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2012 35: 49 originally published online 8 September 2011Council for Exceptional ChildrenTeacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the

Rosa Milagros Santos, Andrea L. Ruppar and Laurie M. JeansImmersing Students in the Culture of Disability Through Service Learning

  

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Service learning is gaining increased attention as a pedagogical strategy in higher education (Butin, 2006) as colleges and universities are increasingly emphasizing community or public engagement designed to strengthen and high-light important links between institution of higher education and society. The utility of ser-vice learning for the preparation of special edu-cation teachers has been noted as a means to promote critical thinking, an understanding of the social context of disability, and reflective teaching (Mayhew & Welch, 2001). Service learning values the community and embraces a spirit of diversity through service. As Howard (2003) noted, “Instructors, from elementary schools to graduate and professional schools, are turning to the community as a laboratory to

strengthen students’ citizenship preparation and academic learning” (p. 1).

In service learning, student learning goals are met by addressing a community need. It differs from traditional community service or volunteer activities because it directly addresses the curriculum and requires collab-oration between the students and community partners so that the benefits are reciprocal. In addition, service learning should include an

413143 TESXXX10.1177/0888406411413143Santos et al.Teacher Education and Special Education

1University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, USA

Corresponding Author:Rosa Milagros Santos, Department of Special Education, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 288 Education, 1310 South Sixth Street, IL 61820, USA Email: rsantos@illinois.edu

Immersing Students in the Culture of Disability Through Service Learning

Rosa Milagros Santos1, Andrea L. Ruppar1, and Laurie M. Jeans1

Abstract

This article provides a description of service learning implemented in an introductory spe-cial education course focused on the culture of disability. Collaborating with liaisons from five community service organizations, students provided services to individuals with disabilities in a variety of projects across two semesters. Communication and collaboration at all phases of the project were essential to ensuring that service learning was salient to the organization and meaningful to the students. The students presented a final report about their service-learning project and individually submitted a paper reflecting on their experience. Pre- and post-ratings of students’ perspectives of the culture of disability were gathered. Students reported increased knowledge related to course content, and all participants reported satisfaction with the proj-ects. Strategies that proved successful in assisting students accomplish their project goals are discussed. Recommendations for the use of service learning in personnel preparation of future special educators are presented.

Keywords

special education, service learning, teacher preparation practices and outcomes

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50 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)

opportunity for students to reflect on their experiences. The definition of service learn-ing varies; however, it commonly includes the following components (Pritchard & Whitehead, 2004):

1. Assessing community need: Com-munity members may be surveyed or interviewed to determine what types of services are needed. Students and teachers collaborate to determine which potential project would most closely match their learning needs.

2. Collaborative planning: Students work together with the community partner to plan the steps, outcomes, and evaluation of the project. The partnership between the students and the community member is a very important feature of service learning.

3. Project implementation: Students work together to complete the ser-vice project. In addition, students are addressing learning goals.

4. Reflection: Reflection activities “help students link the actions of ser-vice with academic ideas and under-standings” (Pritchard & Whitehead, 107). Reflection can be done in a variety of ways. Students may choose to keep a journal, provide written reflections, or reflect face-to-face with an instructor or peers. It is also an opportunity for the teacher to assess the progress of the project and make any necessary changes based on student feedback.

5. Evaluation: Students, teachers, and community members collaborate to evaluate the success of the project. All participants provide feedback about whether to carry out a simi-lar project again, and if so, what changes should be made.

6. Celebration: The students and com-munity members have an oppor-tunity to reward each other for the accomplishments of the project.

Service Learning in Teacher Education

Service learning has been used as a peda-gogical strategy in higher education, and teacher education specifically. Campus Compact (www.compact.org) and the National Service Learning Clearinghouse (www.servicelearning.org) have indexed hundreds of service learning syllabi in a variety of disciplines, as well as articles, toolkits, and funding resources to support the use of service learning in higher educa-tion. In the area of teacher education, the National Service-Learning Partnership (www.service-learningpartnership.org), the International Center for Service Learning in Teacher Education (http://www.clemson .edu/icslte/), and the American Educational Research Association Special Interest Group on Service-Learning and Experi-ential Education (www.aera.net/sigs) all offer suggestions, resources, and profes-sional networking for faculty interested in using service learning in their teacher edu-cation programs.

