiththechallengesof

separation.

However,itwasnotablethatfourchildrenactuallycriedduringtheinterview.

Theyseemedtobeaffectedbyeitherdifficulthouseholdeconomicsituationor

parents’divorce,orevenboth.Nine-year-old,Hong,wasinterviewedwithher

mother,Lian.Thefamilywasverypoor;Lianworkedasadoorkeeperforalocal

factoryandhadtotakecareofherparalyzedmother-in-law.Thefathermigrated

toaprovinceinNortheastChinathousandsofkilometersaway,andrecentlyhad

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anaccidentatwork.Hongstartedweepingassoonasherfatherwasmentioned

andshewasn’twillingtotalk,despiteencouragementfromhermother.Lianwas

unabletocopewithherfamily’sfinancialsituationandattemptedtoseek

assistancefromthelocalcommunity.Whilecomfortingherdaughter,Liansaid:

She’sjustmissingherfathertoomuch;butsheisanobedientgirl.Shesaidshe

wantstovisitherdad.Itoldheritwastoofarandwouldtakeafewdaysto

getthere.Iwouldn’tbeabletofindhimeitherasI’malmostilliterate;plusher

grandmaneedsmeathome.Thenshedidn’tsaymuch–andsometimesshe’d

justcry.

Meanwhile,somechildrendidnotdemonstratestrongemotionswhentalking

abouttheabsenceoftheirmigrantparents,andaccordingtotheco-resident

caregivers,nosignificantproblemsinparent-childrelationshipwasobserved.For

example,Wenhui,aneight-year-oldgirlwasinterviewedwhosebothparentsleft

whenshewasthree.Accordingtoherteacherandgrandmother,Wenhuiisa

well-behaved,thoughtfulandintrovertgirl.Sherespondedtoourquestionsonly

inbriefwords:

Interviewer:Doyoumissyourparents?

Wenhui:Yes.

Interviewer:Doyouoftenthinkofthem?

Wenhui:Notreally.

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Interviewer:Areyouoftenincontactwiththem?

Wenhui:Notmuch…justafewphonecallsaweek.

Interviewer:Wouldyouseekhelpfromthemwhenyouhavesometroublesor

difficulties?

Wenhui:No.

BasedonWenhui’sresponses,itremainsunclearhowtheparent-child

relationshipswereaffectedbymigration.Afterall,itwouldbechallengingtoelicit

theprobablycomplexemotionsandrelationshipsfromsomebriefdescription

aboutone’sfeelings,especiallyforaquiet,youngchild.Morein-depthexploration

ofthecareenvironmentinthefamilywouldbenecessary,andWenhui’scaseisto

bedelineatedfurtherinthefollowingsections.

Emotionalwithholdinganddetachmentovertime

Incontrasttothosewhofeltstronglytheabsenceoftheirparents,somechildren’s

feelingsabouttheirmigrantparentsseemedtobeambivalent,evenshowing

indifferenceduringtheinteractionswiththeparents.Mostofthesechildrenwere

leftbehindearlyinlife,evenduringinfancy;theemotionalconnectionsand

attachmentrelationshipwerelikelytobeconsiderablyweakenedbytheextended

separation.Also,childrenwithlimitedfamilycareresources,suchasthosewho

werelivinginextremepoverty,appearedtobeparticularlyvulnerabletothe

disruptionofparent-childrelationship.

174

Childrenwhodidnotdemonstrateacloserelationshipwithmigrantparents

tendedtobeunwillingtoanswerphonecallsfromthem.Oftentimesthe

co-residentfamilymemberswouldmakeeffortsonencouragingthechildtobe

cooperativeandcommunicatewiththeparentswhentheycalled.Amigrant

father,Shengli,describedthepatternsofcommunicationwithhis12-year-oldson,

andthechangesafterhevisitedhome.Shenglilefthomeshortlyafterhisson’s

birth;then4yearslater,hiswifejoinedhiminthecity,leavingthechildbehind

withgrandparents.

Whenweareawaymysondoesn’treallycommunicatewithmealthoughI

callhimquiteoften.Sometimesgrandmahastomakehimpickup.Overthe

phonewe[heandhiswife]justurgedhimtostudyhard,itcertainlyannoys

himthatwetalklikethatallthetime.SonowIgetthissituationmoreasI’ve

beenreflectingonmywaysofdisciplininghim,andeventhoughtaboutmy

ownexperiencewhenIwasakid–It’dprobablybetternottopushhimtoo

hard.

Iusuallycomeback3or4timesayear-whenI’mhomehegetsreallyclingy

andtellsmemoreabouteverything–especiallythingsthatworryhim.My

wifeactuallycomeshomeandstayswithhimduringthesummerholiday.Or

sometimesinholidaysmysonwouldgotoHangzhou[whereShengliworks]

forseveraldaysandcomebacktogetherwithmywifeandme.

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Givenhisveryearlydeparturefromhisson’slife,Shengliseemedtohavemade

strongeffortsinmaintainingtherelationshipthroughphonecallsremotely.The

effortsencounteredconsiderablechallenges,andwereoftennotwellreceivedon

theotherendofthephone.However,importantly,hewasawareofthissituation,

anditappearedthathegraduallybecameabletomakemoreemotional

connectionsandevenprovidepsychologicalsupporttohisson,whichmighthave

contributedtotheclosenesswiththechildduringtheshortreunionsandthe

upsurgeinattachmentbehaviors.Thisshowedtheambivalentorcontradictory

attitudesandfeelingstowardsseparationfromparents.Shenglilateraddedthat

as“economicstatusisgettingbetter”,heandhiswifewereplanningtomovetoa

smallcitynexttoKaihuaandprobablyacceptalowerpaidjob,tobeabletospend

moretimewiththechild.

Someotherchildrenseemedmoredetachedfrommigrantparents,andeven

reunionswerenotnecessarilydesirable.ShortlyafterZhimin’sbirth,hisparents

migratedtoNingbo,arichcityineasternZhejiangProvince,leavinghimwithhis

twograndparents.TheparentsownedasuccessfulgrocerystoreinNingbo,and

theyactuallyhadarrangedforZhimintogoandlivewiththeminthecity.The

10-year-oldwasinterviewedtogetherwithhisgrandmother.

Interviewer:Howoftendoyoutalkwithyourparentsoverthephone?

Zhimin:Abouteverytwoweeksorso.

Interviewer:Doyoulikechattingwiththem?

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Zhimin:No.Becausetheyjustmakeafuss.

Interviewer:Whatwouldyouguystalkabout?

Zhimin:Juststudy.

Interviewer:Doyoumissyourmomanddad?

Zhimin:SometimeIdo,sometimesIdon’t.

Grandma:ActuallyhisparentstookhimtoNingbowhenhewasreadyfor

kindergarten-thetuitionwasevenpaidalready.Buthejustcriedandcried

andhismotherhadtobringhimbacktous.It’sjustthatIwastheonewho

broughthimupsincehewasborn.Andhewasalsoreallyattachedtohis

grandfatherandwouldn’tlethimoutofhissight.Evennowhedoesn’treally

misshisparents,anddoesn’tseemclosetothemevenwhentheyarehome

onceortwiceayear.

BytakinghimtoNingbo,Zhimin’sparentsappearedtohaveforceduponhim

closerparent-childrelationshipsthathedidnotwant,aftergainingabetter-off

economicstatus.Lateron,theparents’communicationstylewasgenerally

didactic,withoutmuchsensitivityabouttheirson’spsychosocialwellbeingor

anythingexcepthisperformanceathomeandschool.Notsurprisinglytheboy

wouldturntohisgrandparentsforhelpanddailycare.

AlthoughZhimin’scaseillustratedthatricherfamiliesinKaihuadidnot

necessarilycopewellwiththeearlyseparation,itseemedpoorfamilieswith

complexproblemswouldencounterseriousdifficultiesinmanagingthe

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relationshipstressduetomigration.AnexamplewasXia,aged13,whosemother,

Fang,re-marriedafterherfirsthusbanddiedandhadXiainherlate30s(verylate

inruralChina).Xia’sfatherhadbeenamigrantworkersincehewasateenager,so

shewascaredforbyFangfrombirth.AccordingtoFang,Xiahadfrequent

episodesofpsychosomaticabdominalpainanddizziness,andhadbeenoffschool

formonthsasaresult.

Interviewer:Doyoumissyourdadashe’salwaysaway?

Xia:[Shakeshead]

Interviewer:Whynot?

Xia:I’mnotsure.It’sjustIusedtogetalongverywellwithmydadwhenIwas

little;itwasliketwopersonsinone.ButasIgotolderwegrewapart.Wejust

don’tcommunicateanymore.

Fang:Theydotalkoverthephone.Buttheyjustcan’thaveaproper

conversation.IaskedherDadtocallupeveryweekandhaveachatwithher.

Buttheyhavenothingtotalkabout.ShehasnothingtosaytoherDad.Even

whenhe’sbackathomeitdoesn’tgetmuchbetter.

Xia:I’vejustgotnothingtodiscusswithhim.Iusuallyhangupwithinone

minute.

Fang:It’salsoherdad–hedoesn’tliketalkingverymuch,soshedoesn’t

feelinglikingtalkwithhimeither.

Interviewer(toXia):Doyoufeelstressedorlonelybecauseyourdadisnot

home?

178

Xia:It’sjust…Iusuallydon'ttalkmuchtopeople,orhangoutwithpeople…I’d

juststayinthehouse.

Interviewer:Whynot?

Xia:BecauseIcan’tfindanyone[smilessadly].

Interviewer:Really?Isitjustyourdad’snothereoryoudon’thavemany

playmatesorfriendsaround?

Xia:It’sjust…

Fang:She’sveryintroverted.

Xia:Also…theydon’tseemtounderstandwhatI’vebeenthrough.

Adverseeffectsfromfather’smigrationandcomplexdisruptionsinfamily

relationshipsprobablycontributedtothesignificantmentalhealthsymptoms,

includingpeerrelationshipproblemsthatXiawassufferingfrom.Importantly,the

negativeimpactduetothelengthyseparationmayhavebeenaugmentedover

time;despiteoftheclosenesswithherfatherduringherchildhood,atpresentthe

distantrelationshipseemedlargelydysfunctionalwithlittleemotional

connectionsofeffectivecommunicationbetweenwithherfather.Pooreconomic

statuscertainlyaddedtotheburdenofthefamily,possiblytothepsychological

burdenofXiaaswell.Yetbesidesthematerialresources,psychosocialsupport

fromtheextendedfamilyoreventhecommunitywouldhavehelpedtorelievethe

challengingsituationsinthisfamily.

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5.3.4Carearrangementsandpsychosocialsupportintheleft-behindfamily

Thissectionexaminestheeffectsoffamilycareandpsychosocialsupporton

safeguardingchildwellbeing.Asidefromeconomicremittances,thenon-material

resourcesmaytakevariousformsandcomefromdifferentsources.Most

importantly,extendedfamilycarecomprisedessentialsupportandguidancefor

overallchilddevelopment.Sincethepsychosocialresourcestookvariousforms

andcamefromdifferentsources,manyfactorsotherthanparentalmigrationin

thesocio-ecologicalsystemmayinfluencethecareandsupportthechildreceived.

Asignificantresultofparentalmigrationwasthatfactthatmanychildrenbecame

muchclosertocaregivergrandparentsthantothemigrantparents.AWFstaff

memberquotedtheChineseproverb“closenessbetweeneveryothergeneration”

todescribethissituation.ForexampleinZhimin’scasefromtheprevioussection,

thegrandparentswereclearlythemostimportantcaregiversintheattachment

hierarchy,whereastheparentsonlyplayedasubsidiarycaregivingrole

throughouthischildhood.

Althoughthegrandparent-childclosenesswaslikelynotthefullequivalentof

parent-childbondsinmanyotherfamilies,somechildrendidappeartobehappy

withgrandparents’carewhichreplacedtheusualresponsibilitiesofparents.A

boysaidintheinterview:“IfeelOK(aboutmyparents’absence)becausemy

grandparentstakecareofmeverywell,basicallythesameasmyparents-although

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Ilikemyparentsthemost,becauseItheyunderstandbetteraboutwhatIusually

thinkaboutandwhatIusuallydo.”

Afterall,whenbothparentsmigrated,theco-residentgrandparentswereclearly

themostessentialsourceofcareandsupportforalmostallchildrenleftbehindin

Kaihua.Thefactthatabsenceofparentalcaredidnotaffectthesechildren

accordingtotheirnarratives,impliedthatsomegrandparentswerecapableof

activeengagementinchildren’shomelifeandprovisionofeffectivesupport,

despitethechallengesinmaintainingemotionalconnectionsandhealthy

interactionsinchilddisciplining.Morefindingsaboutthechallengesin

grandparentsfulfillingtheircaregivingroleswillbepresentedinthenextsection.

Inaddition,siblings,andsometimescousins,werealsoincloseinteractionsand

mayprovidepsychosocialbenefitstoeachotherinthesharedcareenvironment.

Althoughmanychildrenreportedthattheywouldnotfeellonelybecauseoftheir

brotherorsisterathome,fromtheinterviewsitwasunclearwhetherthechild’s

wellbeingbenefitedfromhavingasibling,partlybecausethefamilieswithmore

childrentendedtobepoorerthanthesinglechildfamilies.

Butitwasparticularlynoteworthythatinthefieldvisits,theauthorfoundseveral

householdswherecousinswerelivingtogetherandcaredforbytheircommon

grandparents,duetothesmallnumberofchildrenineachnuclearfamily.

AlthoughthecaregivershadtolookaftermorethanoneLBC,thiscareapproach

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wassustainedbyresourcesfrommultiplenuclearfamilies.A12-year-oldboy

namedJie,waslivinginthistypeofhousehold,andappearedtobehappywithit:

Ienjoylivingwithmycousininmygrandparents’house,andIoftenhangout

withalotoffriendsaswell.MygrandparentsaregreatbutIdomissmy

parents.SointheschoolholidaysIusuallygotoHangzhoutobewiththem,

exceptthattheymaycomebackhomeinthesummerandduringChineseNew

Year.

ApparentlyJie’sparentswereabletoaffordthetimeandmoneyspentonthe

family’sfrequenttravelsbetweenHangzhouandKaihua.Theauthorlaterlearned

thathisgrandparentsalsohadstableincomefromlightworkathomeforthelocal

processingindustry,andwerephysicallyverycapableoftakingcareofthe

children.Moreover,asJieandhiscousinwerebothonlychildren,the

concentratedresourcesfromtheirparentsensuredareasonablelivingstandard

forthesechildren.Theoverallfamilyatmospherewasfilledwithfrequent

interactionsamongthechildrenandbetweenthechildrenandgrandparents,and

nosignsoflonelinesswereobservedintheinterviews.Itseemedthatboth

childrenbenefitedfromeachother’spresenceinthefamily.

Insomeotherfamilies,thecarearrangementsandfamilysupportstructurewere

morecomplex,asmembersofextendedleft-behindfamilywerelivingapart,and

grandparentcaregiverswereseparatelycaringfordifferentchildren.The

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previouslymentionedquietgirl,Wenhui,whowasmainlylookedafterbyher

grandpa,talkedmoreaboutherregulardays.ShewasinYear2inanelementary

boardingschoollocatedatthetownshipcenter.Shehadanoldersister,whogoes

toanotherschoolandliveswiththeirgrandmainthecountycenter.

Interviewer:Wouldyoubeleftathomealonesometimes?

Wenhui:Notreally,becausemygrandmaandsisterandcousincomehomeon

weekendstoo.GrandmaliveswithmysisterinKaihua(countycenter);my

cousinisinhighschoolandcomeshomeeveryotherweekend.

Interviewer:Isyourhomefarawayfromschool?

Wenhui:Yes.GrandpawouldcomepickmeuponFridays.Orsometimeson

Wednesdayifitgetstoohot(totakeashowerathome).

Interviewer:Sowhatdoyoudoonweekends?

Wenhui:Domyhomework.Andplaywithmysisterandcousin.

Interviewer:Wouldyouhangoutwithotherfriendsaswell?

Wenhui:Notreally.Imostlywanttohangoutwithmyfamily.

Interviewer:Wouldyouhangoutwithotherfriendsalotwhenyouareat

school?

Wenhui:Yeah,kindof.

AlthoughWenhui’scousinwasunabletobeapproachedfortheinterview,the

authorlearnedshewasalsoleftbehind,withhermotherathomewhowasher

primarycaregiver.Withinanextendedfamilystructure,thesecarearrangements

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seemedtobeabletoovercomethechallengethatthetwosistershadtogoto

differentschoolsfarawayfromeachother,andprovideadequatecareand

necessarysupporttoeachofthem.Livingatschoolwithotherchildrenmayalso

haveplacedWenhuiintoapro-socialenvironment,althoughitseffectswere

unclearfromtheinterview.

Yetwhenpartsofthenuclearfamilysystembecamedysfunctional,grandparental

carewasmoreofthechild’slastresortinsteadofanintentionalarrangement.

Particularly,thedivorceofmigrantparentsmaycausesignificantdisturbanceto

thefamilydynamics,anddiminishthechanceforthechildtoreceivepropercare

andotherresources.Theparentsofa13-year-oldboynamedDongyanggot

divorcedwhenhewaseight.Hisfatherwasaconstructionworkerwhowould

oftentraveltonearbyruralareas,whilehismotherhadmigratedtoacitynextto

Kaihua.Dongyangstartedtocryatthebeginningoftheinterview,sotheauthor

stoppedtheinterviewandlatertalkedtoaneighborofhim,whoknewhisfamily

wellandoccasionallycaredforhim.Theneighborreported:

It’shis80-year-oldgrandmawhomainlycaresforhim(grandpapassed

away),afterhisdadwonthecustody.Hesometimesvisitshismaternal

grandparentsaswell.Buthis(paternal)grandmaisabittoofrailasa

caregiver,andthemoneysentfromhisdadisbarelyenough.Rumorhasit

thatthedadoftengoesgambling,whichruinedthemarriage.

184

Noweventhekid’sbedisbrokenandhasn’tbeenfixed.Hesometimescan’tget

holdofaphonetocallhisdad.Heoftenhastogobuyandeatinstantnoodles

–youcanseehe’squiteshortforhisage.SometimesIinvitehimtoeatatour

house,asheoftenplayswithmygrandson.Hismomheardaboutthe

problemsandnowoftengetshimtostayatherplaceonweekends.Butthen

hedoesn’thaveanyfriendstoplaywiththere.

ThelocalWFwasawareofDongyang’ssituationandwasabouttooffercertain

financialandsocialassistance.Dongyang’sexperiencessuggestedthatwhenthe

parentswereaway,thechild’scaregiversmightnotevenhavethecapabilityto

providebasicresourcestomeetessentialdevelopmentneeds,eventhoughthey

werewillingto.Divorcewasasignificantfactorwhichnotonlyresultedin

psychosocialdistressinthechild,butmayhaveweakenedimportantrelationship

tiesinthefamilyincoordinatingchildcareandhouseholdgoalstoprioritizethe

needsofthechild.Underthiscircumstanceandwithverylimitedmaterial

resourcesavailableinthefamily,thechildwouldhavetoresorttoextrasupport

fromthesocio-ecologicalsystem,includingallrelatives,neighbors,and

communityofficials,whomayormaynotbeabletohelpovercomethe

difficulties.

Insomefamilies,adultrelativesotherthangrandparentsmayalsobetheprimary

caregiverofthechild.Rui,theabove-mentioned11-year-oldwhowouldreada

booktodivertthoughtsofherparents,hadbeenlivingwithheraunt(her

185

mother’ssister)anduncle,aswellastheirson(hercousin)whojustgraduated

fromcollege.Ruitoldusmoreaboutherexperiences:

Myauntietakescareofmeprettywellactually.Shecooksevenbetterthanmy

dadandmom.Iwouldjusteatdinnerafterfinishingmyhomework,andthen

takeashower,readabookorsomethingonmybedbeforesleep.ButIcould

talkinMandarinwithmyparentsaboutthings,withthem(aunt’sfamily),

theytalkintheirlocaldialectandsometimesIdon'treallyunderstand,and

yetIdon’twanttointerruptthem…IthinkIwouldgetalongbetterwithmy

parents.

Ruiseemedtobeorganizingherdailylifequitewellinadifferenttypeof

extendedfamily,despitetheabsenceofbothherparentsandheremotional

thoughtsofthem.Rui’sexperienceoflivinginthecitybeforeelementaryschool

formulatedastrongerattachmentrelationshipwithhermigrantparentsthan

manyotherLBC,whichwouldbenefitherpsychosocialwellbeingafterthe

separation.Itseemedthatshewasabletopeacefullyacceptchangesinhersource

ofcare,anddevelopedtheabilitiesinadaptingintoanothersupportiveyetless

homelikeenvironment.

5.3.5Careanddiscipliningconcernsandthereturnofmigrantmother

Thissectionfocusesonhowthechallengesinmaintainingparent-child

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relationshipsandsupportivecareenvironmentweremanifested,inthe

experiencesofthechildandperceptionsoftheparentsandcaregivers.The

discipliningissuesandotherconcernsaboutchildwellbeingrelatedtochildcare

provision,demonstratedinthesecases,leadtocertainchangesofpriorities

consideredinthemigrated-relateddecision-makingrationales.Themostexplicit

changewastheactualorintendedreturnmigrationamongthemigrantmothers.

Itshouldbeclarifiedthat“returnmigration”hereisreferredtoasthepermanent

decisiontocomebackhomeafterquittingjobinthecity,ratherthanatemporary

returnforareunionthatusuallyoccurredduringholidays.

Naturallyastheprimarycaregiverofthechild,aleft-behindmotherwouldplay

criticalrolesinsafeguardingthewellbeingofLBCathome,whiletakingchargeof

thevastmajorityofchildcareactivities.Manychildrenwhosefathermigrated

showedstrongattachmentwiththeirco-residentmother.Asagirlsaid,when

talkingaboutfeelingsaboutherfather’sdepartureafterareunion,“It’salright

becausemymotherishome.”However,remittancesfromonlyonemigrantmay

notmakeenoughfamilyincome,somanyyoungmothersstillhadtoworkintheir

village,township,orcounty,whichofteninvolvedlongcommute.Insuchsituation,

withoutstrongsupportfromthegrandparents,adequatechildcarefortheLBC

maybecomechallenging.

Forinstance,Yilin,motherofan11-year-oldboy,livesinasmallmigrant-sending

community.Herhusbandmigratedjustaftertheirsonwasborn.Yilinherselfleft

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homewhenhersonwassixyearsold,butrecentlyquitherjobinthecityand

movedbacktoworkinalocalfactory.Theauthoraskedher,“Doeshe(herson)

misshisdad?Doyouthinkhefeelslonely?”Heranswersdepictedsomevivid

scenarioswithhersonathome.

WhenI’mhomeit’sbetter…Hewouldhaveachatwithdadonthephone

sometimes,butafterallthey’vebarelylivedtogether…Hisdadwenttothecity

whenhewasafewmonthsoldandrarelystaysathome.Justbecause…the

twoelders(parentsofYilin’shusband)onlyhaveoneson,sohehastogo.I

usedtobeawaytoobutcamebackthisyear–havetotakecareofmyson

nowashe’sgrowingup.

Butstillheiscertainlylonely,beingonhisown.Hewouldoftensay,“I’mso

boredbeingalone,Mom”.Iwouldask,“Whydon’tyougofindsomeonetoplay

with?”Hesaystheyallhavetheirownplaymates;hereallyonlyplayswiththe

grandsonofthatman[pointingtoaneighbor].Sometimewhenhegoesout

afterfinishinghomework,theotherkidsarealreadygoneandhecan’tfind

anyone…thenhehastocomehome,saying“sobored”again.Actually

sometimesIinvitesomekidstocomeoverandhangoutwithhim.Theyplay

heresothatIcanheadouttowork;otherwiseI’dhavetoherechatwithhim,

orelsehe’dgetbored.

Thegrandfatherwassaidtobetoofrailtotakepartinchildcare.Thegrandma

188

lateraddedinthesameinterviewthatshejustcouldnothandlehergrandson,

whowouldnotlistentoher,andwouldoftenmakeanexcusetogooutside.

DespitetheresponsibilitiesYilindecidedtotakebyreturninghometolookafter

herchild,sheseemedunabletospendenoughtimeonhimandprovideadequate

accompaniment.Althoughthechildexplicitlyexpressedhisfrustrationdueto

loneliness,thefamilymembersseemedtobeequallyfrustratedbecausethey

couldn’tfindaviablesolutiontothesituation,largelybecauseofthelimited

capabilityofgrandparentsinfulfillingsupportiveroles.

Ingeneral,grandparentsseemedtoshowamorerelaxedattitudetowards

discipliningchildren,inparticularlesslikelytousephysicaldiscipline.Oneofthe

communityleadersweinterviewedattributedthistotheconcernthatbeatingthe

childbygrandparentswouldmaketheparentsunhappy,althoughother

intervieweesfeltthatparentswouldwantstandardsofdiscipline(including

physicaldiscipliningintheChinesecontext)tobemaintainedintheirabsence.