When implemented early in preservice teacher education, service learning may play an important role in shaping attitudes toward people with disabilities. It has been suggested that field-based experiences help teacher can-didates know what to expect in their future careers (President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education, 2002). Service learning has been shown to improve students’ attitudes toward people with dis-abilities (Burns, Storey, & Certo, 1999). Therefore, interactions with individuals with disabilities have the potential to shape teach-ers’ understandings and attitudes at an early stage in their education. By engaging in “meaningful, reciprocal relationships with individuals who have historically been mar-ginalized by society” through a service-learning project, preservice teachers have an opportu-nity to learn inclusive values that will guide their future practice (Mayhew & Welch, 2001, p. 217).

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Mayhew and Welch (2001) asserted that service learning may influence preservice teachers to be reflective and encourage criti-cal thinking about prevailing educational practices. The authors described that stu-dents in a Human Exceptionalities course responded more positively to items related to citizenship and course content than other stu-dents participating in service-learning activi-ties throughout the university. Carrington and Saggers (2008) likewise described how a service-learning project developed preser-vice teachers’ early attitudes about inclusion and designing inclusive instruction. Results of the students’ reflections indicated that they increased their knowledge about col-laboration, values, and respect; developing relationships with community partners; and cultural diversity. This suggests that service learning may reinforce the principles of col-laboration, inclusivity, and respect in teacher education.

An advantage of inclusive service learning is that it provides an opportunity for students with and without disabilities to work together in equal roles. College students may have few opportunities to interact with peers with dis-abilities, and when they do, it is typically in a “helping” role (Gent & Gurecka, 2001). Inclusive service-learning projects have been found to result in more favorable attitudes toward people with disabilities than those in which students without disabilities provided a service to people with disabilities (Burns et al., 1999; Gent & Gurecka, 2001). When students with and without disabilities work together on a service-learning project, each group of students can address their own goals and participate in equal roles. In this way, col-lege students can acquire the skills to treat students with disabilities as peers, and stu-dents with and without disabilities have the opportunity to build relationships.

The use of service learning in teacher edu-cation may also influence teachers’ decision on whether to use service learning in their future classrooms. Wade et al. (1999) found that when service learning was incorporated

into the curriculum of teacher education, teachers were more likely to implement ser-vice learning in the future. Because of this potential impact of service-learning projects, Anderson and Erickson (2003) cautioned that teacher educators must understand service-learning principles and theories to achieve positive outcomes.

As an early, applied learning experience related to the lives of people with disabilities, service learning has the potential to influence the perspectives of future teachers. Students may develop positive attitudes toward people with disabilities, may view inclusive practices more favorably, and may be more likely to use the practice in their own classrooms. In addi-tion, creative application of service learning can give students opportunities to interact with individuals with disabilities in a variety of ways, allowing them to serve an authentic need while meeting their own learning goals. In these ways, service learning can be a valu-able addition to a teacher education program.

The purpose of this article is to describe how service learning was implemented within an undergraduate course in special education at a large Midwestern Research University-Extensive with an additional Carnegie desig-nation of Community Engagement (http://www .carnegiefoundation.org/). We also examined the extent to which service learning influ-enced the students’ attitudes toward the dis-ability culture and their perceptions of their knowledge related to individuals with dis-abilities. To this end, we evaluated the impact of service learning on students and the partici-pating community organizations. Results and implications of our findings will be described. Finally, we will highlight one team of students (i.e., humane society service-learning group) to provide examples and additional detail on the service learning as applied in the course.

Program DescriptionIn this section, we provide the context in which the project we describe was developed, implemented, and evaluated.

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Course Description

Service learning was implemented in a 3-hour credit undergraduate course at a large mid-western Research University-Extensive. The course title is “Culture of Disability” and is offered through the Department of Special Education, which is housed in the College of Education. There are several sections of this course offered during the fall and spring semesters. The service learning was imple-mented in the “Discovery” section of the course, which is only open to 19 first-year students per semester and taught by a tenured faculty. The “Discovery Program” is an initia-tive within the university designed to facilitate greater interaction between 1st-year students and faculty in a small class setting. Discovery sections of courses across the university are offered on a wide range of disciplines designed by faculty to share their research in a particular area. The Discovery course offered through the

Department of Special Education fulfills the General Education (Humanities) requirements for undergraduate students at the university.

Because of its wide appeal on campus, the course has drawn students from various departments and colleges. Students are able to enroll in the course on a first come, first served basis. Per university policy, the faculty assigned to the Discovery course is not allowed to open or offer any seats to other stu-dents. A copy of the syllabus for this course may be obtained from the first author.

Student ParticipantsA total of 38 freshmen, enrolled in the Discovery section of the course, across two 16-week semesters (spring and fall semes-ters), participated in the service learning. Per the university’s requirements, a Human Subjects Research form was completed and approved by the campus Institutional Review Board to allow the authors to collect, analyze, and report data related to the service learning. At the beginning of the semester, the third author who is not associated with the course explained to the students the voluntary nature of their participation in the data collection (i.e., completing the pre- and postquestion-naire and the satisfaction questionnaire, and allowing the authors to use their reflection papers in the analysis). All of the students agreed to participate. With their consent, demographic data on students were collected at the beginning of the semester. A summary is provided in Table 1.

The majority of students declared “Education” as their major (42%). For students who are plan-ning to major in education (i.e., special educa-tion, early childhood, elementary, and secondary), the Culture of Disability course is a required general education course, which accounts for a substantially higher number of education majors enrolled in the course com-pared with other majors. Furthermore, most of the students are White (85%), which mirrors the overall population of students enrolled in the university. Finally, one third of the students

Table 1. Student Participant Demographics

Demographic information %

Major of studyBusiness and accounting 16Education 42Engineering 3Liberal arts and sciences 13Recreation, sports management, and tourism

5

Speech and hearing science 6Human development and family studies 3Undeclared 13

Ethnic backgroundAfrican American 4White 85Latino/Latina 8Other 3

Experience working with people with disabilities (volunteer or paid)None 32Less than 1 year 241-3 years 19

More than 3 years 27

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(32%) indicated that they did not have any vol-unteer or paid experiences working with indi-viduals with disabilities prior to enrolling in the course.

Participating Community OrganizationsFive local organizations were invited to par-ticipate in this project. They were selected to serve as a partner organization because they are key groups within the community who employ and/or serve individuals with dis-abilities from a variety of backgrounds. It was also important that each organization had a built-in capacity to work with community volunteers (e.g., dedicated volunteer coordi-nator). The directors of the organizations were contacted initially by telephone to share information about the course, service learn-ing, and ultimately to obtain their informed consent to participate. Each of the organiza-tions contacted agreed to participate. In the fall semester, three organizations worked with the students on their service-learning projects. In the following spring semester, two organizations were added to provide more options for the students. The participat-ing organizations included a statewide dis-ability advocacy group, a disability-specific family network, a local humane society, a local not-for-profit disability rights group, and a special recreation program through the local park district.

Each organization signed a Memorandum of Understanding which signified their com-mitment to providing the students enrolled in the course with opportunities to complete their service learning within the semester. Each organization was represented by a liaison who participated in all of the meetings to develop their individual service-learning activity. The liaisons were the primary contact for the stu-dents as they designed and implemented their service learning. The liaison also evaluated the projects and assigned a final grade to the stu-dents at the end of the semester. Communication and collaboration with each organization at all

phases of the project was essential to ensuring that the service learning was salient to the orga-nization and meaningful to the students enrolled in the course.

Service Learning Components and Expectations

At the 2nd week of classes, after the students completed their prequestionnaire forms, liaisons from each organization came to class and pre-sented descriptive information about their orga-nization to the students. They also shared their ideas for engaging students in service learning. The service learning included applied projects or activities that were developed and imple-mented so that community groups, particularly individuals with disabilities, would benefit. A description of one of the projects completed by a team of students is provided in Box 1.

At the end of the presentations, the students independently selected an organization with which to complete their project. Each organiza-tion determined the maximum number of stu-dents needed for a given project and once those slots were filled, students were asked to select another organization. Once teams were formed, the liaison met with their team of students to plan their service learning. A portion of class time (1 hour and 30 minutes), once a month was allotted for students to meet with their liaison and/or to work on their service learning. On average, stu-dents spent 8 to 10 hours outside of their class time to complete their service learning.