Inaddition,aswefound,somegrandparentswerequitefrailandinpoorhealth,

simplylackingthenecessaryphysicalcapabilitytoprovideadequatecare.Their

burdensbecamemuchheavierifthereweremultiplegrandchildrentobecared

for.Forexample,inthecompanyofaWFstaffmember,weinterviewedthefamily

ofMrsLiu,62,whotookcareofthreegrandchildreninherhome.

189

Interviewer:Howwouldyoucompareyourcarewiththeparents’careforthe

kids?

WFstaffer:Grandparentsusuallytendtospoilthemabit.

MrsLiu:Theyaretheyoungestgeneration–wegrandparentswouldn’tbeat

themforsure.

Interviewer:Aretheiranydifficultiesforyoutotakecareofthemall?

MrsLiu:Astodifficulties,mybodystillworks,andweareusedtoharshlives

intheruralvillage[laughs].Butitisreallytoughworktakingcareofthe

threetogether.Kidsarejustnaughty–asyouseethehouseisamessallday

long.

Tingting,avivacious11-year-oldgirl,wasoneofMrsLiu’sgrandchildrenwho

wasathomeduringourinterview.Howeveritwasdifficulttoinitiatea

conversationwithherbecauseshewashappilyrunningaroundorplayingwith

her3-year-oldcousinanddidnotsitstilllongenoughtorespondtous.Her

mother,amigrantworkerwhoalsohappenedtobeathomeforaholiday,toldus

more:

Tingtingisreallytoolively…Hergrandparentsdon’tdisciplinehermuch;

they’renotstrictwithheratall.Theoldergeneration–theythinkvery

differentlyaboutlotsofthings.IworrythatTingtingwillstartpubertysoon,

andhergrandparentswillstillusetheoldvaluesandstandardswhencaring

forher.ActuallymyhusbandandIalreadydecidednottogobacktothecity

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afterthismid-autumnday[theholiday]tolookafterher,asshe’sbecominga

biggirl.

ThemotherlatermentionedthatTingting’sgrandpausedtobeaschoolteacher,

soshewasnotworriedaboutthelackofhelpwithherstudies.Concernsabout

inadequatediscipliningonTingtingseemedtobethecentralfactorofthe

mother’sreturn.Itappearedthatnoneofthefamilymemberswereindeed

responsiblefortheproblem.Rather,someintervieweesattributedthehuge

discrepanciesbetweenthevaluesystemsofgrandparentsandchildrentothe

so-called“generationgaps”,asaresultofdrasticsocialchangeinChinaoverthe

pastdecades.Accordingtoacommunityleader,“Thegrandparentsaretwo

generationsolder–therearealotofnewthingsthatthekidsareinterestedbutthey

don’thaveaclueabout.Sooftentimestheycan’treallycommunicatewiththeir

grandchildrenortellthemwhattodo.”

Someothergrandparentsappearedtoadoptstrictermeasuresinacrudewayin

supervisingthechild.Forexample,afewteenagechildrenreportedthattheir

grandparentswouldnotallowthemtogooutunsupervisedforfearofaccidents,

sotheywerepermittedminimaltimeoutsideevenforschoolactivities.Whether

grandparentaldiscipliningstrategiesappearedtoberelaxedorstrict,theydidnot

seemeffectiveinmanycases.Somechildrencaredforbygrandparents,especially

boysleft-behindfromanearlyage,mayhavedevelopedexternalizingbehavioral

problems.Thiswassuggestedbycommunityleaderswhoreportedsome

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left-behindboyscommittedvandalismorsufferedinjuriesinminoraccidents

fromriskyplayandactivities.Duetoconcernsaboutherchild’sbehavioral

change,amigrantmothernamedXiaojinsaid,whileherhusbandwouldcontinue

workinginthecity,shewouldquitthecityjobandcomebackhomenextyearto

takecareofthe11-year-oldson:

It’sjusthistemperthatI’mreallyworriedabout.He’sbecomeveryrebellious

inthelastfewmonths.Hewouldn’tlistentohisgrandparentsatall;always

answersback.WhenI’mhomeit’sbetter.Thisdoeshavesomethingtodowith

usbeingaway,becausegrandparentscan’tcontrolhim,andwecan’tcontrol

himfromadistance.

Inadditiontoconcernsaboutchildwellbeingathome,otherimportantevents

thataffectedtheentirefamilydynamicsmayalsocontributetothedecisionof

returnmigration.Forexample,thearrivalofanewbornoftenforcedthemother

toreturnhomeforthepostnatalperiod,andsometimesmuchlongerduetothe

needsforchildcare.Jiepingwasamotherwhomigratedsoonafterherdaughter’s

birth.Shedecidedtoreturnhomepermanentlyfollowingthebirthofhersecond

child,aboy,whenherdaughterwas8yearsold.Specifically,Jiepingemphasized

theinterestingchangeinherdaughter:

Howtosay…it’slikeIdidn’tspendmuchtimewithmydaughterwhenshewas

little,andweweren’tatallclose.Iknewshewaslonelyathomejustwithher

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grandmother.ButnowthatI’mstayinglongerathomewithher,she’sdoing

muchbetter.Sheusedtogooutallthetimetotrytofindplaymates.Nowthat

herlittlebrothermakesthefamilylively,andsheactuallylikesstayingat

home.Becausebothofus[theparents]wereawaywhenshewasyoung,she

becamequiteintroverted,tobehonest.Butnowsheseemstobecomingoutof

herself.Everythingisgettingbetter–exceptwe’llneedtofigureaboutmoney

asthelittleguygrowsup.

TheauthorwasunabletoapproachJieping’sdaughterandthusfurther

informationaboutthechild’swellbeingwasunavailable.AsJiepingpointedout,

resourceconstraintsmayposecertainadverseeffectsonthelong-termwellbeing

ofthechildren,duetothereducedfamilyincomeafterherreturntoKaihua,and

theadditionalexpensesonthenewborn.

Theactualeffects,especiallythelongertermimpact,ofthemother’sreturn

remainedunclearamongthecasespresentedinthischapter,despitetheinitial

intentionofreturningtoprovidebettercareanddisciplining.Returnmigration

wasmoreofareflectionoftheproblemsthatthemigrantparentsandco-resident

caregiverswereabletodetect,andtheseproblemsbecametoosignificantforthe

migrantparentsnottotakeanyactions.

5.3.6Challengesineducationattainmentandcommunityenvironment

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Manyparentsconsideredsatisfactoryschoolrecordaveryimportantobjectiveof

raisingtheirchildren.Whileacademicachievementitselfisanimportant

indicatorofchilddevelopment,itmayalsodirectlyaffectthepsychosocial

wellbeingofthechild.Aswasfrequentlymentionedduringtheinterviews,

childrenwhodidnotperformwellatschoolexamswereoftenundersignificant

pressurefromthefamilytostudyharder,inawaytoreciprocatethehardworkof

theirmigrantparents.MostintervieweesbelievedthatinruralareaslikeKaihua,

thereexistfewpathwaysforchildrentoemergeandsucceedotherthandoing

wellatschoolandpursuingqualityhighereducation.

Howevernomigrantparentsreportedconcernsaboutschoolperformanceasthe

primaryreasonofreturnmigration.Thismayberelatedtothebeliefthat

migrationmightpotentiallybringbettereducationopportunitiesfortheLBCin

thefuture,withthehelpofincreasedfamilyincomeandprospectsofmoving

permanentlytothecity,aswasnotedinanearliersection.Inthemeantime,

becauseofthephysicaldistanceaftertheirdeparture,migrantparentsbecame

unabletocloselymonitortheLBC’sschoolperformance.InKaihua,youngparents

wereusuallyeducatedatprimaryschoollevelatleast,yetmostpeopleinthe

grandparents’generationwereilliterate.Consequently,afterparentsmigrated,

manychildrenwouldreceivemuchlessacademicsupportandsupervision,evenif

onlyoneparentwasaway.Forexample,accordingtoXing’smotherHuan,the

boy’sschoolperformancehadbecomemuchworseafterhisfatherleft.The

parentsexplainedtheirworriesabouttheirbothchildren:

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Qiang:Althoughwedon’tknowmuchabouthishomework,hewouldbehave

betterifIcouldbewithhim.Whenyousay(overthephone),“Xing,doyour

homework!”Hereplies“OK!”anddoesn’targue,buthestilldoesn’tdoit

properly.HoweverifIweresittingherehe’dhavetodoit–noescape.

Huan:Iusedtowatchthekidswhilemyhusbandwascookingdinner.Now

thatIhavetocook,Ican’twatchthem–IalsocaughtJingcopyingsomeone

else’shomeworkseveraltimes.Itoldher,thisisnotOKatall-ifyoudon’t

knowtheanswer,youhavetofigureitoutbyyourself.She’sagoodgirland

wouldfeelbadifshedoesn’tdowell.Butcheatingisnottheway.

Havingrealizedtheproblemandattributedittomigration,theparentshadno

intentiontoreturnhomepermanentlyyet.Afteralltheirpresencecouldnot

replacethechild’seffortsatschool,andtheywereonlyhopingforthebest

whilesparingnoeffortsonpushingandmonitoringhim,athomeorremotely.

Afewchildreninthisstudywentthroughcertainpreschooleducationinthe

citywherebothmigrantparentswereworking.Afterexperiencingearly

educationinthecityunderparents’care,theyhadtoreturnhometoattend

primaryschoolduetorestrictionsofschooladmissioninurbanareas.For

example,Zhuanghadexperienceof3yearsinakindergarteninShanghai,and

hermotherdescribedthechallengesofchildeducationforher:

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He(Zhuang)wenttokindergarteninShanghai,sohe’sseenmoreoftheworld;

he’sgotagoodpersonalityandtalkssweetlywithpeople.Butbefore

elementaryschoolwehadtosendhimback,asitwasdifficulttogetinto

schoolsinShanghai.ThenfromGrade1wesenthimtoaboardingschoolin

Kaihua;hisgrandmawasgettingtoooldtotakecareofhimeveryday.Sohe

onlycomeshomeatweekends.Hehasbecomequiteindependentintaking

careofhimself.Butnowhisschoolrecordisjustfair,Idon’tknow,maybe

medium.Becausenobody’sabletohelphim;it’sallonhisown.

SincebothofZhuang’sparentswereworkinginthecity,theywereableto

jointlyprovideareasonablelivingstandard,andpreschooleducationforthe

childthatwasofhigherqualitythanwhatwasavailableinKaihua.Thisperiod

ofco-residencewiththeparentinZhuang’searlychildhoodalsohelpedhim

buildmoresecureattachmentrelationshipswiththem.Howeveritwas

unclearhowthischangeofschoolsettingsmightaffectthechild,andlike

manyotherLBC,theystillhadtofacethechallengesregardinglackof

academicguidanceandsupportathome.Grandparentswereapparentlynot

ashelpfulinacademicsupportandsupervisionasparents,whichraiseda

considerableconcerninthefamily.

Forchildrenlivinginremoteareas,longdistanceandlackoftransportationfrom

hometoschoolmaycausefurtherdisadvantageintheireducation.Someofthem

hadtoliveatthenearestboardingschoolinthetownship,andcomehomeonly

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onweekendsandholidays,startingfromthefirstyearofprimaryschool.Other

families,morespecificallyatleastonegrandparentandthechild(suchas

Weihui’sgrandmaandhersister),chosetomoveclosertotheschoolandliveina

rentedaccommodationonschooldays,toavoiddifficultiesofcommuting.Yetnot

allfamilieswereabletoaffordthisstrategy.Anothergrandma-caregiver,Mrs

Zhao,elaboratedthesituationwithherandhergrandson:

Theschoolinourtownshipisabitfarfromthebusstop-Ihavetopickupthe

kidifitrains,whichsometimesisnoteasyforme.Theschoolinthe

neighboringtownshipisfartherfromhome,butit’srightnexttothebusstop

soIdon’thavetopickhimup.Sohegetsupat5:30inthemorningandcomes

homeat5pm.

Asthepopulationisdecreasinghere,manyschoolsmergedtogether–people

oftengoalongwaytoschoolorrentaplacenearbytolookafterthe

grandkids.Weusedtosendthemtoaboardingschoolabout20kilometers

awayforfirstandsecondgradeyears,buthecouldhardlytakecareof

themselves.Andhecouldn’ttakeshoweruntilFridaynightathome,and

wouldsmellterribleafterrunningaroundallthetime.

IngeneralspecificchallengesregardingLBC’seducationwerelargelyareflection

ofthemissingrolesofparents.Theco-residentgrandparentshadlimitedphysical

strengthsandacademicabilitiesthatwerenecessarytohelpchildrenwiththeir

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homeworkorachievetheirintellectualpotentials.Especiallyunderdifficult

socio-economiccircumstancesorcommunityconstraints,childrenmightbecome

morevulnerableintackingtheadverseconditionsduetothedeficiencyofhelp

andsupport.

5.3.7Psychosocialsupportfromthecommunityenvironment

Besidestheschool,thelargercommunitywasacrucialcomponentinthechild’s

physicalandsocialenvironments.Communityenvironmentinawaydetermined

theavailableandaccessiblematerialresourcestomeettheneedsoffamiliesand

children,aswellastheintangibleresourcessuchassocialcapitalthatmaybenefit

childdevelopment.Jointeffortsofcommunitymembers,especiallyunder

organizedinitiatives,mayhelprelievesomeofthedifficultiesfacingthe

left-behindfamiliesthatthemigrantparentswereunabletotackleeffectively

overdistance.

Insomehighout-migrationcommunitiesthatweredenselypopulatedwith

left-behindfamilymembers,asenseofnormalizationofbeingleft-beindappeared

tocompensatethefeelingoflossamongtheincompletefamilies.Childrenwould

easilyfindplaymateswhosharedthesimilarexperiencesintheneighborhood,

andtendedtofeellesslonelyathome.Thecommunitycohesioninthese

relativelyisolatedsocio-ecologicalsystemsinKaihuamayoffersome

psychologicalrelieftoleft-behindfamilies,evenwithoutprovidinganyconcrete

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benefits.ThepreviouslymentionedmigrantfatherShenglidescribedsuch

situationofthecommunitywherehisleft-behindfamilylives:

Ourtownshipasawholeisaremote,underdevelopedarea–almostevery

youngadultisawayandtheirchildrenarealllefthere,somysonfeelsfine.

Butifhewereamongjustafewleftbehind,hewouldprobablyfeelterrible.

Incontrast,manyparentsorcaregiversreportedthat,itwasnoteasyforthechild

tomakefriendsintheirvillagebecause“thereareonlyaboutfourkidsofhisage

inourvillage,asthewealthierfamiliesusuallytaketheirchildrentothecity”.

Duringthefieldvisits,itwasnotuncommontocomeacrossahousestanding

alonewithonlyafewadjacenthousesinsight.Suchfamilieswereoftenpoorer

thanotherswholiveatabetterlocation,andwereunlikelytohaveanyworking

ageyoungadultathome.

Intervieweesfurtherreportedcertaincommunity-leveleffortsthatweremadeto

providecareandsupportfortheLBC,asallcommunitymemberstheirleaders

reachtheconsensusthatout-migrationleftbehindagenerationofchildrenthat

neededextrasupport.TheChildren’sClubsprogram,forexample,wasoperating

insomevillagesinKaihua.TheClubsprovidedaphysicalspaceandsome

necessaryresourcesforout-of-schoolactivities,runbylocalcommunity

volunteers,aswellasuniversitystudents(duringschoolholidayeventsonly).

Children’sClubswereoftenusingpubliclyownedspaceandfacilities,including

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thecommunitycenterorelderly’scenter,wherechildrenandadultswouldgather

forvariousactivities,inadditiontospecificchild-focusedprogramming.This

programseemedtobefunctioningwellinthecommunitiesandwaswelcomedby

manyfamilies.Acommunityleadersaid:

Thechildrenwouldoftenspendtimeintheclassroomsinthecommunity

center,withWFrepresentativewatchingthem.Wehavesomelargerevents

likedancingaswell,onthesquareoutsidethecommunitycenter,which

childrenalsojoinin.Weeveninvitedadanceteacher;somefamiliesfromthe

neighboringvillagesalsocomeby.Wehaveabasketballcourt,somephysical

exerciseequipment,andalibrary–thekidscanplaythereaswell.

Insomebetter-developedvillages,othercommunity-basedprogramsand

initiativeswerealsoorganizedtosupporttheleft-behindfamilies.Examples

includedpartnershipswithlocalbusinessand/orgovernmentagenciesin

financialsupportandsomespecificcampaignssuchaspost-cardcharitysale,and

a“surrogatemom”projectthatrecruitedvolunteerstoforgeone-on-one

relationshipwiththeLBC.Yetthesewereonlyachievedinasmallnumberof

villages,wherevarioustypesresourcesweremadeavailable,accordingtoa

townshipWFleader:

Financialsupportisakeyaspect,forexampleaVillageCommitteewasableto

offer30thousandyuantoopenitsChildren’sClub;theyalsoapplyformore

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fundsfromtheupper-levelgovernments.Anotheraspectissupportfrom

villageleadersbytheirconcreteactions.Someoftenplaywiththekidsand

attendallmajoreventsaboutchildren–thismakesabigdifference.Withthe

supportfromtheVillagesCommittee,wecanimplementalotoffavorable

policiesforchildren’sbenefitsthroughdifferentprograms.Ofcourseyoualso

needgoodpeopletotakecareofthekidsattheClubs–mostlytheeducated

retireesorWFrepresentatives.

Manyvillagesdidnothavetheseprerequisitesandwereunabletoprovideextra

supportfortheleft-behindfamilies,especiallythoseinthemoreremote,poorer

areasofKaihua.Someadditionalchallengesrelatedtogeographicalisolation

madecommunitysupportmoreunlikelyinthesevillages,asanothertownship

WFleaderreported:

Ourpopulationandvillagesareveryscattered–forexampleanearby

“administrativevillage”hasnine“naturalvillages”,locatedacoupleof

kilometersfromeachother,andmanydon’tevenhavecellphonereception.

Undersuchcircumstanceit’squitedifficulttoorganizeanyprogramsor

activities...unlesstheyareextremelyattractivetothefamilies,whichwecan’t

reallyaffordthough.

Communityentailscriticalcomponentsofthesocio-ecologicalsystemandkey

variablesthatdeterminedrural-to-urbanlabormigration.Althoughthe

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community-levelresourcesmayormaynotbeabletoturnintoeffective

psychosocialsupport,theintervieweesreportedcertainpositiveprospectsfor

population-basedinterventionstocontinuetobenefitchildren.

5.4Discussion

5.4.1Summaryofkeyfindings

Thisqualitativestudyprovidesacomprehensiveanalysisoftheimpactof

migrationonchildren,byelicitingcommunitycontextsandcausesofmigration,

consequencesoftheseparation,familycopingstrategies,andsocio-ecological

conditionswithregardtothisimpact.Overall,thelengthyseparationposes

considerabledifficultiesonmanychildren’spsychosocialwelling,especially

emotionaldistress,primarilythroughdisruptedattachmentrelationships.These

effectsmaynotbeeasilyrestoredevenifmigrantparentspermanentlyreturned

home.Thepsychosocialsupport(andlackof)fromtheco-residentfamily,aswell

asfactorsregardingschoolperformanceandcommunitycohesion,alsomodifyor

intensifythechildwellbeingoutcomesundertheimpactofparents’absence.

Thesubstantiveconceptsthatemergedfromourdata,andtheconnections

betweenthem,formulatedaconceptualframework(Figure5.1)withreferenceto

thepredeterminedgroundtheoryparadigmthatwasnotedintheMethods

sectionofthischapter.Thecontextsandconditionsofpsychosocialwellbeingin

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thisframeworkcoincidedwiththesocio-ecologicalmodelofhuman

development’semphasisonconnectionsbetweendifferentlevelsoffamilyand

socialsystems.TheABC-Xfamilystressmodelwasalsoreferredto,inrelationto

thedelineationofemotionalcopingprocessesandstrategiesthatwasinitially

triggeredbyastressevent.

Figure 5.1: Conceptual framework of key factors in the impact mechanisms of

parental migration on child psychosocial wellbeing (Adapted from Boss, 2002)

Similartomanymigrant-sendingareas,fortheKaihuafamilies,thedecisionto

migratewasinitiallymadetoimprovesocio-economicstatus.Despitethe

Event/Situation

Migratory separation

Parent-child

Attachment relationships

Left-behind

family

Income, care & support

Child wellbeing

Internal contexts

School and community

external

External contexts

Urban-rural disparities

Time

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remittancesandpotentialsocio-economicbenefits,prolongedseparationfrom

parentsmarkedlyalteredthefamilydynamics,andcausedconsiderable

challengesinpsychosocialwellbeingamongmanychildren,primarilythrough

disruptedparent-childrelationship.Asadirectconsequenceofparent-child

separation,thedisruptionoftheconventionalattachmentrelationshipsthus

becameamainfocusofthisstudy.

Theemotionaldistressappearedtobethemostpronouncedpsychosocial

difficulty,oftenmanifestedaspersistentthoughtsoftheirmigrantparentsand

certaindepressivefeelingswhenmissingthem.Childrenwithdysfunctional

attachmentrelationshipstendedtowithholdtheexpressionofemotionsintheir

communicationandinteractionwithmigrantparents.Behavioralandsocial

functioningproblemswerelessprevalentyetsignificantlyaffectsomechildren.

Familycarearrangementsandpsychosocialsupportseemedtocompriseacrucial

factorinsafeguardingthewellbeingofLBCinabsenceofmigrantparents,in

additiontotheavailablematernalresources.Sourcesofsupportincluded

caregiversaswellaspeersandcommunitymembers.Concernsaboutthechild

accumulatedovercriticalchilddevelopmentperiodsthroughvariousinteractions

andfeedbacks,duringwhichthegrandparents‘physicalstrengthscontinuedto

decline.Correspondingstrategieswereadoptedsometimesbymigrantsadjusting

thefamilyobjectivesandreturninghomepermanently,yettheeffectsofthe

returnremainedquestionable.Children’sschoolaccessandperformance,

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correlatedtobothparentalabsenceandchildpsychosocialwellbeing,appearedto

confoundtheeffectsofmigration.Communitycharacteristicsentailedimportant

contextualfactors,whichtosomeextentdeterminetheamountofsupport

availableoutsideofthefamilyfortheirchildren.

5.4.2Comparisonofstudycontextswithextantinternationalliterature

Therural-to-urbanmigrationinChinainvestigatedinthisstudyoccurredwithin

thecountry’sborder,incontrasttothevastmajorityofexistingstudiesconducted

inothercountries.Whilefindingsfromtheinternationalmigrationliteraturein

relationtothisstudyshouldbereferredtowithcaution,thesimilaritiesbetween

internalandinternationalmigrationseemedtoprevailoverthedifferences,in

examiningthepsychosocialwellbeingoftheLBC.

Theincentivesofmigrationforbetterincomeprospectsandhumandevelopment

opportunitieswereverysimilar,whetherornotanationalborderwascrossed.

Yettheinitialmoveininternationalmigrationofteninvolveshighercoststhan

internalmigration,whichmayhaveblockedsomepoorerhouseholdfrommaking

thedecision.Entrypoliciesofthemigrationdestinationandareusuallystricter

forforeigners,andmorerestrictionswouldbeappliedforthemtoobtainsocial

securityandwelfare,especiallyfortheirchildren(Valtolina&Colombo,2012).

ButitisnoticeablethatduetothehouseholdregistrationsysteminChinaandthe

urban-ruraldivideineducationandsocialprotectionsystems,migrantsinthe

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citieswouldalsoencountervariousconstraintsthatpreventedthemfrom

bringingtheirchildren.

Thetiminganddurationofmigrationwascomparable;manychildreninKaihua

wereleftbehindsoonafterbirth,asweremanyLBCinothercountries.

Dependingontheborderentrypolicies,sometransnationalmigrantsmaynotbe

abletovisithomeasfrequentlyastheChinesemigrants,particularlythe

undocumentedimmigrantsintheUSduetothepossibilityofbeingdeported.But

inSoutheastAsiaorwithinEuropeanUnion,forexample,thetripsbackhome

mayalsobeunchallenging.

Meanwhile,takingamorein-depthpointofview,prospectsforachildtomoveto

anothermoredevelopedcountrymighthavedifferenteffectsthantheexpectation

ofaurbandestination.InruralChina,excellenceinschoolperformancewould

enableruralchildrentothriveinthecities,withoutthehardshipenduredbytheir

migrantparents(Murphy,2014),andthereforethemotivationtostudyhardand

evenbehavewellmaybecamemuchstrongerthantheinternationalLBC.Onthe

otherhand,forachildlookingtojointheirparentsinadevelopedcountry,the

immigrationprocessdoesnotseemtorequirethemtobewell-performed

studentsandthustheschoolperformancefactorislessrelevant.

Anotablefindingaboutthesocio-economiccontextofthisstudywasthat,

rural-to-urbanmigrationdidnotnecessarilyresultineconomicadvantageover

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otherruralfamilies.Thismaybeadistinctfeaturecomparedtocommunitiesin

lowerincomemigrant-sendingcountries.Thesheerproportionofremittancesas

partofthenationaleconomywashugeincountrieslikethePhilippines(10%of

GDP)andMoldova(23%ofGDP)(WorldBank,2015).

InsomeoftheCHAMPSEAstudycountries,especiallythePhilippines,the

overseasincomeadvantageandstrongconnectionsbetweenmigrantsandtheir

homecommunities,contributedtothedevelopmentofsocialsupportnetworks

forLBC(Graham&Jordan,2011).Incontrast,mostrural-to-urbanmigrantswere

stillstrugglingtomakealiving,andmovingoutofthehomecommunitywiththeir

childrenwouldcertainlybetheirprioritywhenpossible,ratherthancontributing

tothenextgenerationlivingintheirhometown,wherelittlefuturecanbeseen.

SinceveryfewcivilsocietyorganizationsexistinChina,effortsonsafeguarding

LBC’swellbeingwerelargelymadebythegovernmentandvillagecommittee

leadership,withtheirlimitedlocalresources.

5.4.3Attachmentrelationshipandemotionaldistress

Whiletheimpactfromparentalmigrationinvolvescomplexmechanisms,the

phenomenonthatimmediatelyfollowsthemoveisthephysicalabsenceofone

endoftheparent-childrelationship.Hencehowfamilyrelationshipsfunction

afterthischange,especiallybetweenmigrantparentsandthechild,may

representthedirectimplicationofmigrationonthechild.Therelationship

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dynamicsinvolvehowmigrantparentsfulfilltheabsence,bykeepingvirtually

presentandplayingacaregiverroleremotely,andhowthepsychosocial

experiencesofthechildrespondtothedisruptionofparent-childrelationship

bonds.

Itisworthnotingthatbecausetherelationshipvariableislargelyanindependent

consequenceofmigration,itislikelytorepresenttheeffectsizeofmigrationafter

adjustingforotherfactorsrelatedtotheleft-behindfamilyandcommunity

environments,suchastheavailabilityofsupportandsocioeconomicstatus.The

specificcasualmechanisms,includinghowmigrationmayinteractwithother

variablesassociatedwithchildwellbeing,willbeexploredinourqualitativestudy

inthenextchapterofthisthesis.

Whilesomeexistingqualitativestudieselicitedthenegativefeelingssuchas

lonelinessandvulnerability,orsymptomsofdepressionandanxietyinLBC

(Dreby2007;Grahametal.,2012),theaccountsoftenillustratedmoreaboutthe

psychologicalstatus,ratherthanstronglypointingtotheexperienceofparental

absenceperseorfeelingsaboutthemigrantparents.Somequalitativestudies

(Dreby2007;Grahametal.,2012;Parreñas,2001;Hoang&Yeoh,2015;Zou,

2012)foundcertaincommunicationstylesbetweenmigrantparentsandchildren

mayunderminechildpsychosocialwellbeing.Ourresultsfurtherindicatethelack

ofsupportiveemotionalconnectionsoverthedistance,evenwithrelatively

secureattachmentbond.

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Therelationship-emotionprocesses

Inthisstudy,theexplorationintotherelationshipsaroundthechildprovided

furtherinsightsabouttheimplicitemotionalprocessesinLBC,basedon

children’saccountsabouthowandwhethertheymissorthinkoftheirmigrant

parents,aswellasthechild’scommunicationandbondingpatternswithmigrant

parentsandco-residentcaregivers.Accordingtotheattachmenttheorists,with

attachmentfigures’long-termabsence,childrenregardlessoftheiragegroupmay

developemotionaldistresssimilartoyoungchildren’sreactionstophysical

separation(Kobak&Madsen,2008,p24),duetotheshakensecurebasethatwas

supposedtoderivefromattachments.

Ourfindingsillustratethatmanychildrenmanifestvulnerableemotionsintheir

persistentthoughtsoftheirmigrantparents,includingdepressivefeelings

especiallywheytheyexperiencevulnerability.Yet,thisappearstobepartofthe

routinemechanismsintheirfamilydynamics,whichhavemixedimplicationson

thechild.Despitetheheavyexperiencesexpressedbymostchildren,somecases

suggeststrengthenedresilienceaschildrenovercomethedifficultiesduringthe

lengthyseparation.Inparticular,thosewhousedtolivewithmigrantparentsin

thecityhaveforgedstrongerattachmentbonds,anddemonstratecertain

resiliencetonegativeemotionalimpactaftertheywereseparatedagainfrom

parents.

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Yetotherchildrenrespondtotheabsenceofparentsinawaythatshowsamore

dysfunctionalrelationship.Specifically,someofthosewhowereleft-behindvery

earlyduringinfancy,suchasZhiminandXia,tendtowithholdtheexpressionof

anyemotionsintheirinteractionsandcommunicationwithmigrantparents.

Thesecasessuggestthatearlyseparationcanbemoredamagingtothe

attachmentbonds,sincethemigrantparentswereabsentwhentheattachment

relationshipandinternalworkingmodelofthechildwereinitiallyformed,aswas

suggestedbyattachmenttheory.

Communicationoverdistance

Ontheparents’end,thecommunicationoverthephoneisthemostimportant

waytobevirtuallypresentinthechild’sdailylifeandmanagetheirrelationship

bonds.Ourresultsshowedthatwhileparents,withthehelpofcaregivers,usually

makesureoffrequentcontactswiththechildonregularbasis,somechildrenare

notwillingtotakethephonecallsatall.Hoang&Yeoh(2015)identifiedsimilar

issueinruralVietnamthatreflectedthechild’sintentionallydistancing

themselvesfromtheparents.Thepsychologicalmechanismsinwithholdingthe

connectionsappeartobecomplex,involvingambivalentattitudestowardsthe

parents’absence,andtheirambiguousrolesasaremotecaregiver.Thepressure

fromco-residentcaregiversthatpushesthechildtospeaktomigrantparentsalso

seemsunlikelytoimprovetheirrelationshipbonds.

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Negativeemotionscanserveassignalsthatpromoteopencommunicationin

secureattachmentrelationships(Ainsworthetal.,1978,p152).Althougholder

childrenappeartorecognizeandacknowledgeparentalmigrationasaneffortto

improvefamilywellbeing,ratherthananintentionalseparation,itseemsdeeper

thoughtsfromdailylifeoraboutparent-childrelationshipswererarely

communicated,andcontentofthephonecallswasmostlydidacticismfromthe

parents.Throughtheineffectivecommunication,adultfamilymembersmaynot

beabletoperceivemeaningfulemotionsandthoughtsfromthechild.Whenthe

painfulemotionscouldnotberelievedbyresponsiveandaccessiblecare,children

afterprolongedseparationmayattempttodownplayattachmentfeelings,and

diminishtheirexpectationsofthemigrantparents(Bowlby,1973,p56).This

couldmakeitevenmoredifficulttoinitiatefunctionalcopingstrategies.Hence,

migrantparentsshouldfocusmoreontheemotionalexpressionofchildrenand

improvedistantcommunication,andmakeeffortsonprovidingmoreconcrete

responsestothedailythoughtsandeventstheirchildgoesthrough.

Asfundamentalelementsofsecureattachmentbondsseemtoremaininthe

knowledgethattheparentcanreunitewiththechildifnecessary(Kobak&

Madson,2008,p33),theoccasionalreunionsbecameacrucialopportunityto

remedyattachmentrelationship.Meanwhile,theclosenessduringthereunions

mayalsobeasignofthedefensivesuppressionofattachmentfeelingswhilebeing

apart(Kobak&Madson,2008,p30),sothepsychologicalmechanismsbehindthe

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positiveresponsetothebriefreunionmaybecomplex.Whatismanifestedduring

thereunionsisinsufficienttoinferthatpsychosocialwellbeingstatuswillbe

favorablefollowingthepermanentreturnofmigrantparents.

5.4.4Availabilityofsupportfromfamilyandsocio-ecologicalenvironments

Therationalesofmigrationinvolvetheobjectivesonsecuringmoreeconomic

resources,forthemigrantsthemselvesandtheirleft-behindfamily(King,2012).

Besideshouseholdincomestatus,theintangibleresourcestomakethefamily

thriveandbenefitchildhooddevelopmentarealsoindispensible.Effectivecare

arrangementsandadequatesupportintheintheleft-behindfamilyandthelarger

socio-ecologicalsystemshelpmitigatethelossofphysicalproximitywithchildren

anddisruptionofattachmentbonds.Meanwhile,lackofsupportivefactorsmay

exacerbatethedisadvantagesandevenleadtocrisesinchilddevelopment.

Ourfindingsindicatethatpsychosocialsupportfromcaregiversbecomesacrucial

typeofnon-materialresourcesforchilddevelopmentintheleft-behindfamilies.

Grandparents,whousuallybecometheprimarycaregivers,makegreateffortsto

ensurechildren’soptimalfutureandcompensatethelossduetoofparental

absenceinthefamily.Quantitativestudieshaveshownthegrandparentsare

bettercaregiversthanotheralternativecaregiversinfulfillingthegapsleftby

migrantparentsindailycare(Zhaoetal.,2009;Fanetal.,2010;Jiang,2013;

Graham,2011;Senaratnaetal.,2011).Similartosomefindingsinthequalitative

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literature(Arnold,2006),severalchildreninourstudyareabletoforgestrong

attachmentrelationshipwithgrandparentsandseemtobelivinginahealthy,

supportiveenvironment,demonstratinglittledifferencethannormalnuclear

families.

However,giventhefactthatthegrandparents’physicalconditionsandabilities

relatedtochildcarevaried,lessonscanbedrawnfromdifferenttypesandamount

ofsupportthatwereavailabletobythechild,aswellasthesituationsand

arrangementsthatwereabletoenhancethechild’sresiliencetoparentalabsence.

Compositionoftheleft-behindfamilybesidesgrandparentsindicatescertain

significanceinthisstudy.Despitelittleevidencefromtheexistingqualitative

literature,theoreticalperspectivesoffamilystudiesandsocio-ecologicalsystems

elucidatedthepeereffectsintheco-residenthousehold(Berk,2012;

Bronfenbrenner&Morris,1998).Ourresultssuggestthatpeeraccompaniment

relievesthelonelinessfrombeingleftbehindandmayimprovetheoverallchild

developmentenvironment.Inthisregard,onespecifictypeofcarearrangement

inthecontextofChina’sOneChildPolicy(anditsvariants),i.e.capable

grandparentslookingaftermultiplecousins,seemstobeapatternthatisableto

offeradequatepsychosocialresourcesforchildren,withmoreconcentrated

economicresourcesthanmulti-siblingfamiliesinwhichonlyonenuclearfamilyis

providingremittances.Itispossiblethattheinteractionsbetweencousins

involvedapeerrelationshipthatdiffersfromrelationshipbetweennuclearfamily

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members,whichmaystrengthenthesocialfunctioningofthechild.

Anothertypeoffamilyinwhichthechildonlyliveswiththeleft-behindmother,

appearstobealessfavorableenvironment;themotherassinglecaregiver,such

asFeng,haslimitedtimeandeffortsonchildcareespeciallywhenshealsohasto

work,withafamilyincomethatislikelytobelowerthantwo-migrantfamilies.

Furthereffectsofcaregiverarrangementwillbeexaminedinthequantitative

study.

Thegrandparents’caregiverrolebecomesparticularlyimportantforchildren

livinginextremelydisadvantagedsituations,asCoe(2011)suggestedinthestudy

inGhana.InKaihua,someofthesechildrenarefacingenormousdifficulties,

especiallywhenproperpsychosocialsupportisunavailablefromgrandparentsor

alternativesources.Tomeetthehousehold’sbasicsurvivalneeds,manypoorest

parentstendtohavenochoicebuttomigrate,becauseofthelackofemploy

opportunitiesintheirhometownthatmaysignificantlyrelievetheireconomic

distress.Also,somefamiliesarebrokendownbecauseoftheparents’divorce;the

situationleavesthechildwithonlyunstablecareandlivelihoodprovision

arrangements.Whenparents’divorceleadstothechild’smoveofresidence,

disadvantagesinpeerandsocialsupportandevenschoolattendancemayfollow

inanunfamiliarenvironment.

Thevulnerablechildreninthesefamiliesareindireneedofextrahelp;andthe

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communitymaybecometheirlastresort.Dongyang’scasesuggeststhat

neighborsmayalsoplaycaregiverrolesinextremecases.Theresultsalsoshow

connectionsbetweenLBCandcommunityenvironment,suchasthebenefitsfrom

peeraccompanimentinafavorablecommunityenvironment,andevencertain

typesofcommunitycarethroughprematuremodelsthathavebeenestablishedin

Kaihua.Theseappeartobebeneficialcomplementofthefamily-wideresources

forchilddevelopment,whereasisolated,remotecommunityenvironmentmay

addtothedifficultiesinchildwellbeing.

5.4.5Theprocessesandeffectsofreturnmigration

MigrationtheoriesreviewedinChapter2underscoredthefunctionalityof

migrantsandtheirhouseholdsasrationalactorsthataredrivenbyreturnson

economicresourceandhumancapital,againstthecostofmigration(Sjaastad,

1962).InKaihua,ourfindingssuggestthattheprimaryconsiderationwhen

parentsmadethedecisiontomigratewastocopewiththefirst-orderstressin

familyeconomicstatus.However,similaraswhatBoss(2002,p48)notedinthe

familystressmodel,althoughmigrationisacopingmechanismleadstoincome

gains,italsobringsnew,attendingstressorstothefamilymembers,especiallythe

child.

Mostofthesestressorswererelatedtotheinsufficientqualityofchildcare

grandparentswereabletoprovide.First,frailtybecauseofoldagelimitedsome

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grandparents’physicalstrengths,mobilityandenergy,whichbecomes

considerableconstraintsespeciallyinthedailycareofyoungerchildren,orolder

childrenwhoneedextraattention.Also,“generationgaps”makesitdifficultfor

theelderlytosustaineffectivecommunicationandinteractionswithchildren.

Thesechallengesmayevenprogressivelyunderminetheircapabilityinsoothing

children’semotionaldistressfordiscipliningtheirbehavioralproblems.Asa

result,thepsychosocialdifficultiesinchildrenmaycontinuetoexacerbate,when

thenecessaryextrasupportandsupervisionfromcaregiversremainsunavailable.

Hence,itisimportanttorecognizethepossibleaugmentationovertimeofthe

negativeimpactfromparentalabsence.ExistinglongitudinalstudiesinChina

alreadysuggestthecontinuousdeclineofpsychologicalwellbeingduringearly

adolescence,whichalsoappearstobeassociatedwithlongerdurationofparental

absence(Dong&Zhang,2013b;Dong&He,2014;Luetal.,2014a;Zhaoetal.,

2015;Luetal.,2014b;Gao2010;Fanetal.,2013).Someinterviewsinthecurrent

studyindicatedsimilarworseningsituationovertime,forexample,Xiausedtobe

muchcloserwithhermigrantfatherinherearlychildhoodbutthey“grewapart”.

Oftentimesthefamilydidnottakecorrespondingactionsintimebeforethe

problemsworsen,sincemigrantparents,andevenco-residentcaregiversdidnot

detecttheearlyworryingsignsofchildwellbeingandbecomeawareofthe

situation.Inthesecases,theparent-childinteractionsviadistantcommunication

appeartobeunproductiveinachievingopen,in-depthconversationsoreffective

discipliningofbehavioralproblems.

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Itmayalsobeextremelychallengingtoreversethenegativepsychosocialimpact

causedbyparentalmigration,evenwithfulleffortsfromparentsand

grandparents.Whenthemigrantmothereventuallydecidestoreturnhome

permanently,itisstillunclearfromourresultswhetherthismovewillbe

followedbysignificantpositivechangesinthechild.Infact,aquantitativestudy

(Adhikarietal.,2013)oftheCHAMPEAprojectfoundinThailandthatmother’s

earliermigrationhistoryhadasignificant,independentassociationwith

psychosocialdifficulties.

First,aswasnotedintheresultssection,inourstudythedecisiontoreturnitself

indicatesthatthechallengesinchildcareanddisciplininghavebeensosignificant,

thateconomicsoflabormigrationtheorynolongerappliesinthesefamilies.

Migrantparentshavetoadjustthefamilygoalsandpriorities,byshiftingthe

focusfromeconomicprospectsbackontochilddevelopment.Second,economic

statusisstillakeyfactorinensuringadequateresourcesforthechild.Becauseof

thereducedincomeafterquittingthejobinthecity,thereturnmigrantsarelikely

toseekotherincomesourcesathome,andthereforetheymaynothaveenough

timeandenergytofocusonchildcare,astheywereintendingto.Empirical

evidencealsoindicatesthatmotherswhoarewageworkersspendsignificantly

lesstimeinchildcare,basedondatafromeightChineseprovinces(Shortetal.,

2012).

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Lastbutnotleast,thereturnmigrationmayindeedbringnewchallengesforthe

familyandchildren.Althoughmostinfantsbecomeattachedtomorethanone

familiarperson,thereisastrongtendencyforthemtopreferaprincipal

attachmentfigureforcomfortandsecurity(Bowlby,1969,p308).Followingthe

mother’sreturn,theprimarycaregiverroleofoneofthegrandparentsisboundto

bechallenged.Becauseofthedisturbanceinthecontinuityofcarefromtheinitial

attachmentfigure,attachmenttheoristssuggestthechildispronetodistressdue

totheinsecuritydemonstratedintheunstablerelationshipbonds(Bowlby,1973,

p35).Previousempiricalresearchhasalsoshownthatfrequentchangeof

caregiversleadstonegativeeffectsonLBC’swellbeing(Senaratnaetal.,2011;

Pottinger,2005).

5.4.6Limitations:studysample,age,andgender

ThesmallsampleinthisstudywasrecruitedfromarichprovinceinChinaand

hencecannotbenationallyrepresentative,consideringthemassive

underdevelopedruralareasacrossthecountry.Alsomostparentsinthisstudy

migratedwithintheprovinceandthusweremorelikelytovisithome,compared

tothosewhomigratedtoanotherprovince,comprisingapproximatelyonethird

oftotalmigrantsinChina(Qiao&Huang,2013).Despiteoureffortsinrecruiting

familieswithdiversecontextsintermsoffamilystructure,income,andmigration

timing,thesmallsampledidnotallowustocomprehensivelyinvestigateall

variablesinfamilycontextsanddistinguishtheirindividualeffectsonchild

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wellbeing.Wewerealsounabletocomparemigrantfathersandmigrantmothers

inattachmentrelationships,partlyduetothefactthatbothmigrantparents

wouldusuallyjointhephonecommunicationwiththechildandvisithome

together.

Relatedly,althoughcertaintheresultsshowedcertainsignsthatgirlsweremore

likelytointernalizingproblemsandboysmorepronetoexternalizingbehaviors,

thedatahasnotbeenstrongenoughtomakevalidconclusionregardinggender

disparitiesofchildwellbeing.Similarly,theagevariationsinthisstudywas

insufficienttoinferdifferentiatedpsychosocialwellbeingattributesbetweenage

groups.Withamuchlargersample,thequantitativestudypresentedinthenext

chapterwillinvestigatethechilddemographiccharacteristicsinmoredetail.

5.4.7Studyimplicationsandconnectionswiththequantitativestudy

VeryfewqualitativestudiespublishedinEnglishorChinesehaveaddressedthe

wellbeingofleft-behindchildreninChina.Thisstudyprovidesinsightsfroma

comprehensiveperspectivethatincorporatesbothmigrantsandleft-behind

familymembers,throughtheexplorationofarangeofrelationships,functions

andmechanismsinrelationtofamilycareandpsychosocialsupport,withinthe

familyandcommunitysystems.Withcertaincaveats,ourfindingsmayeven

informtheresearchonfamilieslivingapartduetoreasonsotherthanmigration,

suchasincarcerationandmilitaryservice.Interventionprogramsshouldbe

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developedtoimproveparent-childcommunicationinthefamilycopingprocess;

communitycareandsupportprogramsmayalsobenefitchildandfamily

wellbeing.Furtherresearchimplicationswillbediscussedinthelastsectionof

thefinalchapter.

Duetopracticalconstraints,thequalitativedataanalysisdidnotfinishwhenthe

quantitativedatacollectionstarted.Nevertheless,theinitialqualitativefindings

informedtheoverallframeworkandobjectivesofquantitativestudy.Buildingon

theoriginalgeneralresearchquestiononhowparentalmigrationmayaffectchild

wellbeing,qualitativeresultsshedlightsonthepotentialcausalpathways

betweenmigrationandchildoutcomes,byidentifyingtherelevanthousehold

characteristicsandotherenvironmentalfactors.

Aboveall,variousaspectsofchildpsychosocialwellbeingidentifiedinthe

qualitativeresultscontributetotheselectionofoutcomemeasuresand

questionnaireinstrumentsinthequantitativestudy,toinvestigatecritical

wellbeingdimensions,particularlyemotionalsymptoms,peerand

socio-behavioralproblems.

Althoughpreviouslyleft-behindchildrenwerenotincludedinthequalitative

studysample,thefindingsonmother’sreturnsuggestthatreturnmigrationmay

notbeabletoresolvethechallengesfacingtheirchildrenandmayevencreate

newstressors.Someresultsimpliedtheadverseimpactofparentalmigration

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mayaccumulateandprogressivelyunderminechildwellbeing.Earlymigration

afterchildbirthandparentalabsenceduringcriticaldevelopmentperiodsalso

appearedtobealarming.Asaresult,thepsychosocialwellbeingofpreviousLBC

whoseparentsreturnedhomepermanently,orthelong-termimpactofparental

migration,becomesakeypointofinterestinthequantitativestudy,andwillbe

examinedthroughoutthenextchapter.

Accordingtothequalitativefindings,themostdirectimpactfollowingmigration

isembodiedintheparent-childrelationship,andhelpsinterprettheeffectsof

parentalmigrationthatareindependentofothercovariatesinthequantitative

study.Inotherwords,evenafteradjustingforcharacteristicsoffamilyandsocial

environmentsthatwereexploredinthequalitativestudy,theremaining

correlationbetweenmigrationandchildpsychosocialdifficulties,especially

emotionaldistress,isstillmeaningful.

Thequalitativeresultsalsocontributetotheinclusionofcovariatesinthe

quantitativestudy,whicharemoreindirectlyrelatedtobothmigrationandchild

experiences.Carearrangementsandfamilycompositionemergedasimportant

conceptstobefurtherexploredusingquantitativedata.Whoaretheco-resident

familymembers,andwhoplaystheroleofprimarycaregiver,seemstobe

importantvariablesthatmayreflecttheconsequencesofmigrationandthe

wellbeingstatusofchildren.Parents’divorce,shownasastrongundermining

factorofLBC’swellbeinginDongyang’scase,isalsotobefurtherexaminedinthe

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quantitativestudy.

Thisstudyshowshowpsychosocialsupportfrommultiplesources,including

familyandcommunitymembers,providesessentialresourcesforthechildin

absenceofparents.Theavailabilityofsupportthusbecomesamajorfactortobe

examinedinthequantitativestudy.Importantly,whenlookingintothemost

disadvantagedfamilies,qualitativeresultsindicatechildrenwithlesssupport

fromfamilyandsocialenvironmentstendtobedisproportionatelyaffectedby

parentalmigration,eveninaprogressivemannerovertime.Thispromptsthe

investigationoninteractioneffectsbetweenavailabilityofsupportandparental

migrationinthequantitativestudy.

Duetothelackofvalidmeasuresofwealthstatusinthequalitativestudy,the

quantitativechapterwillfurtherinvestigatethehouseholdeconomicmechanisms

inrelationtomigrationandchildwellbeing,asinfamilycareresourcesandthe

largersocioeconomiccontextsoflabormigration.Thequantitativestudyisbased

onamuchlargersampleacrosstwoprovinces,sochilddemographicsincluding

ageandgenderwillbetakenintoaccountsintheanalysismodelsinthenext

chapter.

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Chapter6 Impactofparentalmigrationonchildren’s

psychosocialwellbeingmeasures:aquantitativesurvey

6.1Introduction

Thischapterpresentsthequantitativestudyofthisthesis.Usingacross-sectional

self-reportquestionnaire,thisstudyfurtherinvestigatesthecentralresearch

questionofthisthesis:howparentalmigrationaffectschildpsychosocial

wellbeingandwhataretherolesofotherfactorsintheLBC’sfamilyandsocial

environments.

Datawascollectedinthisstudyaspartofalargerproject.Alocalprojectteam

basedinZhejiangaffiliatedwithZhejiangUniversitycollecteddatafromallstudy

sites,andthusresultsinthischapterarefromthesecondarydataanalysisthat

theauthorconducted.However,theauthorparticipatedinthedesignofsurvey

instrument,basedonthereviewofbothempiricalandtheoreticalliteratures.