Students completed three products for their service learning. First, as a team, students com-pleted the tasks required by their service learn-ing. Individual student grades were assigned both by the instructor and the organization liai-son, based on criteria listed in Table 2. This grade represented 25% of the students’ total grade for the course.

Second and also as a team, the students pre-sented an in-class final report about their service learning. Each team prepared a presentation about their service learning, in which they

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54 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)

Box 1

Humane Society: An Inclusive Service-Learning ExperienceDuring one semester of the course, students had the option to engage in an inclusive ser-

vice-learning project at the local humane society. Five students from the course were paired with four seniors with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities from a local high school. Students from the course participated in verbal and written reflections throughout the semester.

Features of the project:

• Throughout the semester, the two groups of students visited the humane society three times. At each visit, students worked in teams of two or three to complete duties such as laundry, folding newspapers for the animal cages, cleaning the walls, and washing the food dishes.

• At the end of the project, the students held a pizza party hosted by the high school students. The high school students took the college students on a tour of their school, followed by an impromptu football game on the lawn.

• Features of the project that promoted inclusion were

○ The project was conducted at a community site rather than at the university or at the high school

○ Equal roles for all participants ○ Facilitation of positive relationships between students with disabilities, the univer-

sity, and community partners

Following each meeting of the humane society group, the students enrolled in the course completed written reflections, answering the following questions: (a) What have you learned about people with disabilities as a result of your experience? and (b) Did anything surprise you in your interactions with the students? Why or why not? Each student also met with the project facilitator once during the semester for a verbal reflection.

Highlights from the reflections:

• Students from the course noted that the students with disabilities were skillful workers and at times were better at the jobs than the students without disabilities.

• Students from the course expressed surprise at how easily conversation flowed between the groups. One student commented, “They dislike chores as much as I do.”

• Students noticed differential treatment of themselves and the students with disabilities by community members. One student explained that, because she noticed this, she was even more careful to interact with the students with disabilities as peers.

• As the semester progressed, students expressed their embarrassment about not having higher expectations for the skills of people with disabilities at the beginning. One stu-dent noted that her partner with a disability “definitely has more work experience than I do.”

• Students talked about the friendships that had developed and were surprised at how well they were able to get to know one another in such a short period of time. The university students were not expecting the students with disabilities to be so friendly and open, and were pleasantly surprised by the relationships that had developed.

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described their group project and shared insights from their experience. Each presentation lasted 15 to 20 minutes in length with each student required to present using a team-developed PowerPoint presentation. In their presentation, each team was asked to describe their service learning and its contribution to the community organization. Specifically, students discussed the purpose of the project, their target audience, the major outcomes of the project, the team pro-cess that was used to complete their service learning, the roles and contributions of each team member, and their methods of monitoring their team’s progress over time. Students also shared their reflections on the project and their general insights and overall impressions of the community resource, as an organization. Finally, the liaisons were invited to attend class to listen to the students’ presentations.

Finally, individual students submitted a three-page paper reflecting on their service-learning experience. Students were asked to reflect on their service learning in terms of the content and process. Students also described their individual role and contributions toward the completed service learning and reflected on how their team worked together. Finally, students reflected on important lessons they

learned about disabilities based on their ser-vice learning experience.

Evidence of ImpactIn this section, we describe four tools and measures we used to examine the impact of the service learning on the students and the community organizations.

Pre- and Postratings of Student Perspectives of Culture of Disability

First, students completed a rating scale during the 1st week and on the final week of classes. The rating form was developed exclusively for the course with support from the campus survey research office. The rating form was not intended to measure student outcome based on the service learning outcomes but instead was developed to primarily provide an overall measure of student perspectives on various topic areas related to the culture of disability that were to be addressed in the course. The first question asked students to indicate their overall perspective of inclusion for individuals with disabilities. The remainder of

Table 2. Service Learning Grading Criteria

Criteria Points

1. Service-learning project—Grade is assigned by the community liaison and based on the student’s reliability, professional behavior, work production, task completion, quality of final product, ability to work independently and as a team member, creativity, and initiative, using the following criteria (20 points each):

100

• Student was very reliable and took initiative in planning and completing the project • Student demonstrated creativity and quality in his or her products • Student completed his or her tasks on time and produced a high quality final product • Student worked well independently and as a team member • Student demonstrated professional behavior 2. Class Presentation—Grade is based on the individual contributions of team members,

organization of the presentation and overheads, quality of the content, completeness, reflections, and thoughtfulness.