Connectionsbetweenthereviewandquestionnaireinstrumentappliedinthis

studywillbeelaboratedintheMethodssection.

Thequantitativeanalysisaimedtoinvestigatethecurrentandlong-termimpact

ofparentalmigration,ontheemotional,behavioralandsocialfunctioningaspects

ofchildwellbeingthatmayreflectconsequencesofparentalabsence.Inparticular,

thestudyfocusedonfamilycarearrangementsandsourcesofpsychosocial

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support,inadditiontomaterialresourcesforthechildren.Thesefactorswere

exploredinordertoindicatethepotentialimpactmechanismsorcausalpathways,

fromparentalmigrationtochildpsychosocialwellbeingoutcomes.

Morespecifically,weexamined:1)theimpactonchildpsychosocialwellbeingdue

tolengthyseparation(formorethan6months)frommigrantparents,including

bothcurrentandpreviousexperiencesofbeingleftbehind;2)characteristicsof

availableresourcesforoverallchilddevelopmentinabsenceofmigrantparents,

includingfamilycareprovision,psychosocialsupport,andwealthstatusthatmay

confoundthedirecteffectsofparentalmigration;3)howchildwellbeingfactors

(aswerementionedintheprevioustwopoints)wereassociatedwithspecific

dimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeing,ascomparedtotheoverallwellbeing

metric;4)whethertheeffectsofchildcareriskfactors,suchasparentaldivorce,

andlackofsocialsupport,aregreaterinleft-behindchildrenthannever

left-behindchildren.

6.2Methods

6.2.1Studypopulations

DatainthisstudywascollectedfromthethreecountiesinZhejiangandtwo

countiesinGuizhou.ThethreecountiesinZhejiangwereselectedinthepoorest

regionofZhejiang,andthetwocountiesinGuizhouwereamongthericherrural

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areasintheprovinceneartheprovincialcapital.

Officialsattherelevantdepartmentsofcountyortownshipgovernmentswere

interviewedtoidentifycommunitieswithhighproportionsofLBC,andto

understandtheeconomicstatusofthesecommunities.Twentymigrant-sending

townshipsinwesternZhejiang,andtensuchtownshipsinsoutheasternGuizhou,

wereincludedinthisstudy.InZhejiang,tomakethesamplemorecomparableto

Guizhou,twovillageswithhigherout-migrationandlowereconomicstatusin

eachtownshipwerefurtherselectedassamplingunits.Ineachselectedtownship,

twoschoolswheremostLBCgotowereincludedinthestudy,withthe

permissionoftheschoolprincipalandlocalDepartmentofEducation.Tobe

eligibleforthisstudy,studentsshouldbeinYear4toYear9fromtheselected

schools;andinZhejiang,studentsshouldalsocomefromtheselectedvillages.

6.2.2Datacollection

Aswasstatedintheintroductionsection,quantitativedatausedinthischapter

frombothZhejiangandGuizhouprovinceswascollectedbyaprojectteaminthe

field,aspartofalargerproject.Theprojectteamcomprisedofresearchersand

graduatestudentsatZhejiangUniversityandZhejiangNormalUniversity,andthe

authorconductedsecondarydataanalysis.

Alleligiblestudentswereprovidedwithadetaileddescriptionofthestudydesign

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andaninformedconsentform.Thosewhoagreedtoparticipatewereaskedto

completeaself-administeredquestionnaireintheirclassroom,withoutthe

presenceofanyteachersorschooladministrators.Participantswereassuredthat

theycouldwithdrawfromthestudyatanytime.Theywerealsotoldthatthere

werenorightorwronganswers,andtheiranswerswouldremainconfidential;no

oneexcepttheresearcherswouldhaveaccesstoinformationtheyprovidedinthe

questionnaire.

Trainedresearchassistantshelpedyoungerstudentsfillinthequestionnaireby

explainingthequestionsifrequested.Eachparticipantwasbrieflyinterviewed

afterthequestionnairewascompleted,toconfirmthequestionsrelatingto

parentalmigrationhistory.Correctionsweremadeaccordingtotheinterviewfor

inconsistentanswers.Allcompletedquestionnaireswerecollectedandputintoa

boxthatwasthensealedtodemonstratethatconfidentialitywasguaranteed.

6.2.3Measures

Questionnairedesign

Thesurveyinstrumentwasdevelopmentbasedonreviewsofbothempiricaland

theoreticalliteraturesconductedbytheauthor,withfurtherinputsand

modificationsfromthelargerprojectteam.Thetheoreticalperspectives

elucidatedinChapter2suggestareasoffocuswhendesigningsurveyquestions.

Argumentsaccordingtoattachmenttheoryhighlightedthefocusareasof

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emotionalandbehavioralissueswhenexaminingchildwellbeing.Thefamily

studiestheoriespointedoutthecrucialeffectsofhouseholdcharacteristics,as

wellaslargercontextualfactorsintheleft-behindfamily’ssocio-ecologicalsystem.

Migrationtheoriesillustratedcomplexmechanismsthatdrivetheactionsrelated

tomigration,whichinvolvedimportantfactorsintheleft-behindfamilyand

communitiestojustifytherationalesofmigration(orreturnmigration).

Particularly,householdeconomicsperspectiveinformedtheinvestigationand

discussiononfamilywealthstatusinthisstudy.

AswasshowninChapter3,instrumentsandquestionnaireitemsintheempirical

studieswerecriticallyreviewed,todesignthesurveyinstrumentthataddresses

thecentralresearchquestionbymeasuringoverallandspecificdimensionsof

wellbeing,aswellasimportantcovariates.Mentalhealthscaleswereexcluded

becausethisstudydoesnotfocusonpsychopathology,butratherthe

comprehensivepsychosocialmechanismswhichinvolvebothpositiveand

negativeaspects.Emotionalandbehavioralwellbeingbecamethefocusofchild

outcomemeasures,whichmaybebetterlinkedwithparentalabsenceaccording

tothetheoreticalreview.Theapplicabilityinthenon-clinicalsettingsinrural

Chinawasalsoconsidered,andcertainlanguageinthequestionnairewas

modifiedaccordinglytoavoidmisinterpretation.

Psychosocialwellbeing

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Theself-reportversionofStrengthsandDifficultiesQuestionnaire(SDQ)was

appliedtomeasurepsychosocialwellbeingofchildren.TheSDQ(Goodman,2007)

comprises25itemsofpsychosocialwellbeing,infivedimensionsincluding

emotionalsymptoms,(somaticsymptoms,unhappy,worries,nervousinnew

situations,andmanyfears)conductproblems(tempers,obedient,fightsorbullies,

lies,steals),hyperactivity(restless,fidgety,easilydistracted,thinksbeforeacting,

goodattention),peerproblems(solitary,hasgoodfriend,generallyliked,bullied,

betterwithadultsthanwithchildren),andpro-socialbehaviors(considerate,

helpfulifsomeonehurt,sharesreadily,kindtoyoungerchildren,often

volunteers).Eachitemwasscoredfrom0to2(nottrue,somewhattrue,and

certainlytrue).Eachdimensionwasmeasuredbythesummedscoreofthefive

itemsasasubscale,withvaluesrangingfrom0to10.Allbutthepro-social

subscalewerethengroupedtogethertogenerateatotaldifficultiesscore,ranging

from0to40,withhigherscoresindicatingmoreseveredifficulties.Alldependent

variablesfromSDQwerecodedascontinuousinouranalysis.

Table 6.1: Frequency distribution of responses in each SDQ item

Subscale Questionnaire item Frequency

(%) Emotion

I get a lot of headaches, stomach-aches or sickness Not true 53.4 Somewhat true 36.0 Certainly true 10.6

I worry a lot

Not true 16.5 Somewhat true 58.7 Certainly true 24.8

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I am often unhappy, down-hearted or tearful

Not true 52.6 Somewhat true 34.8 Certainly true 12.6

I am nervous in new situations. I easily lose confidence

Not true 32.2 Somewhat true 45.0 Certainly true 22.8

I have many fears. I am easily scared

Not true 50.8 Somewhat true 34.2 Certainly true 15.0

Conduct I get very angry and often lose my temper

Not true 36.5 Somewhat true 49.0 Certainly true 14.5

I usually do as I am told

Not true 4.5 Somewhat true 58.4 Certainly true 37.1

I fight a lot. I can make other people do what I want

Not true 70.3 Somewhat true 25.9 Certainly true 3.8

I am often accused of lying or cheating

Not true 78.7 Somewhat true 17.4 Certainly true 3.9

I take things that are not mine from home, school or

elsewhere

Not true 85.7 Somewhat true 6.1 Certainly true 8.3

Peer relationship

I am usually on my own. I generally play alone or keep to myself

229

Not true 63.3 Somewhat true 26.5 Certainly true 10.1

I have one good friend or more

Not true 6.6 Somewhat true 19.6 Certainly true 73.8

Other people my age generally like me

Not true 12.7 Somewhat true 46.8 Certainly true 40.5

Other children or young people pick on me or bully me

Not true 62.7 Somewhat true 28.5 Certainly true 8.8

I get on better with adults than with people my own age

Not true 31.6 Somewhat true 43.7 Certainly true 24.7

Hyperactivity I am restless, I cannot stay still for long

Not true 31.5 Somewhat true 53.6 Certainly true 14.9

I am constantly fidgeting or squirming

Not true 46.4 Somewhat true 41.4 Certainly true 12.2

I am easily distracted, I find it difficult to concentrate

Not true 31.9 Somewhat true 50.4 Certainly true 17.7

I think before I do things

Not true 8.8 Somewhat true 53.2 Certainly true 38.0

I finish the work I'm doing. My attention is good

Not true 14.7

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Somewhat true 63.0 Certainly true 22.3

Prosocial I try to be nice to other people. I care about their feelings

Not true 3.0 Somewhat true 58.4 Certainly true 38.7

I usually share with others (food, games, pens etc.)

Not true 6.2 Somewhat true 45.0 Certainly true 48.8

I am helpful if someone is hurt, upset or feeling ill

Not true 4.2 Somewhat true 43.0 Certainly true 52.8

I am kind to younger children

Not true 4.4 Somewhat true 32.3 Certainly true 63.3

I often volunteer to help others (parents, teachers,

children)

Not true 5.3 Somewhat true 57.5 Certainly true 37.3

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Figure 6.1: Frequency distribution of SDQ total difficulties score

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Figure 6.2. Frequency distribution of SDQ subscale scores

TheSDQhasprovenitsreliabilityandvalidityacrossdifferentculturesand

settings,andhasbeenvalidatedinChinesepopulation(Kouetal.,2007).Some

previousstudiesonLBChaveusedSDQoritssubscalesasprimaryoutcomesof

childwellbeing(Mazzucatoetal,2015;Vanoreetal.,2015;Wickramageetal.,

2015;Fanetal.,2010),whichcanprovidescorestobecomparedwithourresults.

Parentalmigrationstatus

Parentalmigrationstatuswasdeterminedaccordingtothetwoquestions“has

yourfather(andmother)takenajobawayfromyourhometownandbeenabsent

foroversixmonths?”Theoptionswere“yes,currentlyabsent”,“yes,previously

absent”,and“no,never”.Ifoneorbothparentswerecurrentlyabsent,thechild

wasdefinedasa“current-LBC”;ifnot,andifoneorbothparentswerepreviously

absent,thechildwasdefinedas“previous-LBC”;andifneitherparentwasever

away,thechildwas“never-LBC”.

Householdcharacteristics

Householdcharacteristicsincludedeconomicstatus,primarycaregiver

(grandparents,father,mother,orothers),parents’marriagestatus(marriedor

divorce),andanysiblings(yesorno).Economicstatuswasmeasuredbythe

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numberofhouseholdappliances,amongairconditioner,refrigerator,washing

machine,television,andcomputer.Thevariablewasthencodedaspoor(zeroto

oneitem),fair(twotothreeitems),andwealthy(fourtofiveitems).Theprimary

caregiverofchildrenwasidentifiedbasedontwoconsecutivequestions,“Who

areyoucurrentlylivingwith?”and,“Amongthem(wholivewithyou),whotakes

careofyouthemost?”Caregiversweregroupedintofourcategories:

grandparents,father,mother,andothers(includingrelatives,friends,siblings,

andnocaregiver).Theanswerswerethencross-checkedwithparentalmigration

status.Ifthechildidentifiedamigrantparentatthetimeasprimarycaregiver,

thisparent,whencodingthevariable,wasreplacedbyanadultlivingwiththe

child,usinganorderofprecedence:mother,father,grandparentsandthenothers.

Childsocialsupportandschoolperformance

Socialsupportwasmeasurebyascaleofsixitemsadaptedfromthe

MultidimensionalScaleofPerceivedSocialSupport.Weexcludedthewordings

thatspecifiedfamilyorfriendsinordertoexploreifsupportthechildcanget

fromanyone.Wealsoonlyfocusedontheaspectsthatbetterapplytorural

childreninChina.Thequestionsaskedwere:whetherornotthereissomeone

wouldhelportalkwiththechild,whenthechild1)hastroubleinstudy,2)

worriesaboutproblems,3)isteasedorbullied,andwhetherthereisanyonethe

childcan4)sharehappinesswith,5)sharesorrowwith,and6)seekhelpor

guidancefromwhenthingsgowrong.Theanswer“yes”wascoded1and“no”as0.

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Childrenwhoscored6,i.e.“yes”inallsixitemswerecategorizedashighsocial

support.Childrenwhoscored3to5werecategorizedasmedium,and0to2as

lowsocialsupport.Schoolperformancewasmeasuredbythequestion,“In

general,whatisyouracademicperformancelevelinyourclass?”Theoptions

were“top,upper-middle,middle,lower-middle,low”,codedfrom1(low)to5

(top).

Table 6.2: Overall sample characteristics

N / Mean % / SD

Parental migration status

NLB 701 19.8 PLB 907 25.6 CLB 1930 54.6

Age 12.36 2.08 Sex

Male 1674 47.45 Female 1854 52.55

Province Zhejiang 1352 38.21 Guizhou 2186 61.79

Primary caregiver Grandparent 1630 46.24

Father 435 12.34 Mother 1307 37.08 Other 153 4.34

Parents divorced No 3114 88.72 Yes 396 11.28

Any Sibling No 761 21.53 Yes 2774 78.47

School performance Very poor 290 8.22

Poor 659 18.68 Fair 1516 42.97

Good 752 21.32

235

Very good 311 8.82 Family/social support score

0 14 0.40 1 60 1.71 2 124 3.54 3 235 6.71 4 451 12.89 5 678 19.37 6 1938 55.37

Household items: Air conditioner

No 2676 75.70 Yes 859 24.30

Washing machine No 598 16.92 Yes 2937 83.08

Television No 120 3.39 Yes 3415 96.61

Refrigerator No 721 20.40 Yes 2814 79.60

Computer No 2447 69.22 Yes 1088 30.78

Motorcycle No 1700 48.09 Yes 1835 51.91

Cellphone No 162 4.58 Yes 3373 95.42

Car No 2864 81.02 Yes 671 18.98

Wealth score 6.2 2.76 Age at separation 4.52 3.34 Migrant parent(s)

Both 1602 56.45 Father 860 30.30 Mother 376 13.25

236

6.2.4Dataanalysis

Chi-squaretestandanalysesofvariancewereconductedtocomparechildand

householdcharacteristics,acrossthreegroupsofchildrenwithdifferentparental

migrationstatus.Thenanalysesofvarianceandcovariancecompareddependent

variablesacrossthesegroups.Tukey-Kramer(TK)testwasappliedinposthoc

analysesthatcomparedpsychosocialoutcomesacrossthreeparentalmigration

groups.TheTKmethodconductsthesetofallpairwisecomparisons

simultaneously,andisrelativelyconservativewhendetectingsignificant

differencesbetweengroupswithunequalsamplesizes(Jaccard&Guilamo-Ramos,

2002),asisthecaseinthisstudybetweenparentalmigrationstatusgroups.

Multiplelinearregressionmodelswerefittedtoexaminetheassociationsbetween

thepsychosocialoutcomesandcharacteristicsofchildrenandfamilies.The

baselinemodelincludedparentalmigrationstatus,themainvariableofinterest,

andchilddemographics:age,genderandprovince.Thesecondmodeladded

householdcharacteristics,includingeconomicstatus,caregiverandsibling,and

parents’marriagestatus.Inthethirdandfourth(full)model,twocovariates,social

supportandschoolperformancewereaddedsubsequently,toexploretheir

potentialmediatingeffect.Forhouseholdcovariatesthatremainedsignificant(i.e.

p≤0.05),theirinteractiontermswithmigrationstatusweretestedwithinthefull

modeltoestablishwhethertheeffectofparentalmigrationdifferedacrosslevelsof

237

eachcovariate.Theadjustedmeanswereestimatedforeachsubgroupofthe

interactiontermandcomparedpairwise.

6.3Results

6.3.1Sampledescriptivestatistics

Ofthe3,632studentswhowereeligible,3596childrenagreedtoparticipateinthe

study.NinechildrenwhofailedtocompletetheSDQsection,andeightchildren

withoneorbothparentsdeceasedwereexcluded.Thefinalstudysampleincluded

3579participants,including1930current-LBC,907previous-LBC,701never-LBC,

and41(1.1%)missingdataonparentalmigrationstatus.

238

Table 6.3: Sample characteristics by parental migration status

CLB PLB NLB Statistics P

Mean (SD)/N(%) Mean (SD)/N(%) Mean (SD)/N(%)

Age 12.3 (2.1) 12.5 (2.1) 12.3 (2.1) 4.25 0.014 Sex

1.492 0.474

Male 899 (46.7) 443 (49.1) 332 (47.5) Female 1028 (53.4) 459 (50.9) 367 (52.5)

Province

96.46 <0.001 Zhejiang 693 (35.9) 282 (31.1) 377 (53.9) Guizhou 1238 (64.1) 625 (68.9) 323 (46.1)

Primary caregiver

625.9 <0.001

Grandparent 1254 (65.2) 252 (27.9) 124 (17.8) Father 150 (7.8) 147 (16.2) 138 (19.8)

Mother 390 (20.3) 486 (53.7) 431 (61.8) Other 128 (6.7) 20 (2.2) 5 (0.7) Parents divorced

54.75 <0.001 No 1637 (85.5) 812 (90.3) 665 (95.6) Yes 278 (14.5) 87 (9.7) 31 (4.5)

Any Sibling

5.51 0.064 No 434 (22.5) 170 (18.8) 157 (22.4) Yes 1494 (77.5) 736 (81.2) 544 (77.6)

Household wealth 18.68 <0.001 Poor 185 (9.6) 62 (6.8) 53 (7.6) Fair 1181 (61.3) 564 (62.3) 291 (41.5) Wealthy 562 (29.2) 280 (30.9) 357 (50.9) Social support 18.63 0.003 Low 122 (6.4) 38 (4.3) 38 (5.5) Fair 780 (40.8) 346 (38.8) 238 (34.2) High 1010 (52.8) 507 (56.9) 420 (60.3) School performance 18.68 0.017 Very poor 155 (8.1) 77 (8.5) 58 (8.3) Poor 375 (19.5) 167 (18.5) 117 (16.7) Fair 849 (44.2) 390 (43.1) 277 (39.6) Good 400 (20.8) 188 (20.8) 164 (23.4) Very good 144 (7.5) 83 (9.2) 84 (12.0)

239

Table6.1presentsthefrequencyofanswersfromeachofthe25itemsoftheSDQ.

Figure6.1andFigure6.2demonstratethedistributionsoftotaldifficultiesscore

andscoresfromthefivesub-scalesofSDQ.Table6.2showstheoverallsample

characteristicsacrossallchildreninthestudysample.

Table6.3presentsthesocio-demographiccharacteristicsofchildrenbytheir

parentalmigrationstatus.Overallthereweremoregirlsthanboysinthestudy

sampleandthegenderdistributiondidnotdifferacrossthethreegroups.

Previous-LBCwereslightlyolder(meanage12.54,SD2.1)thantheothertwo

groups.Theproportionsofchildreninthetwoleft-behindgroupswerehigherin

GuizhouthaninZhejiang(68.9%versus31.1%).Withregardtofamily

characteristics,nearlytwothirdsofcurrent-LBCwereprimarilycaredforby

grandparents,whereasrespectiveproportionsforprevious-LBCandnever-LBC

were28%and18%.Parentsusuallytooktheprimarycaringroleinprevious-LBC

andnever-LBC,althoughtheproportionwasslightlylowerinprevious-LBCthan

innever-LBC.

Parentswhohadmigratedweremorelikelytobedivorced.Current-LBC’sparents

wereabout3times,andprevious-LBC’sparentstwotimesmorelikelythan

never-LBC’sparentstobedivorced.Approximatelyonefifthofthechildrenwere

singlechild,acrossthethreegroups.

Fiftypercentofnever-LBCreportedthattheywerefromwealthierhouseholds,

240

comparedwith30%fromthetwoleft-behindgroups.Infactcurrently-LBCwere

significantlypoorerthannever-LBCinbothZhejiangandGuizhouprovinces

(p<0.01).Besideshouseholditems,weexaminedthechild-reportrelative

economicstatusinourquestionnaire.Thesensitivityanalysiswithhousehold

itemmeasurereplacedbytherelativewealthvariableshowedconsistentresults,

furtherconfirmingthedisadvantagedeconomicstatusamongthetwoleft-behind

groups.

Ingeneral,current-LBCalsohadlowersocialsupport(p<0.001)andschool

performance(p<0.001)thannever-LBC;andprevious-LBCwerebetweenthe

levelsoftheothertwogroupsinthesetwomeasures.Mostchildrenwere

left-behindbybothparents,andfathersweremorelikelytomigratethanmothers.

About20%ofallLBCwereseparatedfrommigrantparentsbytheageofone;

morethanhalfwereleft-behindbyschoolage.

6.3.2Parentalmigrationstatusandpsychosocialdifficulties

Table6.4showsthedifferencesbetweenthethreegroupsofchildren,intermsof

thekeypsychosocialoutcomesfromtheSDQ,includingtotaldifficulties,andthe

fivesubscales.Bothcurrent-LBCandprevious-LBChadhighertotaldifficulties

meanscoresthannever-LBC.Previous-LBCappearedslightlyworseoffthan

current-LBCinallmeansubscalescoresexceptemotionalsymptoms.After

controllingforage,sex,andprovince,posthocanalysisconfirmedthatboth

previous-LBCandcurrent-LBChadsignificantlyhighertotaldifficulties,aswellas

241

worseemotionalsymptoms,peerrelationshipproblems,andhyperactivitythan

never-LBC.Nodifferenceswereidentifiedbetweentheprevious-LBCand

current-LBCafteradjustingforage,sexandprovince.

Adjustedbetween-groupdifferenceswerealsofoundineachprovince.In

Zhejiang,posthocanalysisshowedsignificantlyhigherlevelofdifficultiesin

current-LBCthannever-LBC,andinGuizhoubothleftbehindgroupshadhigher

difficultyscoresthannever-LBC.

242

Table 6.4: Psychosocial outcomes by parental migration status

Note: Adjusted with age, sex, and province.

Parental migration Unadjusted Adjusted

Never (1) Previous (2) Current (3)

Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) F P Post hoc F P Post hoc

Total difficulties 12.21 (4.71) 13.16 (5.06) 12.94 (5.05) 7.31 0.001 (1,2;1,3) 4.03 0.0179 (1,2;1,3)

Emotion 3.51 (2.05) 3.83 (2.22) 3.83 (2.18) 5.73 0.003 (1,2;1,3) 3.42 0.0329 (1,3)

Conduct 2.20 (1.51) 2.35 (1.61) 2.22 (1.51) 2.32 0.098

1.43 0.2393

Hyperactivity 2.70 (1.65) 2.98 (1.68) 2.89 (1.66) 2.95 0.053 (1,3) 3.01 0.0493 (1,3)

Peer 3.80 (1.88) 4.00 (1.93) 4.00 (1.99) 5.24 0.005 (1,2;1,3) 2.93 0.0536 (1,2)

Pro-social 7.17 (1.90) 7.21 (1.84) 7.19 (1.90) 0.09 0.913

0.23 0.7978

243

6.3.3Effectsofhouseholdcharacteristics

Table6.5presentsthemultipleregressionresultsofchildtotaldifficultiesscore.

Parentalmigrationstatus,bothpreviousandcurrent,wasassociatedwith

significantincreasesinpsychosocialdifficultiesinallmodels.Thestrongimpact

ofpreviousparentalmigrationwasalmostunchangedfromthereducedmodel

(B=0.81,p=0.001)tothefullmodel(B=0.75,p=0.003).Increasesofpsychosocial

difficultiesincurrent-LBC(B=0.75,p=0.001)appearedtohaveslightlyreduced

butremainedsignificant(B=0.57,p=0.017),afteradjustingforhousehold

characteristics,socialsupportandschoolperformanceinthefullmodel.The

meanincrease(regressioncoefficient)inthecurrent-LBCgroupdroppedfrom

0.85to0.67whenhouseholdcharacteristicswereadjusted(Model2),andfurther

downto0.58whensocialsupportvariablewasadded(Model3).