25

3. Reflection paper—Grade is based on the quality of the reflections, completeness, neatness, spelling, grammar, and overall organization of the paper.

25

Total 150

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the questions asked students to indicate the level of their knowledge on various topics related to disabilities. A copy of the rating form may be requested from the first author. Descriptive sta-tistics was used to examine changes in student perspectives (see Table 3).

Using paired sample tests, statistically sig-nificant differences were found between the students’ pre- and postratings for all of the items in which the students indicated the level of their knowledge on topics related to culture of disability. At the beginning of the semester, the students indicated that the inclusion of individuals with disabilities is very important. At the end of the semester, the students remained consistent with their responses, thus resulting in no statistically significant differences in the students’ overall perspective of inclusion of individuals with disabilities at the pre- and post-service learning project timepoints.

Students’ Ratings of Satisfaction With Service-Learning Experience

Second, students completed a Likert-type satisfaction questionnaire on the final day of classes. Similar to the pre- and post-rat-ing form, the satisfaction questionnaire was developed exclusively for the course by the first author with support from the campus survey research office. This 18-item satis-faction questionnaire was not designed to measure student outcomes. Rather, it was designed to examine the extent to which students were satisfied with their service learning experience (See Table 4). At this point in the semester, all of the students had already completed their service learning and submitted their requirements for the course.

Table 3. Pre- and Poststudent Ratings

Statement Mean difference SD TSignificance (two-tailed)

1. It is important to include individuals with disabilities in all aspects of society.

–0.158 8.55 –1.138 .262

2. My knowledge of the following topics (within the context of disabilities as a culture) is a. Laws and litigations related to disability 1.605 1.104 8.965 .000 b. Inclusion of people with disabilities in society 1.342 1.047 7.903 .000 c. Civil disability rights movement 2.026 1.305 9.575 .000 d. Families of people with disability 1.054 1.224 5.240 .000 e. Universal design 2.297 1.222 11.438 .000 f. Athletics and people with disabilities 1.474 0.893 10.178 .000 g. Portrayal of people with disabilities in

the media1.395 1.054 8.160 .000

h. Advocacy for people with disabilities 1.842 1.175 9.667 .000 i. Employment of people with disabilities 1.474 1.202 7.557 .000 j. Transitions for people with disabilities 1.649 1.136 8.830 .000 k. Politics and people with disabilities 1.895 1.008 11.590 .000 l. Leisure activities for people with disabilities 1.368 1.101 7.662 .000 m. Quality of life of people with disabilities 1.632 1.025 9.816 .000 n. Independent living for people with

disabilities1.868 1.018 11.314 .000

o. Technology and people with disabilities 1.737 1.155 9.269 .000 p. Ethical issues and people with disabilities 1.842 1.242 9.145 .000

q. Cross-cultural views of disability 1.632 1.303 7.717 .000

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In the form, students indicated whether they strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed, or strongly disagreed with each statement in the questionnaire. Across all the items, students also had an option to indicate whether the statement was not relevant to their service-learning experience.

Overall, the majority of the students posi-tively rated their satisfaction with their service-learning experience. Notably, all of the students indicated that they were able to link the concepts covered in the course with the practical experiences they gained from their service learning (Items 13 and 14).

Students’ Reflections on Their Service-Learning Experience

Third, as part of their course requirements, each student submitted a final reflection paper related to their service learning. Students were provided guiding questions to organize their reflection focusing on two areas. First, students were asked to reflect on the content and the overall process for com-pleting their service. Specifically, they addressed their individual roles and contribu-tions and reflected on their team process. Second, students reflected on lessons they learned about disabilities based on their service-learning experience.

All of the students had overwhelmingly positive reactions to their service-learning experiences. They recognized the importance of the organizations they worked with and the value of their service and gained a deeper understanding of disability issues in the com-munity. The following are three representa-tive excerpts from student reflections:

My experience with my community orga-nization this semester was amazing. I have learned so much about disabilities working with them. I am definitely more comfortable around people with

disabilities. One of the most important lessons I will take away from this expe-rience is that people with disabilities really are just normal people like me.

Overall, the project was a very enrich-ing and interesting experience. I feel like I learned a lot about the culture of disability through this project. Now that I am aware of the fight for equal rights for people with disabilities, I feel I can make a better impact on the world that I live in.