244

Table 6.5: Regression coefficient (SE) for total difficulties score on parental

migration status with and without adjustment for household characteristics,

social support, and school performance

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 B SE P B SE P B SE P B SE P

Parental migration (ref: never)

Previous 0.81 0.25 0.001 0.78 0.26 0.002 0.77 0.25 0.002 0.75 0.25 0.003 Current 0.75 0.22 0.001 0.67 0.25 0.007 0.58 0.24 0.017 0.57 0.24 0.017

Sex (ref: male)

Female -0.33 0.17 0.051 -0.34 0.17 0.051 0.00 0.17 1.000 0.29 0.17 0.086

Age 0.02 0.04 0.564 0.03 0.04 0.530 0.10 0.04 0.015 0.03 0.04 0.410

Province (ref: Zhejiang)

Guizhou 0.87 0.18 0.000 0.78 0.21 0.000 0.8 0.21 0.000 0.92 0.21 0.000 Household wealth (ref: fair)

Poor

0.64 0.31 0.042 0.60 0.31 0.052 0.46 0.30 0.132 Wealthy

-0.09 0.22 0.662 0.11 0.21 0.619 0.28 0.21 0.181

Primary caregiver (ref: Grandparent)

Father

0.19 0.29 0.496 0.22 0.28 0.424 0.23 0.28 0.398 Mother

0.23 0.21 0.284 0.25 0.21 0.233 0.33 0.21 0.107

Other

0.56 0.43 0.193 0.31 0.42 0.459 0.29 0.42 0.490 Divorced parents

1.29 0.28 0.000 1.14 0.28 0.000 1.00 0.27 0.000

Any Sibling

0.09 0.22 0.684 0.17 0.22 0.439 0.11 0.21 0.607 Social support (ref: high)

Low

3.46 0.37 0.000 3.03 0.37 0.000 Medium

1.53 0.18 0.000 1.32 0.18 0.000

School Performance (ref: fair)

Very poor

2.66 0.32 0.000 Poor

0.88 0.23 0.000

Good

-0.90 0.22 0.000 Very good

-1.39 0.30 0.000

245

ChildrenfromGuizhouweremorelikelytohavehigherpsychosocialdifficulties.

Boysappearedtobemarginallymorevulnerableinthereducedmodelwith

demographicsandhouseholdcharacteristics(B=0.67,p=0.051),butthe

associationdisappearedwhensocialsupportisadjusted.Agedidnotshowany

effectuntilsocialsupportwasaddedinModel3,whereolderchildrenseemedto

havemoredifficulties;butthesignificancewaslostafterschoolperformanceis

controlledfor.ChildreninGuizhouhadmarkedlyhigherpsychosocialdifficulties

thanthoseinZhejiang(B=0.92,p<0.001).

AsisshowninModel2,comparedwithmiddle-incomefamilies,childrenfrom

poorerfamilieshadhigherdifficultiesscore;butchildrenfromwealthier

householdsdemonstratednodifferencesfromthoseinthemediumlevelincome

families.Nevertheless,theeffectofhouseholdwealthdisappearedinthefull

model.

Parents’divorceshowedastrongassociation(B=1.00,P<0.001)withhighertotal

difficultiesafteradjustingallcovariates.Withregardtohouseholdmembers,who

wastheprimarycaregiverandwhetherthechildhadanysiblingdidnotappearto

affectpsychosocialoutcome.Additionally,wefoundthattheco-residentparentof

currentLBCwasnotnecessarilytheprimarycaregiver.Basedontheprimary

caregiverthatwasdeterminedaccordingtoourmethods,unadjustedanalysis

246

showedlowesttotaldifficultiesscoresinchildrencaredforbymothers(12.81),

andhighestinthosecaredforbyotherrelatives(13.61).

6.3.4Effectsofsocialsupportandschoolperformance

Socialsupportwasanimportantcovariatewhichhadastrongpositiveeffecton

childhoodpsychosocialwellbeing.Theeffectofcurrentseparationfrommigrant

parentsstayedalmostunchanged,whereasthecoefficientforpreviousparental

migrationreducedbyabout13%.Schoolperformancesalsoshowedhighly

negativeassociationswithtotaldifficultiesscore;strongeffectswereindicatedat

eachoftheirordinallevels.

6.3.5Differentdimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeing

Table6.6presentstheregressionresultsofSDQsubscalescoresthatshowed

significantbetween-groupdifferencesinTable6.2.Afteradjustingforall

covariates,bothcurrentandpreviousabsenceofparentswerestilllinkedto

emotionalsymptoms.Inparticular,previous-LBCseemedtobemore

disadvantagedintermsofpeerrelationship,comparedtonever-LBC.

247

Table 6.6: Regression coefficients for emotional symptoms, peer relationships,

and hyperactivies subscales on parental migration status, household

characteristics, social support, and school performance

Emotional symptoms Peer problems Hyperactivities

B P B P B P

Parental migration status

(ref: never)

Previous 0.29 0.010 0.19 0.020 0.15 0.134

Current 0.31 0.004 0.09 0.257 0.16 0.094

Sex (ref: male)

Female 0.84 <0.001 -0.12 0.031 -0.07 0.332

Age 0.01 0.513 -0.11 <0.001 0.15 <0.001

Province (ref: Zhejiang)

Guizhou 0.4 <0.001 0.19 0.005 0.13 0.118

Household wealth (ref: fair)

Poor 0.2 0.133 0.35 0.001 -0.1 0.379

Wealthy 0.12 0.205 -0.17 0.015 0.21 0.013

Primary caregiver

(ref: Grandparent)

Father -0.14 0.124 0.00 0.973 -0.08 0.306

Mother -0.09 0.472 0.04 0.642 -0.02 0.878

Other 0.11 0.577 -0.21 0.145 0.08 0.626

Divorced parents 0.34 0.004 0.17 0.061 0.25 0.018

Any Sibling 0.02 0.846 0.00 0.967 0.03 0.704

Social support (ref: high)

Low 0.88 <0.001 1.14 <0.001 0.64 <0.001

Medium 0.39 <0.001 0.41 <0.001 0.44 <0.001

School Performance (ref:

fair)

Very poor 0.55 <0.001 0.57 <0.001 0.83 <0.001

Poor 0.08 0.423 0.29 <0.001 0.32 <0.001

Good -0.18 0.064 -0.19 0.009 -0.4 <0.001

Very good -0.21 0.120 -0.14 0.175 -0.88 <0.001

248

Age,sex,andeconomicstatusshowedsignificantassociationswithdifferent

subscaleoutcomes,inbothpositiveandnegativeways.Femalechildrenwere

morelikelytohaveemotionaldifficulties,whereasboysweremoresusceptibleto

peerrelationshipproblems.Olderchildrentendedtohavelesspeerrelationship

problemsbutweremorehyperactive.Meanscoresforemotionalsymptomsand

peerproblemsubscaleswerehigherinchildrenfromGuizhouthanthosefrom

Zhejiangprovince,whiletherewasnodifferenceinhyperactivityscore.Although

householdwealthwasnegativelyassociatedwithpeerrelationshipdifficulties,

childreninricherfamiliesmaybemorelikelyhavehyperactivityproblems.

6.3.6Resultsincurrentlyleft-behindchildren

ThesubsequentanalysisinTable6.7onlyincludedthecurrent-LBCgroupto

explorefactorsrelatedtocurrentleft-behindexperiences.Incontrarytocommon

conception,childrenwhoidentifiedmotherasprimarycaregiverhadhigher

psychosocialdifficulties(meanscore13.40)thanthosecaredforbygrandparents

(meanscore12.91)inthefullregressionmodel.Meanwhile,furthersubgroup

analysis(notshowninregression)showedifagrandparentwasprimarycaregiver

andthemotherwasalsolivingathome,thecurrent-LBChadaverylowlevelof

totaldifficulties(meanscore11.45).Left-behindgirlshadworsepsychosocial

outcomesthanboys,incontrasttowhatthereducedmodelthatincludedall

childrenappearedtoindicate.Anewlyaddedvariableinthisanalysis,childage

249

whenfirstseparatedfromamigrateparent,wasnegativelyassociatedwithtotal

difficultiesscore.

Table 6.7. Regression coefficients (SE) for total difficulties score on parental

migration status, household characteristics, social support, and school

performance for currently left-behind children only

B SE P

Sex (ref: male)

Female 0.57 0.25 0.020

Age 0.07 0.06 0.219

Age at separation -0.11 0.04 0.001

Province (ref: Zhejiang)

Guizhou 0.93 0.31 0.003

Household wealth (ref: fair)

Poor 0.68 0.41 0.097

Wealthy 0.25 0.32 0.435

Primary caregiver

(ref: Grandparent)

Father 0.45 0.44 0.308

Mother 1.07 0.30 <0.001

Other 0.64 0.47 0.17

Divorced parents 1.1 0.34 0.001

Any Sibling -0.16 0.3 0.599

Social support (ref: high)

Low 3.11 0.5 <0.001

Medium 1.68 0.25 <0.001

School Performance (ref: fair)

Very poor 2.58 0.46 <0.001

Poor 0.8 0.32 0.013

Good -0.7 0.31 0.022

Very good -1.47 0.46 0.001

250

6.2.7Interactioneffects

Nosignificantinteractioneffectsofparentalmigrationandkeycovariateson

psychosocialdifficultieswerefound.Themagnitudesoftheimpactfromparental

migrationonpsychosocialdifficultieswerehighlyconsistentbetweenZhejiangand

Guizhou(Figure6.3),despitetheconsiderablechildwellbeinggapsbetweenthe

twoprovinces.However,theimpactsofparents’divorceandlowersocialsupport

appearedtobehigherinthetwoleft-behindgroupsthantheneverleft-behind

group,whencomparingadjustedtotaldifficultiesscoresbetweenthedivorcedand

undivorced,andbetweenlowandhighsupportgroups,withineachtypeof

parentalmigrationstatus.(Figures6.3;Table6.8).

Figure 6.3: Adjusted total difficulties score by parental migration status and

covariates

251

Table 6.8: Between-subgroup comparisons of adjusted mean total difficulties

score by key covariates and parental migration status

Never-LBC Previous-LBC Current-LBC

Adjusted

Mean F P

Adjusted

Mean F P

Adjusted

Mean F P

Province

5.55 0.019

5.65 0.018

13.44 <0.001

Zhejiang 13.4

14.2

13.9

Guizhou 14.3

15

14.9

Divorce

0.03 0.854

5.58 0.018

9.88 0.002

Divorced 13.5

15.4

14.9

Married 13.4

14.1

13.9

Social support

9.04 0.003

16.01 <0.001

59.11 <0.001

Low support 13.7

14.5

14.6

High Support 12.6

13.2

12.9

Note: Subgroup means were adjusted for all covariates in the full model (model 4) in

Table 6.5.

6.4Discussion

6.4.1Summaryofkeyfindingsandcontributionstotheliterature

Ourfindingsindicatethatparentalmigrationisassociatedwithindependent,

long-lastingadverseoutcomes,especiallytheemotionalandsocialdimensionsof

childpsychosocialwellbeing.Relationshipbetweennuclearfamilymembers,care

252

arrangements,andavailabilityofsupportinfamilyandsocialenvironmentsseem

tobeimportantcovariatesinthecausalmechanismsthatconnectchildwellbeing

outcomeswithparentalmigrationstatus.Schoolperformancealsoaccountsfor

someofthevariationsinchildren’spsychosocialwellbeing.Yetsocioeconomic

statusdoesnothaveanoveralleffectonpsychosocialwellbeing,andbetter-off

wealthconditionisnotnecessarilyassociatedwithmigrationstatus.

ThepsychosocialdifficultiesinLBChavebeenidentifiedinanumberofprevious

studies,aswasshowninChapter3.However,mostofthemfocusedonlimited

perspectives.First,theoutcomevariablesinmanystudiesfailedtopresenta

comprehensivepictureofvariousaspectsofpsychosocialwellbeing.Aswas

discussionintheempiricalreviewchapter,someauthorsappliedmentalhealth

diagnostictoolstoscreenforsymptoms,withoutmuchconsiderationonthetraits

mentallyhealthychildrenthatmayalsodistinguishthedisadvantagesinLBC,

especiallyinsocialinteractionsandrelationships.Asingletypeofsymptomsuch

asdepressionandanxietywasoftenthecentralresearchaim,whichdoesnot

provideenoughinsightsregardingthecommunityandsocialimplicationsand

potentialinterventions.

Also,theextantliteraturelacksafullaccountofthehouseholdandsocial

environmentsofLBC,whenexaminingchildwellbeingoutcomes.Thefamily

relationshipdynamics,inadditiontothephysicalabsenceofparents,particularly

needin-depthexplorationinordertorevealthemechanismsinchilddevelopment.

253

Theinteractioneffectsofbetweenthesecovariatesandparentalmigrationstatus

arerarelyexamined.Akeyfindingofourstudyisthathavingdivorcedparentswas

agreaterpsychosocialriskfactorforcurrentandpreviousLBCthanforneverLBC,

andsimilarly,socialsupportwasmoreprotectiveincurrentLBCandpreviousLBC

thaninneverLBC.Thispatternsuggestsfamilyrelationshipcrisesmaycause

extraordinaryvulnerabilityinLBC,andsuggeststheimportanceofpsychosocial

supportinsafeguardingthemoredisadvantagedLBC.

Nevertheless,inconsistencewithourresults,thevastmajorityofexistingstudies

conductedinChinaandgloballyhaveshownevidenceacrossmanyprovinceson

thedisadvantagesofpsychosocialwellbeinginLBCcomparedtochildrenliving

withbothparents.ThesimilarconclusionacrossdifferentprovincesinChinaalso

corroboratesourfindingthatmigrationaffectschildreninsimilarwaysacross

ZhejiangandGuizhouprovinces.Meanwhile,aswasdiscussedintheprevious

qualitativechapter,internationallabormigrationmayinvolvedifferent

mechanismsandconditions,sothelocalcontextsregardingtheeconomic

resources,careprovisionandsocialsupportshouldbeconsideredwhen

interpretingtheirfindings.

Forinstance,amongthefourCHAMPSEAProjectcountries,childrenofmigrant

fathersinIndonesiaandVietnamwerefoundtohavepooreremotionalwell-being,

comparedtochildreninnon-migranthouseholds,whereasinThailandmixed

resultswereindicated(Adhikarietal.,2013;Graham&Jordan2011).Inthe

254

Philippines,acountrywheretransnationallabormigrationhasbeenlong

established,LBCactuallydemonstratedadvantagesinpsychosocialwellbeing.This

maybeattributedtothegovernment’sactiverolesinprotectingtherightsofits

migrants,andstrongcivilsocietysupporttothoseleftbehind(Graham&Jordan

2011),asopposedtotheChinesecontexts.Thenormalizationoftransnational

familiesmayalsobeprotective,especiallyinthesehighout-migrationareas,from

whichthesamplewasdrawn.YetintheChinesesetting,lackofsocialcapitalinthe

migrant-sendingcommunitymaypartiallyexplainthedisadvantagesfacingLBC

(Wen&Lin,2012).Additionally,whileinthePhilippinesthecostsofmigration,

especiallytocountriesinanothercontinent,maypreventpoorerhouseholdsfrom

consideringtransnationalmigration,inVietnam,somecommunesofferloansto

facilitatemigrationofpoorerparents,whichmakesthesocio-economicvariability

inVietnamesestudysamplemoresimilartoruralChina.

6.4.2Independenteffectsofparentalmigrationonpsychosocialdifficulties

Inthequantitativeliterature,avarietyofpsychosocialwellbeingmetricswere

applied,butfewwereabletoreflecttheindependenteffectofthedisrupted

relationships.Inthecurrentstudy,thestrongeffectofmigrationontotal

psychosocialdifficultiesafteradjustingforallcovariatesimpliesthattheimpactof

parentalmigrationisindependentofkeycharacteristicsinthefamilyandsocial

environmentsofLBC.Aswasdiscussedinthepreviouschapterofqualitativestudy,

thisdirectimpactislikelytobeembodiedintheproblematicrelationshipswith

255

migrantparentsfollowingthemigration,andthelengthyprocessofmaintaining

theconnectionsremotelyandthepossibledetachmentfromtherelationships

bonds.ThisisinfactsupportedbyHuetal.’s(2014)study,alsobasedonSDQ

outcomemeasures,whichfoundabinaryvariable“harmoniousfamilyrelationship

(ornot)”accountedforalargeamountoftheadverseeffectduetoparental

migration.

Emotionalsymptomsandsocio-behavioralproblems

Particularly,parentalmigrationwasfoundtohavethelargestimpactonemotional

wellbeing,amongalldimensionsoftheSDQmeasures.Thiscorrespondswiththe

majorqualitativefindingthatmanyLBCexperienceemotionaldistressduetothe

absenceofparentalrolesintheattachmentrelationship.Resultsfromthis

quantitativestudysuggestthescopeofthisemotionalimpactisfarbeyond

parent-childrelationship;rather,theemotionalsymptomsmaybepresentin

variousaspectsofthechild’sdailylife.

ConductproblemsdidnotshowdifferencebetweenLBCandnon-LBC,which

suggestsparentalmigrationmaynotnecessarilycausemisbehaviors.Thisisalso

consistentwiththequalitativeresultsthatlittleevidencedirectlypointstoany

significantbehavioralchallengesinLBC,eveninthereturnmigrationcases;yetthe

concernsexpressedbysomeparentsaboutchilddiscipliningdoindicatethe

hyperactivetraitsintheirchildren.Peerrelationshipissuesseemtoreflectthe

256

inadequatesocialfunctioningintheLBC,whichmaybesubjecttotheinfluenceof

familyrelationshipdynamicsaswell.Familiescomprisedofmultiplecousins,as

describedinthequalitativechapter,mayinawaystrengthenthesocialfunctioning

withthechild’speers.

Impactfrompreviousparentalmigration

Ourresultssuggestthat,previousexperienceofprolongedseparationfrom

migrantparentshadsimilarnegativeimpactonchildwellbeing,tothecurrent

absenceofparents,afteraccountingforotherfactors.Previousstudiesthat

investigatedchildren’spreviousexperienceofbeingleft-behindshowedmixed

results.Adhikarietal.(2013)foundinThailandthatmother’searliermigration

historyhadasignificant,independentassociationwithpsychosocialdifficulties.

Huang&Li(2007)showedbothcurrentandpreviousLBChadworsemental

healthstatusthannon-LBC.However,Wuetal.,(2015)indicatedthatchildren

whohadpreviouslybeenleft-behindtendedtoexperiencefewerdepressive

symptoms.

Sincethevastmajorityofmigrationflowsarewithinthecountry,itisnot

uncommonthatmigrantparentsreturnhomeafterlivingapartfromtheirchildfor

anextendedperiod.Infactthequalitativestudydiscussedthecasesofafew

formermigrantmothersindetail,anddiscussedtheconsiderablychallenging

scenariosthatmayfollowthemother’sreturn.Althoughthereturnofthemothers

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inthequalitativestudydoesnotchangethecurrent-LBCstatusbecausethefather

isstillaway,mostofthesechallengesstillapplywheninterpretingtheresultsof

theimpactofpreviousmigrationfromthisquantitativestudy,particularlythe

possiblehighseverityofpsychosocialsymptomsaccumulatedovertimethatledto

theparent’sreturn,andtheconsequencesfollowingthechangeofprimary

caregiver.Thepossibledecreaseoffamilyincomeisnotreflectedinthe

quantitativefindingsincethereturnmothersarestillcountedasinacurrent-LBC

family.

Asacross-sectionalstudy,wewereunabletocomparechildwellbeingbeforeand

afterparentalmigration.Yetitisprobablethatthemigrationcausedthewellbeing

problems,insteadoftheotherwayaround.Fromthemigrationtheories,itcanbe

inferredthattheparentswouldhavenotleavehomeandpursuehigherwellbeing

status,iftherewereconcernsaboutthechild’spsychologicalordevelopmentrisks

thatmaybeaggravatedbytheirdeparture.Relatedly,emotionalorbehavioral

problemsinprevious-LBCthatemergedduringparents’absence,mayhave

contributedtothedecisionofreturninghome.Thismaybearationaletoexplain

thedisadvantagesinprevious-LBC.Thedisruptionofparent-childcommunication

andattachmentrelationshipinearlychildhoodmayhavelong-termnegative

psychologicalimpacts(Kobak&Madsen,2008,p26),andthereturnofmigrant

parentsisunlikelytoresolvethecomplexconsequencesoftheirprolonged

absenceinthechild’slife.

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Asafewpreviousstudiessuggested,theirreturnmightevencreatenewchallenges

inthechild’slifeduetothechangeofprimarycaregiver(Senaratnaetal.,2011;

Pottinger,2005).Whiletheongoingseparationandpastseparationseemtoaffect

emotionalwellbeingtoasimilarextent,thisstudyidentifiedpeerrelationship

problemsweremoreserveinprevious-LBC,butnotcurrent-LBC.Thismayimply

thenewchallengesregardingsocialfunctioningaftermigrantparents’return,

whilefurtherinvestigationsareneededtoelaboratetherisksthatarespecifically

facedbyprevious-LBC.

6.4.3Familycareandsocialsupport

Carearrangementsandrolesofprimarycaregiver

Asourqualitativestudyemphasized,theroleofprimarycaregiverisessentialin

thecarearrangementsforLBC.Inadditiontowhichparenthasmigrated,onlya

fewpreviousquantitativestudies(Vanoreetal.,2015;Suetal.,2012)examined

whoistheprimarycaregiverasanindicatoroffamilystructureandcaregiving

pattern.Theirresultssuggestthatgrandparentsprovidebettercarethanother

non-parentcaregiversforLBC.However,morein-depthanalysisofcare

arrangementsisneededtodisclosefurtherinformationaboutthefamily

environmentandpatternsofcareandsupport.

Inthisstudy,weidentifiedtheprimarycaregiveraccordingtochildren’s

self-report,astheonewholooksafterthemthemost,insteadofaskingadult

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householdmemberstoidentifytheprimarycaregiver.Thisisbecausechildren’s

views,albeitsubjective,shouldbemoremeaningfulinreflectingtheir

relationshipswithco-residentadults,sinceitistheirexperiencesthatmatterfor

theirwellbeing.InChina,theconceptof“primarycaregiver”isnotasestablished

asitisintheWesterncontext;althoughthephrase’sChinesetranslation(ZhaoGu

Zhe;照顾者)iseasytounderstand,itisnotcommonlyused.Asaresult,the

childrenmayrelymoreontheirsubjectivefeelingswhennominatingtheZhaoGu

Zhe.

Interestingly,wefoundthatsomechildrenidentifiedamigrantparentnotliving

withthemastheirprimarycaregiver.Thisindicatesthechild’srelativelyclose

relationshipandmoreimportantly,emotionalattachmenttotheparents.Yetthe

realitiesofmigrationandthesubsequentlengthyphysicalseparation,havecreated

aninevitabledisruptiontothisinitiallystrongattachment;theclosenessbetween

parentsandthechildmayleadtoextraemotionalcost,whichwasshownas

depressivefeelingswhenmissingparentsinourqualitativefindings.Also,thefact

thatthesechildrendidnotnameaco-residentialadultasprimarycaregiver

indicatedthelackofemotionalconnectionswiththemandpossiblyinadequate

qualityofcare,whichalsohavenegativeeffectsonchildwellbeing.

AdultcaregiversofLBC,mostlygrandparentsandparents,havedifferentrolesin

supportingchilddevelopmentandinsafeguardingthepsychosocialwellbeingof

LBC.Perhapsthemoststrikingfindinginthisstudyisthattheco-residentmother

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doesnotseemtoprovidebettercarethangrandparents.Current-LBCprimarily

caredforbytheirmotherappeartobesignificantlymorevulnerablethanthose

caredformainlybygrandparents.Inparticular,aleft-behindworkingmotherin

theruralareaislikelytohaverelativelylimitedincomeandtimeonchildcare,

whichmaybeasignificantconstraintofchildpsychosocialwellbeing.Astudy

usingdatafromtheanationallyrepresentativesurveyinChina(Chang&Dong,

2010)foundlabormigrationhassignificantlyincreasedtheleft-behindmarried

women’sworkburdensandtheirtimespentonbothfarminganddomesticwork

includingcareprovision.Meanwhile,otherempiricalevidencesuggested

co-residenceofgrandparentsdecreasesmothers'childcareinvolvement(Chenet

al.,2000),andinmanycasesgrandparentcareforthechildenablesparentsto

participateinwagework(Grayetal.,2005).Hence,multiplecaregiversincluding

grandparentsmayhelprelievetheburdensofthemotherintheleft-behindfamily

care.

Itisalsopossiblethatsomeofthemothersreturnedfrompreviousmigration,and

subsequentlytakingtheprimarycaregiverrolefromthegrandparents.Thenthis

scenariocorrespondswiththediscussionsinthequalitativechapteraboutthe

considerabledifficultiesfollowingthereturnofmigrantmother.Comparedto

otherfamiliesinwhichgrandparentsprovidegoodcareforthechild,grandparents’

inadequateabilitiesinchildcaremayalsoinfluencedthemotherdecisionofnot

migratingandkeepingtheprimarycaregiverrole.

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Ontheotherhand,theresultssuggestthatsomegrandparentsmaybecapable

primarycaregivers,especiallywhenthemotheralsolivesintheleft-behindfamily

andissupportingchildcare,ascenariofoundinasmallgroupofcases.Itis

possiblethattheprimarycaregiverneverchangedduetomigration,althoughthe

mothermaybeareturnmigrant.Oneadvantageofthesefamiliesmaybethestable

carestructurethatleadstowell-maintainedrelationship-emotiondynamicsinthe

extendedfamily.Yetfurtherresearchisneededformorein-depthinquiriesabout

thiscarearrangement.

Psychosocialsupportinthecareenvironment

Besidesprovidingmaterialresourcestomeetthechild’sphysicaldevelopment

needs,acriticalfunctionofLBC’scareenvironmentisthecompensationofthe

psychologicallossduetoparentalabsenceinthechild’sdailylife.Inorderto

safeguardthewellbeingofLBC,caregiversmustbeabletomakedeepconnections

withthechildandprovidesupport,guidanceandsupervisionwhenmostneeded.

Inthisstudy,family/socialsupportwasmeasuredspecificallyaswhetheranyone

wouldbeusuallyavailabletoofferessentialsupporttothechildinvarious

scenarios.Thisvariableisnotonlyrelatedtothecarequalityandarrangementsin

theleft-behindfamily,butreflectstheresourcesforbetterpsychosocialwellbeing

fromthelargersocialenvironmentsthatmayinvolvefriendsatschoolorother

communitymembers.

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Relatedly,conceptssuchasfamilyfunctioningandsocialsupporthavebeenwidely

examinedintheliteratureascrucialpropertiesofthefamilyandsocio-ecological

systems(Zhaoetal.,2014;Jordan&Graham2012;Chenetal.,2011;WangWetal.,

2014;Zhengetal.,2014;Fanetal.,2013;Liuetal.,2014).Thesequantitative

studies,includingalongitudinalstudyconductedinChina(Fanetal.,2013),

identifiedfamilyorsocialsupportasanimportantmediatoroftheimpactfrom

parentalmigrationonchildwellbeing.Resultsfromthelongitudinalstudy

confirmedthatlackofavailablesupportisastrongcorrelateofbothparental

migrationandhigherpsychosocialdifficulties,whichmoderatestheeffectof

migrationonchildren.Inotherwords,thesupportappearstobeeffectivein

relievingthedistressinchildrenduetoparentalmigration,especiallyfortheLBC

whoarecurrentlyseparatedfrommigrantparents.Previous-LBCseemtosuffer

lessfromlackofsupportthancurrent-LBC,andtheeffectsizeofmigrationon

previous-LBCremainedalmostunchangedaftersocialsupportwasaccountedfor.

Thismayimplythelonger-termrepercussionsofparentalabsenceonemotional

andbehavioralwellbeingthatisnotreflectedbythecurrentsupportlevel(Cassidy,

2008,p6).

Theinteractioneffectanalysistakesfurtherstepandindicatesthatavailabilityof

supportisprotectiveagainstpsychosocialdifficultiesespeciallyamongLBC.The

resultshighlighttheimportanceofnon-maternalresourcesinLBC’scare

environment;thechildcarearrangementsandstrategiesmustbeabletorelieve

thevulnerabilityofLBCandremedythelossofcaringrelationshipsduetothe

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migrantparents.Also,policiesandinterventionsforimprovingsocialsupport

networksshouldbeputinplaceinthelargersocio-ecologicalenvironmentofthe

children,includingtheirschoolandneighborhood.Additionalpsychosocial

resourcesfromthesesettings,aswassuggestedinafewcasesinourqualitative

study,mayalsobenefittheLBCandespeciallyhelppreventthedeteriorationof

theirwellbeinginanunfavorablefamilyenvironment.

Parent’sdivorce

Parent’sdivorceappearstobeaspecificandimportantunderminingfactorinthe

careenvironment.Ashortcomingoftheextantquantitativeliteratureisthatmost

studiesexcludedchildrenofdivorcedparentsfromtheirstudysample;our

findingsshowthatitisimportanttotakeintoaccountthisfactor.Thenegative

impactonpsychosocialwellbeingissignificant,whichexacerbatestheeffectof

beingcurrentlyleft-behind,accordingtoourstudy.Infactourresultsimplythat

migrationmayevenbeassociatedwithhigherdivorcerate.Althoughthedivorce

mayhavetakenplacebeforemigration,itismorelikelythatmigrationescalated

relationshipproblemsbetweenthesecouples.

Parents’divorceoftencausesdamagetothefamilyfunctioningandrelationship

dynamics,andleadstoadverseeffectsonchildren’spsychologicaldevelopment

(Kobak&Madson,2008,p34).Thetwoparents’collaborationonchildcaretendsto

bemuchlessclose,leadingtoreducedabilitiesforthemtoprovidetimelyand

adequatesupportwhenthechildisinneed.Theseparationbetweentheparents

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mayalsoaffectthecareprovisionstructure,followingthelikelydisconnection

witheachother’sparents-in-lawwhomaybethechildren’sco-residentcaregivers.

Thencoordinationbetweenparentsandcaregiversoverdistancebecomesmore

difficult,whichexacerbatestheexitingchallengesinchilddiscipliningand

providingresponsivecareduetomigration.Theallocationofremittancesmayalso

becomelesseffective,duetothelesscooperativeco-residentcaregiversandlackof

communicationaboutthechild’sneeds.

Siblingsinleft-behindfamilies

Theempiricalliteraturereviewinthisthesisshowedmixedfindingsaboutthe

effectofhavinganysiblingsonthewellbeingofLBC,suggestingmultiplefactors

maybeatplayinrelationtosiblingpresence.WhileZhaoetal.(2014)indicated

thatbeinganonlychildwasprotectiveformentalhealth,otherstudiesshowed

oppositefindingsinChina(Zhanetal.,2014)andSoutheastAsia(Senaratnaetal.

2011;Adhikarietal.,2013).Additionally,Yangetal.(2010)andWangetal.

(2011a)suggestedhavingsiblingsornotdidnotaffectchildwellbeing.

InruralChina,althoughtheoddsappearedtobeagainsttheLBCwhowerealso

singlechildwithoutsiblingcompanionship,ourstudydidnotshowsignificant

associationsbetweennumberofsiblingsandpsychosocialoutcomes.Onepossible

reasonisthatresourcesforchildcarebecomemoreconcentratedinsinglechild

families,ascomparedtomultiple-siblingfamiliesinwhicheconomicbenefitsfrom

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migrantparentswouldbedistributedamongallchildren.Also,theco-resident

caregiverwouldbespendingtheirlimitedtimeandenergyonasmallernumberof

children.

Additionally,asourqualitativefindingsshowed,someleft-behindfamilies

comprisechildrenwhoarecousinsandcaredforbytheircommongrandparents.

Duetopracticalconstraintsandthetimingofthesurveydesign,thequantitative

questionnaireforthisstudydidnotincludeanitemaskingaboutthepresenceof

cousins.Howeveraswasdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,thisliving

arrangementpotentiallyintensifiedtheresourcesforchildcarefrommultiple

migrantfamilies,andmaybeapreferableoptionifthegrandparentsarecapableof

caringformultiplechildren.

6.4.4Familywealthstatusandchildwellbeing

Abetterhouseholdeconomicsituationwerefoundtopositivelyaffectchild

wellbeingandmaymediatetheimpactofmigrationonchildreninsomeprevious

research(Graham&Jordan,2011;Fanetal.,2010).Howeverinthesestudieslittle

wasdonetomeasuretheoverallpsychosocialsupportfromthefamilyinaddition

toeconomicresources.Ourstudyshowsthattheeffectofhouseholdwealthon

children’soverallpsychosocialoutcomeseemsonlysignificantbeforethe

availabilityofsupportwasaccountedfor.Thisindeedcorroboratesthecausual

pathwayframeworkproposedinthequalitativechapter,wherebyincomeand

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familyandsocialsupportcomprisetheresourcesforchildwellbeing,asidefrom

therelationshipimpactduetoparentalabsence.Althoughtheeconomicstatus

priortomigrationremainsunknown,additionalmaternalresourcesfrom

remittancesmaycontributelittletothereliefofadversepsychologicalexperiences

inchildren.

Nevertheless,analysesinthisstudyindicatedifferentiatedwealtheffectsacross

dimensionsofpsychosocialwellbeinghavecomplicatedtheoveralleffectoffamily

wealthstatus,whichveryfewstudieshaveinvestigatedin.Firstofall,emotional

wellbeingseemslargelyunrelatedtowealthstatus.Althoughpreviousstudiesin

ChinasuchasHeetal.(2012)indicateemotionalsymptomsareworseinpoorer

families,theeffectmayreflecttheloweroverallpsychosocialsupportfromthe

poorerfamilies.Againourfindingsupportsthepossibilityofindependentimpact

fromparentalmigrationthrougharelationship–emotionmechanisminthefamily,

aswasdiscussedinthequalitativestudy.Thisalsoimpliesthatthefinancial

assistanceschemesinsomecommunities,albeitnecessaryfortheextremelypoor

households,doesnotcompensateforthechild’slossofanattachmentfigure.

Yetinhigher-incomefamilies,childrentendedtoencounterfewerpeer

relationshipproblems.Itispossiblethatbetter-offfamiliescanaffordmoresocial

activitiesforchildren,includingsomeafterschooltutoringclasses,aswellasmusic

andartclasses,eitheravailableatschoolorinthecountycenter.Also,aswas

suggestedinsomequalitativeinterviews,childreninwealthierfamiliesaremore

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likelytotraveltothecitiestheparentsworkatandsocializewithmorepeople,

whichmaybenefittheirsocialfunctioning.Additionally,accordingtothe

qualitativefindings,better-offfamiliestendtoliveinmorepopulated,newly

developedneighborhoods,wherechildrencanmeetandplaywitheachother.

Somefamiliesaretoopoortobuildanewhouseandmove,eveniftheir

neighborhoodhasbecomelargelyempty.

Whileparentalmigrationdoesnotseemtoincreasebehavioralproblems,better

economicstatusmaycontributetochildren’shyperactivities.Asparents

frequentlynotedinthequalitativeinterview,inpoorareasinruralChina,tostudy

hardandbehavewellatschoolisusuallythemostpracticalwayforachildtoget

outofpoverty.Wealthierchildrenmayhavelesspressurefromlivelihood

concerns,andtheircaregiversmaybemorelenientandofferthemmorefree

choicesinlife.Hencesomechildrenappeartoactoutunderthemoreflexible

environmentandpossiblylackofcare,toanextentwithoutdramatic

delinquenciesthough.

Itshouldbeclarifiedthatthehouseholditemsincludedinourmeasureof

householdwealthdonotnecessarilyindicatetheincomeofmigrantparents.This

waspartlybecauseofthechallengesincreatingareliablemeasure,fromeither

migrantsorcaregivers,duetopracticalconstraints.Yetsuchitemsmaybetter

reflectwhetherthecareenvironmentofLBCsecuredmorematerialresources

frommigrantparents,astheincreasedincomeduetomigrationdoesnot

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necessarilyleadtotheimprovedeconomicwellbeingorhumancapitalbackhome.

Infact,arecentstudyexaminedthecompositionsharesoffamilyexpenditure,and

foundthatremittance-receivingfamilies,ascomparedtootherruralfamilies,

spendonly2%higheronnon-durablegoods(mainlyfoodandclothing),but20%

loweronchildeducation;othermajorexpendituresinleft-behindfamiliesareon

familybusinessanddurablegoods.Suchspendingpatternsseemunlikelyto

providesubstantialbenefitsforchilddevelopment(Démurger&Wang,2015).Itis

alsopossiblethatevenifthehouseholdwealthstatusdidimprove,thechildmight

notbeabletofeelthedifference,asissuggestedbyouranalysesusingchild-report

relativewealthstatus.

6.4.5Householdeconomicsoflabormigration

Inourstudysample,economicstatuswasthehighestinnon-migrantfamiliesand

lowestamongthecurrentmigrantfamilies,inbothZhejiangandGuizhou,

accordingtobothhouseholditemscoresandrelativeeconomicstatus.Ingeneral,

familiesofLBCseemtobestillinalowereconomicclass,andevenpoorerthan

otherruralfamilies.Althoughthisisincontrarytomanystudies,Fanetal.(2010)

alsofoundthattheleft-behindfamilieshadlowereconomicstatusthanothersin

HunanProvince,China.Duetothelimitationofcross-sectionaldata,thefamily

incomelevelpriortomigrationwasunavailable.

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Aslabormigrationisprimarilydrivenmyincreasedincomeintheory,LBCwhoare

facingmanydisadvantagesinruralChinamayreflectaparticularphaseofthe

largersocialphenomenon.Lowcostofrural-to-urbanmigrationenablesalmost

everyonetoworkinthecity,butonlythebetter-offmigrantsareabletobringtheir

childrenover.Inadditiontothemuchhigherlivingexpensesinthecity,children

arealsofacedwithconsiderablebarriertoaccessingqualityeducation.Becauseof

theruralresidence,childrenofmigrantfamiliesusuallyneedtopayaconsiderable

amountofextrafeestobeadmittedtothepublicschoolsinthecity.

Yettherehasbeenamarkedincreaseofmigrantchildrenlivinginthecities,

whereasthenumberofleft-behindchildrenremainedlargelystableinruralareas

(UNICEF,2014b).Theout-migrationflowsmayhavecontributedtoreducingthe

incomegapsinruralareas,asaresultofricherfamilies’departure,andthe

remittancesfrompoorermigrantstotheirleft-behindfamilies.Asanewroundof

urbanizationhasexpandedtosmallercity-townsclosertotheruralcommunities,

theinitial“primarylabormarket”ofsecure,well-paidjobshavealsoreachedinto

moreruraltownshipcenters(Zhanetal,2015).Meanwhile,inpartsofheurban

areas,asecondarylabormarketoflow-skill,low-wage,insecurejobsstillexistsin

themanufacturingandservicesectors,filledbymanyruralmigrants.Hence,

rural-to-urbanmigrationisnotequivalenttosocioeconomicadvantages.The

incomegainsmaycontributelittletorelievingpsychosocialdifficultiesofchildren,

especiallythosesufferingfrommultipleaspectsofdeprivationbesideseconomic

status.

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UnlikemostotherstudiesconductedinChina,amajorstrengthofthisstudyisthe

comparisonbetweentwoChineseprovinceswithdistinctsocioeconomic

developmentlevels,consideringthehugevariabilityacrossthecountry.While

childreninGuizhoufaredmuchworsethanthoseinZhejiang,ourresults

demonstratedhighlyconsistentimpactsfromparentalmigrationonchildren

betweenthetwoprovinces,suggestingthatlocalsocio-economicdevelopment

leveldoesnotcomplicatethechallengesfacedbyLBC.

6.4.6Schoolperformance

EducationoutcomeofLBCisacommontopicoftheLBCliterature,yetthelinks

betweenschoolperformanceandpsychosocialwellbeingarenotwellestablished.

Althoughitisnotacentralissueinthisthesisasafactoroutsideofthefamily

environment,academicfunctioningintheschoolsettingreflectscertain

disadvantagesofLBCinthefamilysystem.Ourqualitativestudyindicatedthe

negativeeffectsofmigrationonchildren’sschoolperformanceaswasperceivedby

theparents,whichpossiblywasonereasonforsomeofthemtoreturnhome

permanently.Quantitativeresultsfromthisstudydemonstratethatpoorschool

performanceisstronglyassociatedwithbothparentalmigrationandpsychosocial

difficulties.Lackofparentalguidanceandsupervisionmaycausethelowerschool

performance,whichmayfurtherleadtoincreaseddistressinchildren.InChinaas

inmanysocieties,educationisthekeyvehicleforsocialmobilityandprosperity

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(Lu,2007;Morooka&Liang,2009),particularlyforruralchildrenwhoare

generallydisadvantagedineducationalandcareeropportunities.Murphy’s(2014)

qualitativestudyinChinafurthersuggestedthathighereducationwasconsidered

bytheLBCastheonlywaytoavoidmigration;undersuchpressuresomechildren

withlowergradesstartedtogaveinandmisbehave.

Theinclusionofschoolperformanceinthisquantitativestudyisanattemptto

incorporateotherfactorsoutsideofthefamilysystem,whendelineatingthe

potentialcausalpathwaysbetweenmigrationandchildpsychosocialwellbeing.

Howeverfuturestudieswithmorerigorousandideallylongitudinaldesignare

needed,inordertoidentifythespecificeffectsandcomplexinteractionsrelatedto

factorsfromtheschoolsetting.

6.4.7Ageandgenderdisparities

Overall,agedidnotshowasignificantimpactonchildwellbeingafteraccounting

forallotherfactors.However,olderadolescentsseemtohavemorehyperactive

problems.A“Year8Phenomenon”hasbeenfoundinChinesestudents.Itrefersto

arangeofpsychologicalandbehavioralchallengesrelatedtopubertythatemerge

duringchildren’ssecondyearofmiddleschool(Year8,oneyearbeforeentering

highschool,ages13-15).Thisagegroupindeedcorrespondswithsome

adolescentsinthequalitativestudy,whosemigrantparentsexpressedconcerns

abouttheirdiscipliningissuesandschoolperformance.Whentheseolderchildren

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areleftbehindbyparents,thepsychosocialproblemsaswellasdifficultiesin

studyandschoollifewhilepreparingforthehighschoolentryexam,becomeextra

challenging(Wang&Zhang,2004).

Olderchildrenalsoseemtohavebetterpeerrelationships,andbenefitmorefrom

socialsupportthanyoungerchildren.Ourqualitativeresultsalsoshowedthat

friendsbecameanimportantpartofLBC’scopingmechanisms.Itappearsthat

psychologicalchallengesthatonlyemergedinadolescencewerepartiallyrelieved

bypeersupport,ratherthanparentalorgrandparentalcare.Accordingtoasurvey

acrosssixprovinces,onlyinthe8th-yeargroupofleft-behindmiddleschool

studentsconsideredtheirpeersasprovidingthemostsocialsupport,evenmore

thanparents(Wang&Zhang,2004).Aswassuggestedinthequalitativechapter,

grandparentcaregiversmayhavetroubleunderstandingandcommunicating

aboutchildren’srealfeelings,partlyduetothemassivechangesinChinesesociety

andpeople’slivesoverthepastdecades.Theadolescentsmaythereforebecome

morewillingtosharethoughtsandtalkaboutconcernswiththeirpeers,inthe

absenceofparents.

Thequantitativeresultsconsiderablyexpandedthequalitativefindingsongender

disparitiesatpopulationlevel.SexratiointheChinesepopulationhasbeen

markedlyhigh,duetosonpreferenceandsex-selectiveabortionpracticesunder

thestrictfamilyplanningpolicies,overthepastfewdecades.Incontrast,ourstudy

foundthatmoregirlsthanboysareleftbehindinbothZhejiangandGuizhou,

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whichimpliedalargenumberofboys,ratherthangirls,hadmigratedwiththe

parentstothecities.Itseemsthatwhenparentsmakethedecisionofmigrating

withtheirchildren,boysarestillmorelikelytobepreferredthangirls.

HoweverourfindingsarecontradictorywiththereportfromAll-ChinaWomen

Federation(2013)basedoncensusdatain2010,whichshowedmoreleft-behind

boysthangirlsnationally.Thismightbeduetothelowereconomicstatusinthe

studycounties.Onepossiblereasonisthatforbetterofffamilies,itwouldbeeasier

tobypasstherestrictionsfromthelocalvariationofOneChildPolicy,through

simplypayingthepenaltychargeorotherinformalapproaches.

Genderalsohasdifferenteffectsacrosswellbeingdimensions.InChina,studies

(Fanetal.,2010;Huetal.,2014)indicatedleft-behindgirlsweremorelikelyto

haveemotionalsymptoms,whereasboyshadhigherlevelsofbehavioralproblems.

Althoughnodifferenceswereshownintermsofbehavioralissues,ourresults

indicatethatgirlsaremuchmorevulnerabletoemotionaldistress,whichwasalso

demonstratedinthequalitativestudyofthisthesis.Girlsalsoseemtohavebetter

peerrelationships.InruralChina,similartomanyothercultures,girlsweremore

likelythanboystoberesponsibleforyoungersiblingsandhouseholdchoresafter

theirparentsleft(Parreñas,2005;Aguilera-Guzmanetal.,2004).Duringthe

absenceofmigrantparents,girlsmaythusbecomeamorethoughtfulandcaring

familymember,whichpotentiallyhelpsthemgetalongwithpeersoutsideofthe

familyaswell.

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6.5Strengthsandlimitations

Thequantitativestudyhasthefollowinglimitations.First,duetopractical

constraintsinrecruitingmigrantsandlackofliteracyinsomegrandparents,we

wereunabletocollectdatafromparentsandcaregivers,thusallthedataisfrom

childself-report,withouttriangulationofresponsesfromotherfamilymembers.

Second,asacross-sectionalstudy,casualpathwayscannotbefullydelineated,

betweenthemigrationstatusandchildwellbeing,andthusthefindingsshouldbe

consideredexploratory.Third,educationallevelsofparentsandcaregivers,and

specificindicatorsofqualityofcareandrelationships,suchasthefrequencyand

qualityofcommunication,werenotassessedinthisstudy.

Despitethelimitations,ourstudystronglysuggeststhatleft-behindchildrenhave

markedlyhigherpsychosocialdifficulties,basedonasampleselectedfromoneof

therichestandoneofthepoorestChineseprovinces.Thequestionnairesurvey

achievedahighresponserate,andcollecteddetailedinformationaboutcurrent

andpreviousexperiencesofleftbehind,aswellasvariouschildwellbeing

correlatesthatallowedustoexplorethecharacteristicsofthechild’sfamilyand

socialenvironment.Inparticular,ourstudypointsoutthepotentialnegative

impactofpreviousleft-behindexperiences,whichareoftenneglectedinacademic

studies,policiesandinterventions.Wehavealsoidentifiedmajorfactorsthatare

associatedwithpsychosocialwellbeingintheseruralchildren,especiallyparental

275

divorceandavailabilityofsupport.Ourfindingsprovidecrucialinsightsregarding

theimpactofparent-childseparation,aswellasdifferenttypesofcare

arrangementsandresourcesforpsychosocialwellbeingintheabsenceofmigrant

parents,andleadthedirectionoffurtherresearchonqualityoffamilycareand

relationships.

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Chapter7 Discussionandconclusion

7.1Overallsummaryofstudyresults

Althoughthestudysamplesinthisthesisarenotnationallyrepresentative,our

resultsfromaverywealthyprovinceandthepoorestprovinceinChinaprovided

crucialevidenceabouttheimpactmechanismsofparentalmigrationfrom

multipleperspectivesofchildwellbeing.Drawingontheconceptualframework

elaboratedinChapter5,thisfinalchapterdelineateshowourstudieselicitedthe

potentialcausalpathwaysbetweenparentalmigrationandpsychosocial

symptoms,acrossmultiplelayersofthesocio-ecologicalsystemofchild

development.

Overall,parentalmigrationtendstoresultinlong-termadverseeffectson

children’spsychosocialwellbeing.Theprimarymechanismleadingto

psychosocialdifficultiesisthroughdisruptedparent-childrelationship,

particularlycausingemotionaldistress.Thesecondarymechanismaffectschild

wellbeingthroughcarearrangementsandpsychosocialsupportintheleft-behind

familyenvironmentandcontext,includingdiscipliningfromcaregiveraswellas

socialinteractionswithpeersandcommunitymembers.Additionalfactors

includehouseholdeconomicstatuswhichprovidesresourcesforchild

developmentandjustifiesthemigrationincentive,aswellasschoolperformance

andcertaincommunitycharacteristics.Importantly,ourfindingsalsoilluminatea

timedimensionacrossthesemechanisms,indicatingapersistentaccumulation

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processofsocio-emotionaldifficulties,especiallythroughachild’scritical

developmentalperiods.

Specifically,thischaptersummarizestherelationship-emotionmechanisms

showingtheimpactofmigration,othernon-emotionalaspectsofchildwellbeing

inrelationtoparentalmigration,aswellasthetimedimensionoftheimpactfrom

migration.Majorfactorsonthepotentialpathways,includingcarearrangements

andpsychosocialsupport,householdeconomicresources,andsocioeconomicand

communitycontexts,arealsoelaboratedintermsoftheirrespectivefunctions

andtheconnectionsbetweenthem.Ineachsubsection,keyfindingsareoutlined,

followedbymorein-depthdiscussiononthefindingtheme.Finally,the

conclusionsectionelaboratestheimplicationsofthecurrentstudies,aswellas

potentialstrategiesandsolutionstoaddressthechallengesfacedwithLBC.