Throughout the entire project, I have gained a greater understanding about disabilities. I learned the importance of organizations like the special recre-ations and how vital they are in every community. In fact, they are essential for not only people with disabilities but everyone else as well . . . When people with disabilities think they belong nowhere, groups like special recre-ations prove that they are mistaken.

The majority of the students reported that their team worked together collaboratively and effectively. Each one also described their individual contributions to the team. The stu-dents also felt they received adequate support from their liaison. Access to additional resources such as a vehicle to travel around town seemed to be an important factor for the team. As one student noted, “Driving worked out for the most part because S, in our group had a car, so we could all pile in her car.” Typical group dynamics issues did arise for some of the student groups (e.g., “It is diffi-cult with seven people to keep in contact and since we split our group into two for the last part of our project, our group has been trying to make sure the other three guys were on task with the last part. Therefore, we just have to trust them to complete their part.”). In the end, it appeared that the students were able to work through the issues.

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58 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)

Table 4. Percentage of Student Satisfaction With Service Learning

StatementStrongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree

Not relevant n

1. Overall, I am satisfied with my experience completing my service-learning project.

61 34 5 0 0 38

2. I feel that the service I performed through the service-learning project was helpful to the disabled community.

63 34 3 0 0 38

3. I have learned particular skills that will be useful to me in the future.

68 24 8 0 0 38

4. The service-learning project met my expectation.

45 42 10 3 0 38

5. The time I spent on the service-learning project was reasonable.

66 34 0 0 0 38

6. I developed a good working/professional relationship with my community partner during the project assignment.

51 41 5 3 0 37

7. I learned how to deal with conflicts when they occurred during my service- learning project experience.

53 44 3 0 0 38

8. I learned to listen to others’ opinions while working with my community partner and team.

66 32 0 0 2 38

9. I knew where to locate useful resources when I encountered problems throughout the service-learning project experience.

45 39 8 0 8 38

10. Our team achievement was determined by the amount of effort I put forth.

42 42 10 3 3 38

11. I liked it when I got to make decisions related to the service-learning project.

49 49 0 0 2 37

12. I felt that I had little control over the things that happened during the service-learning project experience.

11 11 43 35 0 37

13. I made connections between our course lectures and the real world.

89 11 0 0 0 36

14. I was able to apply the concepts I have learned in class to the service-learning project.

78 22 0 0 0 37

15. In completing the service-learning project, I interacted with people that I would not have typically interacted with.

73 19 5 0 3 37

16. I now have a greater appreciation for the disability culture that I did not have before I took this course.

89 11 0 0 0 37

17. I learned a lot from people with experiences that are different from mine through the service-learning project.

78 19 0 0 3 37

18. I now have a greater appreciation for other students who have different interests that I did not have before.

78 22 0 0 0 37

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Community Organizations’ Satisfaction With Service-Learning ExperienceFinally, a focus group was conducted by a col-league external to the course at the end of spring and fall semesters. The focus group was com-prised of the liaisons representing each of the participating organizations. Discussion ques-tions for the focus group were designed primar-ily to develop a better understanding of the satisfaction of the organizations with the service-learning experience.

Overall, the service-learning experience was considered a successful endeavor accord-ing to the partner organizations that partici-pated in the spring and fall semesters. Students conducted family interviews, participated in community special recreation programs, cre-ated an accessibility evaluation tool for local businesses, and created brochures for disabil-ity service organizations. The liaisons partici-pating in the follow-up focus groups and interviews were involved in service-learning projects for two semesters with two different groups of students. One liaison stated, “I think it went well on our end.” Another partner emphasized, “We got some real shiners” and “Students were very responsible.”

Communication was a key component to making the service-learning projects run smoothly and regular meetings between the liaison and students were considered a funda-mental part of the success. When the students were motivated to regularly contact each other and manage their own learning, there was little need for the partners to organize and direct all aspects of the projects and instead they provided guidance when requested. For students involved in interactions with families of children with disabilities, the liaisons felt role-playing was very useful and pairing stu-dents for moral support added to the success of some projects (e.g., family interviews).