7.2Keyfindingsandcontributions

7.2.1Therelationship-emotionmechanismsshowingtheimpactofmigration

Findingsoutline

Ingeneral,quantitativeandqualitativestudiesinthisthesisdemonstratedsimilar

patternsofpsychosocialdifficultiesexperiencedbyLBC.Emotionaldistresswas

themostpronouncedchildwellbeingchallengethatstuckoutfrombothfield

interviewsandtheself-reportquestionnaires.Thisisconsistentwithmanyofthe

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extantempiricalstudiesandtheoreticalperspectivesinfamilysystemsand

attachmenttheory.However,resultsfromthecurrentstudieshighlighted

parent-childrelationshipasacruciallinkbetweenparentalmigrationand

psychosocialsymptoms,whichembodiesindependent,directconsequencesof

parentalmigrationandcrucialattributesofchildpsychosocialwellbeing.

Multiplepatternsofemotionaldistresswereillustratedinthequalitativestudy,

fromthenarrativesthatinawayportrayedtherelationshipdynamics.“Missing

mymother/fathertoomuch”wasacommonthemeinthequalitativedata,as

thesechildrenshowedstrongemotionalattachmentwithmigrantparent(s)over

distance.Thepsychologicalvulnerabilitywasnotableassomechildren’sdailylife

wasaffectedbythoughtsoftheparents,accompaniedbyfeelingsoflossand

sadness.Yetcertainotherchildrenappearedmuchmoreindifferenttoparental

absence.Forexample,they“don'tfeelliketalkingwith”themigrantparentseither

overthephoneorathome,anddidnotdemonstratepositiveemotional

connectionswiththem.Ambivalentattitudestotheparent-childrelationshipsuch

as“sometimesImissthem,sometimesnot”inawaysuggestedmorecomplex

intrapsychicconflictsinthesechildren,whichmaycauseadditionalemotional

distress.

Characteristicsoftheparent-childrelationshipwerealsoreflectedintheir

communicationpatterns.Inmanyfamiliestheparentandchild“dotalkoverthe

phone,butwithout“aproperconversation”,aswasreflectedbyamother.Most

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Chineseparentsinourstudywerenotgoodatinitiatingemotionallysensitiveor

in-depthconversationsaboutthechild’srealfeelings,andoften“makeafuss”,

accordingtoaboy,aboutthebehavioralorschoolperformance.Itwascommon

thatthegrandparentshavetourgethechildtopickupthesephonecallsagainst

theirwill.Whilesomeoccasionalreunionswitnessedthechild’sclinginesswith

theparent,extrasadnessinthechildwasalsoreportedinsomecaseswhenthe

migrantparenthadtoleaveagain.

Inthequantitativestudy,emotionalsymptoms(includingunhappyfeelings,

worries,nervousness,fears,andsomaticsymptoms)wastheonlySDQsubscale

thatshowedsignificantincreaseinbothcurrent-andprevious-LBCgroups,

comparedtonever-LBC;andtheeffectsizeonbothleft-behindgroups,measured

asthecorrelationcoefficient,wasalsothelargestamongfivesubscales.The

associationbetweenparentalmigrationandemotionalsymptomswas

independentofallindividual,familyandenvironmentalcharacteristics,which

indirectlyimpliedthattheunmeasuredfactor,parent-childrelationship,wasa

criticalfactor.

Overalldiscussion

Asanintuitiveresponsetoparentalmigrationandtheirlengthyabsence,

emotionaldistressinchildrenstuckoutfrombothfieldinterviewsandthe

self-reportquestionnaires.Ourfindingsareconsistentwiththeoretical

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perspectivessuchasthefamilystressconceptualframework(Boss,2002,p40)

andtheunderpinningsofattachmenttheory(Bowlby,1969).Thekeychallengeof

parentalmigrationistheprolongedseparationfromtheirchildren,ofwhichthe

immediaterepercussionwouldbedisruptedparent-childrelationship.

Attachmenttheoryemphasizestherolesofsecureattachmentfromthebeginning

ofachild’slifetoadolescence.Accordingtoourqualitativefindings,theemotional

distressinchildrenwasmainlyderivedfromtheinsecureattachmentwith

migrantparents,whichisalsocharacterizedbydysfunctionalcommunication

overthedistance.

Careandsupportfrommigrantparentswasmaintainedmainlythroughdistant

communicationoverthephoneorinternet,sincefrequentphysicalreunionswere

impractical.Yetourfindingssuggestthatthephoneconversationsorinternet

chatsoftenturnouttobedidacticdiscipliningfromtheparents,ratherthan

heart-to-heartcommunicationaboutrealfeelingsandthoughtsfromthechild.As

aresult,itisunlikelyforthechildtoseekemotionalandsocialsupportthrough

distantcommunication,especiallyconsideringsomechildrenneverexperienceda

closerelationshipwithmigrantparentsevenpriortotheirdeparture.

Theextrapsychosocialrisksduetoearlyseparationfromparents,asiselicited

fromexistingliterature(Liuetal.,2009;Fanetal.,2010)andourqualitativeand

quantitativefindings,needparticularattention.Eventhoughrationalesbasedon

attachmenttheorymaynotperfectlyexplainLBC’sexperiencesofseparation,

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theyareparticularlyrelevantforthe“earlyleft-behindchildren”.Lackofasecure

baseevenduringinfancymaypartlyexplaintheextradisadvantageinthese

children.Theinsecurityisrelatedtotheinadequatecareandsupportinthe

left-behindfamily,andperhapsthetransferofprimarycaringrolesto

grandparentsthatdisruptedtheoriginalparent-childrelationship.

7.2.2Non-emotionalaspectsofchildwellbeing

Findingsoutline

Incomparisontoemotionalsymptoms,behavioralproblemsorexternalizing

disordersappeartobelessofanissueinLBC.Accordingtothequantitative

surveyresults,onlycurrent-LBCappeartobeworseoffinhyperactivebehavioral

issues(restless,fidgety,easilydistracted,don’tthinkbeforeacting,lackof

attention),butneithercurrent-orprevious-LBChadshowedanydifferencethan

non-LBCinthemoreseriousconductproblemsordelinquencies(tempers,

obedient,fightsorbullies,lies,steals).Qualitativeinterviewsalsoelicitedsimilar

scenarios,wheresomeLBCseemedtobemischievous,suchasdisobedienceof

caregiverorspendingtoomuchtimeplayingoutside,butdidnotmisbehaveina

waythatcausedserioustroubles.

SocialfunctioningdisadvantagesinLBCwerealsosuggested,especiallyinthe

quantitativeresults.Theadjustedanalysisshowedincreasedpeer-relationship

problems,particularlyinprevious-LBCcomparedtonever-LBC,whilethe

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increaseincurrent-LBCbecamenon-significantafteraddingcontrolvariables.

Thequalitativestudypresentedsomeindirectevidencerelatedtosocial

functioning,includingchildren’slonelinessandunwillingnesstosocializewith

peers.Emotionaldistresssuchasdepressivefeelingsalsoseemedtosuppress

dailysocialbehaviorsinsomechildren.Theisolatedsocialenvironmentinasmall,

remotecommunityalsonegativelyaffectedsocialinteractionsaccordingto

severalinterviewees.

Overalldiscussion

Unlikeemotionalsymptoms,behavioralproblemsarelesslikelytobethedirect

consequenceofparentalmigration.Particularlyforyoungerchildren,theparents

wouldprobablyhavemadesolidcarearrangements,inordertomakesurethat

theirchildrenaresupervisedanddisciplinedbyadultcaregivers,mostly

grandparents.Hence,theexternalizingbehavioralproblemsareunlikelyto

emergedrasticallysoonaftertheirparentsleft.AtschoolsinruralChina,

children’sbehaviorsarealsousuallycloselymonitoredanddisciplinedbythe

teachers,especiallywhenbehavioralissueswerelinkedwithadeclineofthe

student’sschoolperformance.

InmanypartsofruralChina,traditionalChinesevaluesofobedience,piety,and

educationforsuccessstillprevail.Suchvaluesystemsandsocio-culturalcontexts

mayhelpkeepchildrenandadolescentsinschoolandfollowtheguidanceand

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supervisionofauthoritativefigures,andpreventthemfromactingout.Yetatrend

ofgivingupschoolandjoiningthemigrantforcehasbeenobservedinruralLBC

(Murphy,2014;Démurger&Wang,2015),andrisingjuvenilecrimeratesamong

thesemigrantchildrenhavebecomeanemergingconcern(Robsonetal.,2008).

Furtherimprovementinfamilyandcommunitycareshouldtakeintoaccountthe

functionofsocialcontexts,inordertoaddressthechallengesfacedwithLBC.

7.2.3Atimedimensionoftheimpactfrommigration

Findingsoutline

Anotherfocusofthisthesisisthedelineationoflong-termimpactofparental

migration,throughmultipleperspectivesincluding:progressivedeclineofchild

psychosocialwellbeingovertime;effectsofparentalabsenceatcritical

developmentperiods;challengesforchildrenafterparents’permanentreturn;

overallandspecificimpactsofparentalmigrationonprevious-LBC.

Certainqualitativefindingsindicatedthechildandmigrantparentdyad“grew

apart”afteryearsofseparation.Insomecasesthebehavioralproblemsshoweda

suddenincrease“inthepastfewmonths”duringearlyadolescence.Thisisrelated

tothefindingsthatparentalabsenceduringcriticaldevelopmentperiods,

particularlyinfancyandpuberty,seemedtobedetrimentaltosomechildren’s

wellbeing.Emergingandaccumulatingconcernsaboutthecareofsomeextra

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vulnerablechildrenpromptedsomemigrantmotherstoreturnhome

permanently.However,thesereturnparentsfacedchallengesinjoiningthecare

environmentagainwhileearningsufficientincomeforthefamily.

Inourquantitativestudysample,uptoaquarterofallruralchildrenhadpast

experiencesofbeingleftbehind.Multipleregressionresultsindicatedhighly

significantimpactofparentalmigrationonthepsychosocialwellbeingof

previous-LBC.Besidesemotionaldistress,previous-LBCalsohadhigherlevelsof

peerrelationshipproblems,whichappearedtobeslightlyworsethan

current-LBC.WhileLBC’swellbeingseemedtobesignificantlyunderminedby

lackofsupport,thenegativeeffectswerelargerontheprevious-LBCgroupthan

current-LBC.

Overalldiscussion

Aphenomenonthatiscloselyrelevanttoourstudiesisreturnmigrationfromthe

citiesbacktoruralhometowns.Findingswithregardtotheimpactofreturn

migrationonchildrenareamongthemostcrucialcontributionsofthisthesis,

sincethelong-termimpactofpreviousparent-childseparationduetomigration

hasnotbeenverywellstudiedglobally,andchildrenofreturnedparent(s)have

beenlargelyignoredbythevastmajorityofstudiesonLBC,exceptafewones

(Wangetal.,2015a;Wuetal.,2015;Adhikarietal.,2013).Inadditiontochanges

infamilygoalsandstructures,returnmigrationshouldalsobeviewedwithin

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largersocialandcommunitycontexts.

Returnmigrationreflectschangesinfamilygoals,therationalesbehindthe

migrationdecision,orontheperceivedeffectsofparent-childseparationonchild

wellbeing.Giventheprofoundimpactonfamilystructureandfunction,the

migrationdecisionisusuallymadewithintheambitofahousehold(King,2012).

Thedecisiontomigrateorreturnwasmadeinconsiderationofsocioeconomic

environmentsandfamilyandindividualwellbeing.Howeverthishousehold

decision-makingprocess,especiallyregardingreturnmigration,hasrarelybeen

examined.

Ourqualitativestudyexploredhowfamiliesevaluatedthecostsandbenefitsof

migration,focusingonthereturnmigrationcaseswhichprovidedcrucialinsights

intothedecision-makingprocess.Asthefindingsillustrated,tosimplyinterpret

migrationasincome-drivenwouldbemisleadingwheninvestigatingitsimpacton

children.EspeciallyinChina’sfamilistculture,migrationisoftenconsideredasa

moveforthebenefitoftheentirefamily,includingchildren(Esping-Andersen,

2000).Parentsmayhaverecognizedtheconsequencesofprolongedseparation

fromtheirchildren,yettheinitialmigrationdecisionwasbasedonthe

contemplationthatthegainsfromworkinginthecitieswouldoutweightheloss

fortheirchildren’swellbeing,especiallyinlongerterm.However,oncethe

situationhaschanged,especiallyasthechildgrowsup,thisjustificationmayno

longholdvalid,whichleadstothedecisionofreturninghome.

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Meanwhile,ourquestionnairesurveyresultssuggestthatpreviousparental

migrationhassimilarpsychosocialimpactascurrentmigrationonchildwellbeing.

Relatedly,consistentwithLiuetal.(2008)hasfound,ourresultsshowedthat

childrenwhowereseparatedfromparentsatayoungerageweremoreproneto

psychosocialdifficulties.Futurestudiesmayincludeotherin-depthmeasures

regardingthecyclicpatternofmigration,suchasdurationofseparationand

reunion,frequencyofhomevisits.Thesemayturnouttobecomeimportant

factorsthatinfluencethefamilystructureandfunction,andrelationship

dynamicsbetweenmigrationparentsandtheirchildren.

7.2.4CarearrangementsandpsychosocialsupportFindingsoutline

Findingsregardingfamilycarestructure,suchasthechallengesofthemotheras

singlecaregiverandpotentialbenefitsofmulti-cousinfamilies,markedsomekey

contributionsofthisthesis.Thesearrangementsoffamilycare,aswellasthe

communityenvironment,providepsychosocialsupportforLBC,acrucialfactor

onthemechanismsthatsafeguardthewellbeingofLBCfromadverseeffectsof

parentalmigration.

Oneparticularlysurprisingfindinginthisthesiswasthat,LBCwhowere

primarilycaredforbythemothertendedtohaveworsepsychosocialwellbeing,

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comparedtochildrencaredforbygrandparents,accordingtothequantitative

subgroupanalysis.Qualitativefindingssuggesteddifficultiesforaworking

motherinlookingafterherchild,whosometimeshadto“invitesomekidstocome

overandhangoutwithhim(theson)”.Othersneededto“figureoutaboutmoney”

becauseofthereducedincome.Theoftenseriouschilddiscipliningproblems,

whichpromptedreturnmigration,furtherexacerbatedthechallengesforthe

mothertotackle,forexampleoneofthemwasworriedthathersonhad“became

veryrebellious”.

Childrenofcapablegrandparentsreportedthey“takecareofmeverywell,

basicallythesameasmyparents”,yetsomegrandparentsexpresseddoubtsabout

theirphysicalstrengthsforchildcare.Parentsareconcernedthegrandparents

“thinkdifferentlyaboutlotsofthings”.Withthis“generationgap”,grandparents

tendedtobeeither“notstrictatall”ortoostrict,whilesomechildrenwereoften

notcooperative.Childreninaparticulartypeofhouseholdstructure,where

capablegrandparentscaredforchildrenwhoarecousins,seemedtoenjoyit

especiallythepeeraccompaniment.

Inourquantitativestudy,thenovelanalysisofinteractioneffectsidentified

parent’sdivorceandlackofsupportaskeynegativecorrelatesofallaspectsof

childpsychosocialwellbeing,andbothcorrelatesshowedexacerbatingeffects

particularlyamongtheLBCgroupsasopposedtonon-LBC.Onecaseinthe

qualitativestudyillustratedachildofdivorcedparentslivingwithafrail

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grandmothersufferingfromhungerandneglect.Whilethequantitativemeasure

didnotidentifythesourceofsocialsupport,thequalitativeresultsshowed

neighborsandcommunityactivitiesofferedcrucialcontributionstotheLBCin

need.

Overalldiscussion

Carearrangementsandpsychosocialsupportinvolvevariousfamily

characteristicsaswellasthelargersocialenvironmentofthechild.Theprimary

caregiver,usuallyeitheraco-residentmotherorgrandmother,apparentlyplaysa

significantrole.Somestudiesshowedthatchildrenprimarycaredforbyaparent

farebetterthanthosecaredforbygrandparentsorotherrelatives(Gaoetal.,

2010;Suetal.,2012).Ourqualitativefindingsindicatedvariouslevelsof

capabilitiesamonggrandparentsinprovidingadequatecareandsupervision.The

resultsfromourquantitativesurveyshowednooveralldifferencesbetween

caregivers,althoughamongLBC,motherasprimarycaregiverseemedtohave

morenegativeinfluencecomparedwithgrandparents.

Theco-residentmother,evenifnotidentifiedasprimarycaregiver,mayprovide

essentialsupporttothegrandparentwhotakescareofthechildthemost.Onthe

otherhand,whenthemothertakestheprimarycaringrole,itisquestionablethat

whetherthegrandparentsareabletoprovideadequatecareforthechild.Unlike

somestay-at-homeparentsintheruralareas,thereturnmigrants,whowereable

tofindajobinacity,arelikelytobestillworkingfulltimeinornearbytheirrural

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hometownaftertheirreturn;theseleft-behindmothers’non-childcareburdensin

thehouseholdmaystillbehigh,whereasthequalityofcareandamountoftime

theyspendwithchildrenbecomelimited(Chang&Dong,2010).Itislikelythat

noneofgrandparentsweresupportiveenough,whowouldotherwisehavebeen

identifiedbythechildastheprimarycaregiver.Ifthemotherusedtobeamigrant,

herreturnmayresultinthechangeofprimarycaregiver,whichwasfoundto

haveadverseimpactonthechildpsychosocialwellbeing(Senaratnaetal.,2011;

Mazzucatoetal.,2015).Despiteherpresenceathome,newdisturbanceinfamily

relationshipsandunclearcaringrolesmayleadtochildren’sambivalentfeelings

andlastingemotionaldifficultieswithparents,withoutfullyresolvingtheloss

fromseparation.

Childrenalsohavemultiplesourcesoffamilyandsocialsupport.Siblingsand

cousinsplaycrucialrolesinchilddevelopment(Brody,2004).Although

quantitativestudydidnotshowsignificanteffectsfromhavinganysiblings,the

qualitativeinterviewselicitedthatchildrenbenefitedfromlivingwithsiblingsor

cousins,aswellassocialactivitieswithfriendsintheneighborhoodoratschool.

Infactitwasnotuncommonforachildtolivewithcousins,underthecareof

grandparents;andchildrenoftendevelopcloserelationshipswithneighborsat

theirsimilarageinthecommunity.Inthesecases,peersupportmaybeableto

compensatethelossduetoparentalabsence,andbecomeanimportantsourceof

socialsupport,accordingtoourquantitativeresults.Sourcesofsupportfrom

community,school,andpeersprovideafavorablesocialenvironmentoutsideof

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thefamily,whichisalsocrucialinsafeguardingchildwellbeingespeciallyforLBC.

Ourquestionnairesurveywasnotrestrictedtosupportfromwithinthefamily

andincludedvariousscenariosinwhichchildrenareinneed.Aparticularnotable

findingwastheexacerbatingeffectofsocialsupportonLBC’spsychologicalrisks,

whichhighlightstheneedsofsupportivefamilyfunctionandsocialnetworkfor

thechildren.

Thecareenvironmentalsoentailsrelationshipsbetweenthecaregivers,including

migrantparents,co-residentparentsandgrandparentsofthechild.Both

quantitativeandqualitativefindingsshowedthatparents’divorceconsiderably

exacerbatedthestressinthecareenvironment,anddiminishedchildren’s

abilitiesinseekinghelpandemotionalsupportfromthefamily.AsChina’scrude

divorceratehasdoubledduringthepastdecade(Davis,2014),withmigrationas

apossiblecontributor,theconsequencesofparentaldivorceinLBCare

particularlyconcerning. Migrationanddivorcealtogethermakeinteractionsand

coordinationextremelydifficultinthenuclearfamily,andresultinlargely

dysfunctionaldynamicsforeffectivechildcare.

7.2.5Householdeconomicresources

Findingsoutline

Ourfindingsprovideddeepinsightsintotheeconomicfactorsinmigrantfamilies

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andofferedmorespecificresultsthanmostexistingresearch.Unlikefamilycare

andsupport,householdeconomicresourcesdidnotseemtobesignificantly

associatedwithemotionalandoverallpsychosocialwellbeinginchildren.

However,ourquantitativestudyshowedthatwealthstatusmayaffectspecific

aspectsofpsychosocialdifficulties.Inaddition,thequalitativestudyindicated

certainsignsofcorrelationbetweenthatsocialfunctioningandeconomicstatus.

Theeffectofhouseholdwealthonchildren’soverallpsychosocialoutcome

becamenon-significantaftertheavailabilityofsupportwasaccountedfor.

Althoughemotionalwellbeingseemedlargelyunrelatedtowealthstatus,lower

economicstatusledtomorepeerproblems,butlesshyperactivesymptoms.In

thequalitativestudy,achildfromabetter-offfamilywhohas“agoodpersonality

andtalkssweetlywithpeople”wassaidtohavebenefitedfromhisearlier

experiencelivinginShanghaiwithparents.Accordingtoanotherchild,suffering

frompovertywaspartlythereasonwhyherpeers“don’tseemtounderstandwhat

I’vebeenthrough”.

Overalldiscussion

Despiteoftherelativelylowfamilyincomeinthestudyareasascomparedtothe

restofChina,economicstatusmaynotbeakeyfactorofchildren’s

socioemotionaldistressinthisstudysample,regardlessoftheirparental

migrationstatus.YetamongtheLBC,lowerfamilyincomeseemstoberelatedto

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certaininternalizingproblemsintheirsocialinteractions,whichmayincidentally

beprotectiveagainsthyperactivities.

Ourfindingsimplythateconomicdisadvantagesareoftenaccompaniedwiththe

lackofothernon-materialresourcesforchilddevelopment,butitisthe

non-economicfactorsthatdeterminedchildren’psychosocialwellbeing.However,

thecurrentliteraturefailedtoelicitthemultipleburdensfacedwiththeLBCin

impoverishedmigrantfamilies,whoareoftenhighlyvulnerableboth

economicallyandpsychologically.Thepovertyviciouscycleofteninvolves

multipledimensionsofdeprivation;parentalabsenceundersuchcircumstances

wouldsignificantlyhinderchilddevelopment.Asbothourqualitativeand

quantitativeresultsindicated,thesepoorestLBCareinpressingneedsofboth

economicandpsychosocialsupport.Henceinadditiontotheexistingfinancialaid

programsforchildreninpoverty,inhighout-migrationareasmoreinitiativesto

addressthepsychologicalaspectsofwellbeingshouldbedeveloped.

7.2.6Socioeconomicandcommunitycontexts

Findingsoutline

Qualitativefindingsinthisthesiselicitedthehouseholdsocioeconomicrationales

behindthemigrationdecision.Ourquantitativeresultsfromthese

migrant-sendingareasindicateddisadvantagedeconomicstatusinLBC’sfamilies

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intheircommunity.Giventheavailabilityofcertainresources,thecommunity

organizationsandmembersinsolidaritywiththesefamiliesmayhelprelieve

someofthedifficultiesfacingtheLBC.Whenthesacrificefromtheparent-child

separationseemedtooutweighthesocioeconomicgains,rationalesoftheinitial

migrationdecisionwereoverturnedandsomemothersdecidedtopermanently

returnhome.

To“earnmoremoney”inthecitywhiletheywerestillatarelativelycompetitive

ageinthelabormarket,wasauniversalincentiveformigrationamongtheyoung

parents.Theothersideoftheissuewasintheruralvillage,“therearenojobs

exceptfarming”forthosewhohadfewskillsorconnections.Indeednon-migrant

familieshadmorewealththanpreviousmigrantfamilies,andcurrentmigrant

familieswerethepoorest,inbothZhejiangandGuizhouprovinces.Meanwhile

apparentlythemigrationinawaywas“justforthekids”tohaveliveabetterlife.

Theprospectforthechildrentogotoschoolinthecityand“secureabetterfuture”

wasalsoanincentiveofthemigrantfamily.

Howeverchildren’scurrentsituationliesintheirhomecommunity.When

“everybodyhasgonetothecities”yetthecommunitystayswell-connected,those

childrenleftbehindmayactually“feelfine”becauseofthenormalizationof

migration,asopposedtothecontextofalightlypopulatedremotevillage.

CommunityactivitiessuchastheChildren’sClubprogramalsohelpedLBCreceive

extracareandsupport.Thesecommunity-leveleffortsweredependentonthe

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sufficientfinancialsupportandstrongvillagecommitteeleadership.

Overalldiscussion

Likeinmanyotherdevelopingcountries,migrationinChinahasbeen

predominantlydrivenbyeconomicprospectsandhumandevelopment

opportunitiesinbetter-developedareas.UnderChina’srapideconomicexpansion

anddrasticsocialchange,theinitialmotivationformigrationisalsoreflectedin

thecommunitycontexts.Whilealargeliteraturepinpointedtheeconomic

benefitsfortheleft-behindfamilymembers(McKenzie&Sasin,2007),the

cost-benefitassessmentinthedecision-makingprocessmaybehighly

context-specificandfairlysophisticated.Ourstudieshighlightedtheimportance

ofcautiousinvestigationintotheeconomiccontextsrelatedtomigration.