Strategies that proved successful in assist-ing students accomplish their project goals included (a) sharing a contact list of phone numbers of all participants (students and

liaison), (b) establishing a protocol of whom to contact when absences and emergencies arose, (c) frequent emails between liaisons and students, (d) establishing intermediate deadlines while working toward project com-pletion, and (e) flexibility in the ways goals and projects could be accomplished with reg-ular monitoring of progress. When liaisons provided an excited and appreciative staff, the enthusiasm was contagious, translating into an excited group of students. Partners found that capitalizing on students’ strengths, such as their knowledge of computer software, cre-ated some unique products for advertising their community organizations.

Transportation was an obstacle for some of the student groups, particularly when relying on public transportation. First-year students in their first semester at the university found this task difficult because of inexperience, but accommodations were made by the liaisons to deliver materials to the students on campus. In addition, liaisons mentioned that large groups of students (e.g., more than five) had more dif-ficulty working together on a single project.

In discussion of the level of satisfaction with students participating, liaisons indicated that they would rate their satisfaction as aver-age or above average. When students were motivated to accomplish their own project, they were given an above average/excellent rating. The liaisons felt they provided good experiences on accessibility and barriers that confront people with disabilities on a daily basis and they felt the university students developed an awareness of disabilities as well as an awareness of the purposes of their orga-nizations. One liaison expressed satisfaction that their organization’s core principle of suc-cess through independence was realized in the university students in their group. Liaisons expressed surprise that although these stu-dents did not have special education back-grounds, their enthusiasm matched the community partner’s.

In rating the level of satisfaction with the outcomes of the service-learning experience, the liaisons indicated they were satisfied with the results. For example, the liaison noted that

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the brochures the students created were well done, the business mailings that students sent that offered accessibility studies were researched effectively, and the after-school program for teens with disabilities was well planned and executed by the students. Positive community response to the projects high-lighted the ability of service learning to move classroom knowledge into the community at large. In a unique result of one service learn-ing, a group of students conducted surveys of families and individuals with disabilities and found a strong desire from interviewees to direct their own services and a need for social support from other families of individuals with disabilities. A parent support group was subsequently formed and they explored new models of service delivery. The parent group formed a human service cooperative which became incorporated and certified as a home-based services provider.

The liaisons suggested that improvements are needed on effectively dividing the stu-dents into service-learning groups. The origi-nal sign-up process appeared to provide choices to only the first students to register, with few options left for the remaining stu-dents. A more recent system allowed students to register at different tables of the organiza-tions in which they were interested. The liai-sons also suggested that service organizations could prepare a draft of the service projects, with the number of students requested, before the first liaisons–students meeting. In this way, each organization would be able to proj-ect their needs and they would be able to fairly divide the surplus of students that seemed to occur in some semesters. The liai-sons suggested continued improvement on linking in-class material and learning to the experiences in the community.

Flexibility and growth on the part of the liaisons were evidenced when they were able to scale down their original projects to accom-modate the students’ schedules and skills. The partners approved the concept of ongoing par-ticipation in the service-learning projects where research done in one semester could be implemented in the next semester. They

wished to continue to explore ways to pair university students with community members with disabilities served by their organizations and hoped to devise projects that were even more meaningful and would have long-lasting positive effects on the students.

ConclusionThe service learning was designed to provide students opportunities to apply their knowl-edge and skills gained from the course and at the same time make a lasting and positive impact on individuals with disabilities and local organizations serving individuals with disabilities. Through a variety of projects, students had an opportunity to work in col-laboration with each other as well as people with disabilities to provide a service while simultaneously advancing their own knowl-edge. Similar to the findings of Jenkins and Sheehey (2009), all of our students reported increased knowledge about people with dis-abilities. In reflections, students reported that they felt more comfortable around people with disabilities and were more likely to advocate for people with disabilities. This finding echoes those of Novak, Murray, Scheuermann, and Curran (2009), who found that special education preservice teachers came to view the abilities of students with disabilities positively as a result of their engagement in a service-learning project. Community partners likewise reported satis-faction with the projects, and communication between community partners and student groups was considered essential for the suc-cess of the projects. The description of our project adds to the growing body of literature validating the use of service learning as a pedagogical tool in special education teacher preparation.