Ashigherdevelopmentlevelinurbanareasisanessentialpullfactorofmigration,

deprivationinruralareasiscertainlyapushfactor(Zhang&Song,2003).The

lowercostsofmigrationwithinChina,ascomparedtointernationalmigration

fromotherdevelopingcountries,haveenabledthemassiveflowsof

underprivilegedpopulations.Ononehand,manyfamilieshadtospendmuchof

theirincomeonbuildingahouseintheirhometown,whichleftlimitedliquid

assetsthatcandirectlybenefitchildren.Ontheotherhand,oncefamiliesbecome

richenough,theytendtoleavethecountrysideandmovetothecitytogetherwith

theirchildren.Hence,itwouldbeimportantnottoassumeeconomicadvantages

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inleft-behindfamilies,andchildreninthesefamiliesmaybestillinlackof

materialresources.

Themagnitudeofthechallengescausedbyparentalmigrationisalsomanifested

bythenumberandproportionofLBCinruralChina.Inthetypical

migrant-sendingareasinthetwoprovinces,ourquantitativestudyfoundover

halfofthechildrenhadoneorbothparentsawayatthetimeofsurvey,much

higherthantheproportioncalculatedbasedonnationalcensusdata(37.7%)

(Duanetal.,2013).Consideringthetremendousvariabilityofsocio-economic

developmentstatusacrossthecountry,bothwithinandacrossprovinces(Lietal.,

2013),itislikelythatruralout-migrationisamuchmorecommonphenomenon

insomeplacesthanothersinChina.

Yettheexistingliteraturerarelytakesintoaccountthescaleofmigrationasa

specificcommunitycharacteristic.Accordingtoourfieldinvestigation,even

withinonecounty,migrationratesmaydiffersignificantlybetweendifferent

townshipsorvillages.Communitysocialcapitalhasbeenfoundtobestrongly

associatedwithbetterchildmentalhealthoutcomes(Wuetal,2015).Although

quantitativesurveywasnotabletoexaminecommunity-levelvariables,our

qualitativefindingssuggestmigrationratemaybeanimportantcontextofchild

wellbeing.Highout-migrationcommunitiestendtodeveloptargetedsupport

mechanismsandprogramsforchildrenandfamilies.Also,livinginacommunity

withalargegroupofsimilarfamiliesandchildrenmayhelpsomeLBCdealwith

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thechallengesofparentalabsence.Tothecontrary,stigmatizationofbeingLBC

appearedtobemorelikelyincommunitieswithlessout-migration.Higher

populationdensitymayalsorelievethelonelinessofLBC,assomeinterviewees

noted,whichhasnotbeenproperlyexaminedbytheliteratureeither.Further

researchshouldaimtoprovideacommunityscopingoftheissue,andelicitthe

effectsoftheproportionanddensityofleft-behindfamiliesinthecommunityon

childwellbeing.

Soonafterthe2008financialcrisishitChina,massiveflowsofmigrantsreturned

totheirruralhometownsduetotherisingurbanunemploymentrates.This

phenomenondidnotlastforlongbeforetheeconomystartedtorecoveraround

2010.TherecentslowdownofChineseeconomy,however,mayalsopotentially

resultinadeclineoflabordemandsinthecities.Thescaleoflocaljobmarketin

mostpartsofruralChinaislargelydeterminedbymediumandsmallbusinesses,

whichrelyonavarietyoffactorstothrive.Aswefoundinthequalitativestudy,

thelocalmanufacturingindustriesinKaihuahaveretainedafairlylargelabor

force,especiallywomen.Theongoingnewphaseofurbanizationfocusingon

similarsmalltownsChinamayfurthercreatemorejobsintheformerlyrural

areasandattractmoremigrantstoreturnandworknearhome(Wangetal.,

2015b).Meanwhile,asthenumberofruralworkingmothersincreases,qualityof

careforchildrenofmigrantfathermayfacenewchallenges.

Childwelfareandchildprotectionsystemsinthemigrant-sendingcommunities

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areanothercrucialaspectofsocialcontext.Particularly,policiesandprograms

thatprovidetargetedsupportforLBCmayplayanimportantroleinsafeguarding

thewellbeingchildrenandtheirfamilies.Wuetal.(2015)hasfoundinGuizhou

provincethatcommunitysocialcapitalplaysasignificantroleinmitigatingthe

depressionrisksamongLBC.Inlessdevelopedcountriesandcommunities,the

localsystemsareoftenunabletoidentifychildreninneedofpsychological

supportandtoprovideadequateservicesforthesechildren(Pateletal.,2008).

Hence,targetedsupportprogramsfortheLBCinmigrant-sendingsocietiesand

communitiesbecomeanimportantfactorofchildwellbeing.

TheChildren’sClubinterventionprogramhassetamodelofcommunitysupport

forresource-limitedsettings.Similarmechanismsinothercountrieshavenot

beenwellestablished,exceptoneprograminMexicobuiltuponcommunity

networks.Effectiveimplementationandfavorableoutcomesofcommunity

supportmaybelinkedwithothercontext-specificinstitutionalarrangementsand

socioeconomicsituations.Communitysolidarityontacklingissuescausedby

out-migrationmayalsoraiseawarenesswithinthefamilies,onthechallenges

facedbychildren,andstrengthenthesupportfrombothco-residentandmigrant

familymembers.Itisnoteworthythatdespiteofthesignificantcontributionto

childpsychosocialwellbeing,communitysupportwillnotandshouldnotreplace

theresponsibilitiesoffamilycaregivers.Familyenvironmentstillprovidesthe

mostimportantcareandresourcesforchilddevelopmentinabsenceofmigrant

parents.

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7.3Conclusion

7.3.1SystemssafeguardingthewellbeingofLBC

Findingsfromourstudiesbasedontheoverarchingframeworkprovidecrucial

evidencetoimprovethecurrentchildwelfareandchildprotectionsystems

safeguardingthewellbeingofLBC.Institutionsandagenciesshouldaimto

identifyareasthatarehighlyaffectedbyout-migration,andspecificallytargetthe

vulnerablechildrenandfamilies.Strategicmappingoftheissuerequires

persistentmonitoringoflocalfamilynetworksandpopulationmovements,with

coordinationacrossmultiplegovernmentandcommunityagencies.

ThemassivemigrationinChinaisrelatedtothefundamentalsocial

transformationthatcamealongwiththecountry’srapideconomicgrowth,and

thereforegovernmentagenciesandthepublicservicesectorareprobablythe

mostaccountableandcapable,intackingthedifficultiesimposedonfamilies

livingapart,especiallytheLBC.Ideally,supportiveinstitutionsinurbanandrural

areasshouldbeabletocollaborate,andcoordinatetheireffortsinservingspecific

migrantpopulationsandtheirfamiliesathome.

However,theuniversalbasicsocialservicesprovidedbythegovernment’ssocial

policysystemsarestillratherweakinChina.Recentlawsandpoliciesdesignedto

protectchildren(notjustleft-behindones)havebeenpracticallyunenforced

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(Shang&Katz,2014).Astheinstitutionalwelfareprovisionisnotfunctioning,

familynetworksoftenfillthestatevoidinprovidingprotectiontotheLBC

(Valtolina&Colombo,2012).Consequently,familiesindisadvantagedsituations

areinevitablysubjecttoinadequateprovisionofcareandresourcesforthe

childrenleftbehind.

7.3.2Stableandprotectivefamilyenvironment

Astablefamilyenvironment,includingbothmigrantparentsandco-resident

caregivers,isessentialforthewellbeingofindividualLBCinthemigrant-sending

communities.Astomigrantparents,childwelfareandprotectionagenciesshould

makesurethattheytakebasicresponsibilitiesinchildcareevenaftertheir

departure;especiallythearrangementsforthechildtoreceiveessentialcareand

supportathomemustbemade.Communityrepresentativesandsocialworkers

shouldhelpmaintainandreinforcetheconnectionsbetweenthechildand

parents.Forinstance,somedonorshavefundedreuniontripsforthefamilies

livingapart.Parentingprogramsmayalsobeorganizedtohelpmigrantparents

bettercommunicatewithchildren,andprovideguidanceandsupportover

distance.

Ontheruralleft-behindfamilyside,varioustypesofsupportmayalsobe

enhancedbyfurthereffortsfromthegovernmentandcommunityorganizations.

Itisimportanttorecognizethatmigrantsarenotguaranteedwithbetter

300

economicstatus.Infact,theyarerathervulnerabletoeconomicshocks,since

mostofthemprefertoinvestinnewhousingratherthansaveforliquidassets

(Janson,2014).Financialaidshouldbereinforcedforchildreninneed,andthe

LBCineconomicallydeprivedfamiliesshouldbespeciallyidentifiedandtargeted.

Ingeneral,governmentorcommunityagenciesshouldconstantlymonitorthe

welfareofLBC,tooffertimelysupportoranyessentialresourcesthatarein

demand.Localpublicinstitutionssuchasschoolsandhospitalsmustalsodomore

tonotifytheauthoritiesofcasesofabuseorneglect.Programslikethe“Children’s

Club”mayintegrateresourcesatthecommunitytoprovidecareandsupervision,

aswellassocialinteractionplatformsthatwouldbenefitchilddevelopment.

7.3.3Implicationsforpolicyandinterventions

Ourresultsmayinformfuturestrategiesandinterventionprogramsinaddressing

thepsychologicalanddevelopmentalrisksfacedbytheLBC.Firstofall,thetarget

populationofpoliciesandinterventionsshouldnotberestrictedtothecurrently

left-behind.Childrenandfamilieswhopreviouslyexperiencedtheprolonged

separationshoulddrawmoreattentionfromthepolicymakersandsocialservice

providers.Meanwhile,childreninthemostdisadvantagedleft-behindfamiliesare

inpressingneedsofbettercare,withregardtobothfinancialaidsand

socioemotionalsupportfromthecommunity.Incombinationwithexistingsocial

protectionsystemsandprograms,LBCwhohavedivorcedparents,incapable

caregiverand/orliveinaremotearea,shouldbeidentifiedandspecifically

301

targeted.Registrationandrecordsofthesechildrenshouldbeestablished,inorder

toprovideconstantmonitoringandsupportforchilddevelopment.

Well-developedinterventionsandprogramsshouldalsodistinguishthedifferent

dimensionsofchildwellbeing,andprovidespecificcontentandactivities

accordingtoindividualcharacteristicsofthechildandfamily.Forinstance,

emotionalsupportanddevelopmental-behavioralinterventionsmaybecarried

outviadifferentactivitiesandatdifferentplaces,includingathome,school,and

communitycenter,dependingonthespecificaimsoftheprogram.Further

experimentalresearchneedstoexplorethepertinentapproachesthataddress

overallandindividualdimensionsofthewellbeingofLBC.

Tostrengthenthesupportiverelationshipsinchildcareenvironmentisanother

priorityinimprovingthewellbeingofbothcurrentlyandpreviouslyleft-behind

children.Thisinvolvesparent-childcommunicationoverdistance,

grandparent-childinteractionsathome,aswellastheconnectionsbetweenthe

fatherandmotherandtheirjointeffortsonchildcare.Parentingprogramsmaybe

designedformigrantparentsandco-residentcaregivers,respectively.Ifthe

couplesdonotmigratetogether,certainrelationshipormarriagecounseling

servicesmaybepiloted,tostrengthenthesolidarityofthenuclearfamily

especiallyoncareandsupportforthechildren.

302

Thelocalcommunityalsoplaysanimportantroleinprovidingcareandsocial

supporttotheLBC.Communitycareprogrammaybeorganizedbylocalofficials

andcommunitymembersforthechildren,notonlytosharetheresponsibilitiesof

caregivers,buttocreateaplatformforchildrentospendtimetogetherinavariety

ofactivities.Suchprogramsmayalsoincludeacademictutoringtohelpwith

children’sschoolperformance.Indoingsothecommunitywouldbeabletooffer

criticalsourcesofpeerandsocialsupporttothelocalLBC.

7.3.4Solutionstokeepfamiliestogether

CertainlytheultimatesolutiontotheLBCissuesistokeepfamiliestogether.In

themigrant-receivingcities,governmentsandlargeemployersshouldstriveto

incorporatethemigrantsintotheurbansociety,byreducingthebarrierstourban

citizenship,andimprovingtheirworkingconditions,benefitsandwelfare.

Enhancedeffortsfromnon-governmentalorganizationsandcorporatesocial

responsibilitiesarealsoexpected,forbetterservicestothechildrenofmigrant

workers.Ontheruralside,morelocalresidentsshouldbeabletoachievebetter

livingstandardsbyworkingneartheirhometown.Inthelatesturbanization

process,thisreliesonincreasedinvestmentsandtargetedpoliciesinsmaller

townswithinruralareas,particularlyonstart-upbusinessesormid-and

small-scaleindustries,inordertoattractalargerlocalworkforce.The

governmentandcivilsocietyshouldcontinuetheeffortsonensuringtheessential

welfareforchilddevelopmentandqualityeducationattainmentforallchildren,

303

andbuildupfavorable,supportiveenvironmentsinruralcommunitieswhere

childrencanthriveandachievetheirfullpotential,withoutprolongedseparation

fromtheirparents.

304

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Annex:Quantitativesurveyquestionnaire

In order to better understand themental health anddevelopment of children in

Zhejiang, as researchers fromZhejiangUniversity,weare conducting this survey

and would like your cooperation. This questionnaire will be anonymous and

self-administered;itisonlyforourresearchandnoinformationwillbedisclosed.

Sopleaseanswerthequestionsaccordingtowhatyouconsidertobetrue,asthere

isnotarightorwronganswer.Thankyouforyourhelp.

ZhejiangChildDevelopmentQuestionnaire

(Forstudentsatorabove5thyearofprimaryschool)

Firstofall,pleasetellussomethingaboutyourselfandyourfamily.

1. Pleasetelluswhetheryouareagirloraboy. Girl Boy

2. Yourbirthday?________(mm/yyyy)

3. Whatisthenameoftheschoolyouattend?__________

4. Whichschoolyearareyouin?

5. What'sthelevelofyourfamily'seconomicconditionascomparedtoothersinyour

town?

①Verygood ②Good ③Fair ④Poor ⑤Verypoor

6. Doyouhavethefollowingitemsathome?

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①airconditioner ②washingmachine ③television ④refrigerator

⑤computer/laptop ⑥motorcycle

7. Howmanysiblingsdoyouhave?______

Howmanyofthemareyoureldersister,youngersister,elderbrother,andyounger

brother,respectively?___________________________

8. Is your father living away from home for work (or business) now? ①yes,

currently ②yes,previously③no,never（ifno,gotoquestion11）

Ifyes,howoldwereyouwhenyourfatherlefthomeforwork(orbusiness)forthe

firsttime?______

Howlonghashebeenawayafteryouwereborn?______

Whichisthemostrecentplacehehasbeento?______

Howmanytimesdidhecomebackhomeduringthelastyear?______

Eachtimehecameback,howmanydaysonaveragedidhestayfor?______

9. Is your mother living away from home for work (or business) now? ①yes,

currently ②yes,previously③no,never（ifno,gotoquestion11）

Ifyes,howoldwereyouwhenyourmotherlefthomeforwork(orbusiness)forthe

firsttime?______

Howlonghasshebeenawayafteryouwereborn?______

Whichisthemostrecentplaceshehasbeento?______

Howmanytimesdidshecomebackhomeduringthelastyear?______

Eachtimeshecameback,howmanydaysonaveragedidshestayfor?______

10. (If both your parents live with you, skip this question) How many times have you

talkedwithyourmotherorfatherinthepastonemonthbyphoneoronQQ?______

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11. Howmuchpocketmoneydoyougeteachmonth?______

12. Whoareyoulivingwithnow?(multiplechoices)

①yourfather’sfather②yourfather’smother③yourmother’sfather ④your

mother’smother ⑤yourfather ⑥yourmother ⑦otherrelatives

⑧neighbour ⑨nobody⑩otherpeople

Amongthem,whotakescareofyoumost?______

Isthatpersonmaleoffemale?______

Howoldishe/she?______

His/hereducationlevel?______

①primaryschool/neverwenttoschool ②juniormiddleschool ③highschool

④vocationalcollege ⑤universityorhigher

Wealsowanttoknowhowthingsaregoingforyouatschool.Pleasecompletethe

itemsaccordingtoyouractualsituationandfeelings.

13. Idon'twanttogotoschool

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

14. Ifindschoolinteresting/Ienjoyschoolactivities

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

15. Iworryaboutmyfuture

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

327

16. Iworryaboutgettingbadmarksorgrades

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

17. Itishardtopayattentioninclass

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

18. Ieasilyforgetthings

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

19. Ioftenanswerquestionsinclass.

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

20. Ifinishmyhomeworkontime

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

21. Ifinishmyhomeworkonmyown

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

22. Generallyhowareyoudoingwithyourstudyamongallstudentsinyourclass?

Top Middle Bottom

328

Wewould also like to knowwhether youdo things below to further understand

youandotherchildren.Yourparentsandteacherswilldefinitelyneverknowyour

answer.

23. Smoking：

Never sometimes less than 1 cigarette per week more than 1

cigaretteperweek

24. Drinkingalcohol

Never sometimes less than once a month more than once a

month

25. Skipclasses

Never Sometimes Manytimes

26. Cheatinexams

Never Sometimes Manytimes

27. Gotointernetbars

Never Sometimes Manytimes

28. Helpwithhousework

Never Sometimes Manytimes

29. Helpwithfarmworkorfamilybusiness

Never Sometimes Manytimes

30. Stealthings

Never Sometimes Manytimes

31. Lying

329

Never Sometimes Manytimes

32. Vandalism

Never Sometimes Manytimes

33. Bullyclassmatesorotherchildren

Never Sometimes Manytimes

34. Bulliedbyclassmatesorotherchildren

Never Sometimes Manytimes

35. Physicallyfightwithpeople

Never Sometimes Manytimes

Pleasecompletethefollowingitemsaccordingtoyourexperiencesduringthepast

sixmonths.Thereisnotanyrightorwronganswer,justtelluswhatyouconsider

tobetrue.

36. Itrytobenicetootherpeople.Icareabouttheirfeelings

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

37. Iamrestless,Icannotstaystillforlong

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

38. Igetalotofheadaches,stomach-achesorsickness

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

330

39. Iusuallysharewithothers(food,games,pensetc.)

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

40. Igetveryangryandoftenlosemytemper

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

41. Iamusuallyonmyown.Igenerallyplayaloneorkeeptomyself

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

42. IusuallydoasIamtold

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

43. Iworryalot

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

44. Iamhelpfulifsomeoneishurt,upsetorfeelingill

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

45. Iamconstantlyfidgetingorsquirming

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

46. Ihaveonegoodfriendormore

331

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

47. Ifightalot.IcanmakeotherpeopledowhatIwant

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

48. Iamoftenunhappy,down-heartedortearful

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

49. Otherpeoplemyagegenerallylikeme

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

50. Iameasilydistracted,Ifinditdifficulttoconcentrate

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

51. Iamnervousinnewsituations.Ieasilyloseconfidence

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

52. Iamkindtoyoungerchildren

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

53. Iamoftenaccusedoflyingorcheating

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

332

54. Otherchildrenoryoungpeoplepickonmeorbullyme

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

55. Ioftenvolunteertohelpothers(parents,teachers,children)

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

56. IthinkbeforeIdothings

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

57. Itakethingsthatarenotminefromhome,schoolorelsewhere

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

58. Igetonbetterwithadultsthanwithpeoplemyownage

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

59. Ihavemanyfears.Iameasilyscared

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

60. IfinishtheworkI'mdoing.Myattentionisgood

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

Pleasecompletethefollowing4itemsifyourbothyourparentsdonotlivewithyou

333

61. Imissmyparent(s)alot

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

62. Ifeelsadeachtimemyparentsleavehomeforwork

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

63. Ifeellonelyathome

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

64. Iwishmyparentswereathome

Nottrue Somewhattrue Certainlytrue

Whowouldhelpyouortalkwithyouinthefollowingsituations?

65. Whenyouwerehavingaproblemwithyourstudies

Parent Caregivers (if not living with parents) Teachers

Friends/Classmates

Others Nobody

66. Whenyouwereworriedordepressedaboutsomething

Parent Caregivers (if not living with parents) Teachers

Friends/Classmates

334

Others Nobody

67. Whenyouwerebeingteasedorbulliedbyanotherchild

Parent Caregivers (if not living with parents) Teachers

Friends/Classmates

Others Nobody

68. Whowouldyoushareyourhappiness(e.g.didgreatinexam)with?

Parent Caregivers (if not living with parents) Teachers

Friends/Classmates

Others Nobody

69. Whowouldyoutalktowhenyouareunhappy?

Parent Caregivers (if not living with parents) Teachers

Friends/Classmates

Others Nobody

70. Whowoulddisciplineyouortellyouoffwhenyoudidsomethingwrong?

Parent Caregivers (if not living with parents) Teachers

Friends/Classmates

Others Nobody

71. Whocaresforyoumost? ____________

335

72. Whodoyoulikemost? ____________

73. Whatdoyouwishtodowhenyougrowup? _______________

Please choose from options in the items below according to your thoughts and

feelingsduringthepasttwoweeks.

74. ①Irarelyfeelunhappy. ②Isometimesfeelunhappy ③Ioftenfeelunhappy

75. ①Ioftenwanttocry ②Isometimeswanttocry ③Irarelywanttocry

76. ①Iwouldliketobewithpeople ②Ioftendon'tliketobewithpeople

③Idon'tliketobewithpeopleatall

77. ①Irarelyfeellonely ②Isometimesfeellonely ③Ioftenfeellonely

78. ①Noneoftheadultsreallyloveme ②I'mnotsureifanyadultloveme

③I'msuresomeadultloveme

79. ①Iwanttocommitsuicide ②Ithinkaboutsuicide,butwon'tdoit.

③Ineverthoughtaboutsuicide.

Pleasetellusaboutyourfriends.

80. Duringthepastyear,didanyofyourfriends

1） drinkfrequently? ①Yes ②No

2） smoke? ① Yes ②

No

3） physicallyfightwithpeople? ①Yes ②No

4） gotointernetbarfrequently? ①Yes ②No

336

5） steal? ①Yes ②No

6） oftenskipclasses? ①Yes ②No

7） oftencheatinexams ①Yes ②No

8） spendmoneylavishly? ①Yes ②No

9） oftendisobeyteachersandparents? ①Yes ②No

10） hangoutwithbadguys?①Yes ②No

11） verballybullyotherchildren?(e.g.curseormockothers)①Yes ②No

12） physicallybullyotherchildren?(e.g.hitothers) ①Yes ②No

Wewould like toknow ifyousuffer fromviolence fromyourparents.During the

pastyear,didyourparents:

81. Screamedatyouveryloudandaggressively,saidmeanthingsorcursedyou?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyearbutthis

hashappened

82. Threatenedtoleaveyouorabandonyou?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Not in the past year but

thishashappened

83. Hitorslappedonyourface?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyear

84. Beatenorphysicallyhurtyoubyhand?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyear

337

85. Beatenorphysicallyhurtyouwithimplementslikesticksandwhips?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyear

86. Locked you out of the home, made you stand or do exercise for a long time as

punishment?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Not in the past year but

thishashappened

87. Orotherkindsofpunishmenttoyou?_____________________________________

Wewouldliketoknowifyousufferfromviolencefromyourcaregivers.Duringthe

pastyear,didyourcaregivers:

88. Screamedatyouveryloudandaggressively,saidmeanthingsorcursedyou?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyearbutthis

hashappened

89. Threatenedtoleaveyouorabandonyou?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Not in the past year but

thishashappened

338

90. Hitorslappedonyourface?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyear

91. Beatenorphysicallyhurtyoubyhand?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyear

92. Beatenorphysicallyhurtyouwithimplementslikesticksandwhips?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Notinthepastyear

93. Locked you out of the home, made you stand or do exercise for a long time as

punishment?

Manytimes Sometimes Never Not in the past year but

thishashappened

94. Orotherkindsofpunishmenttoyou?_____________________________________

Yoursafetyisthetopconcernofyourparentsandteachers-pleaseletusknowif

youhavebeenhurtinthefollowingwaysduringthepast12months.

95. Mechanicalinjury(suchasbonefracture,sprain)： ①Yes,____times； ②No

96. Animalbites： ①Yes,____times； ②No

97. Burn： ①Yes,____times； ②No

98. Drowning： ①Yes,____times； ②No

99. Trafficaccident: ①Yes,____times； ②No

100. Others

101. Have you tried to hurt yourself during the past year? (e.g. by cutting, scratching,

jumpingfromhighplaces,overdosing,swallowingindigestiblethings)：

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①Never ②Once ③Morethanonce

Thankssomuchforyourhelp!

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