There were several unique features of our project. First, the service-learning projects were designed to supplement students’ learn-ing by immersing them in a project with local community organizations. Because students were engaged with individuals with disabili-ties and their families, this experience served

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to broaden student perspectives about disabil-ities as a culture. In addition, students’ engagement with community partners allowed students to learn about local programs and services serving individuals with disabilities. The college freshmen, most of whom were new to the area, gained an introduction to dis-ability services and culture of the local com-munity. Likewise, community partners were introduced to the students and viewed their service and work in the community positively. Collaborations with community organizations allowed for the creation of projects with mea-surable, ongoing community impact by con-tributing some human and financial resources to accomplish the tasks. This exemplifies the reciprocal benefits for students and commu-nity members, which is characteristic of ser-vice learning.

The project resulted in positive outcomes for the students and community partners as well as the university. For students, engaging in service-learning projects provided opportu-nities to integrate the concepts and knowledge that were covered in the course. This is criti-cal in helping the students broaden their understanding of the diverse individuals in our society. For the community partners, the service-learning projects allowed them to extend their services to effectively and effi-ciently meet the mission and goals of their organization. Likewise, the service provided them with access to energy and resources that may be otherwise limited, given the nature and structure of community organizations (e.g., nonprofit, volunteer dependent, limited staff). The service-learning projects also served to strengthen ties between the univer-sity and the community. The products that resulted from the service-learning projects became a permanent part of the organizations that participated in this project and thus a con-stant reminder of the university’s commit-ment to strengthening ties with grassroots community efforts.

This article is a descriptive report of a how service learning was successfully applied to an undergraduate course at a Research-extensive institution. The main focus of

evaluating the impact of the service learning was to begin to develop an understanding of the viability of using service learning projects on student learning. This is not by any means an empirical investigation of the effects of service learning components on student out-comes. However, the description provided in this article can serve as a foundation for other researchers to examine components of service learning on student outcomes. To conduct an empirical investigation would require devel-oping appropriate instruments that are valid and reliable. The tools described in this article can useful as a starting point for researchers to develop tools that are reliable and valid mea-sure of student outcomes.

Implications for Personnel PreparationFindings from our survey indicate that students engaged in the service-learning projects reported increased knowledge in the goals of the course. Novak et al. (2009) found that spe-cial education teacher candidates engaged in a service-learning project gained content knowl-edge as well as increased their comfort level around people with disabilities. Engagement in service learning during pre-service teacher education can also lead to the use of service learning as a teaching tool in the future (Wade, Anderson, Yarbrough, Pickeral, Erickson, & Kromer, 1999). As an early experience, service learning could be a useful means to provide students with experiences working alongside people with disabilities as well as provide knowledge that will serve as the groundwork for their future learning.

Early experiences with people with dis-abilities have been found to influence special education teachers’ belief systems, and beliefs are known to influence behavior (Bandura, 1986; LePage, Nielsen, & Fearn, 2008). Beliefs that are developed early are more cen-tral to an individual’s belief system and are less likely they are to change over time (Rokeach, 1968). Service learning imple-mented early in preservice teacher education, therefore, can have an impact on students who

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through their life span will have direct and indirect influence, professionally and/or per-sonally, in the lives of individuals with disabilities.

Implications for ResearchAlthough the use of service learning for the preparation of special educators appears to be on the rise, there is little research addressing the implementation of service learning in spe-cial education teacher preparation (Jenkins & Sheehey, 2009). Although students in this study reported increases in their knowledge about aspects of disability culture, the service learning did not influence their attitudes toward inclusion. Therefore, future studies should examine how service-learning projects may be designed to improve students’ attitudes toward school and community inclusion. Although one of our service-learning projects was inclu-sive, the differential effects on the students engaged in that project on inclusive attitudes are not known. Gent and Gurecka (2001) sug-gested that students with and without disabili-ties should engage in service learning together, rather than positioning students with disabili-ties in a “helping” role. Future research, there-fore, should examine the differential effects of inclusive versus helping forms of service learning for people with disabilities as it relates to attitudes and content knowledge. Although there is some indication that service learning in preservice education can improve attitudes toward people with disabilities (Jenkins & Sheehey, 2009; Novak et al., 2009), the spe-cific effects of service learning experiences on preservice special education teachers’ future practice is not known. Likewise, there are a few studies that exist that address the design of service-learning projects for various types of learning in teacher education and special edu-cation. As the use of service learning in preser-vice teacher training in special education expands, it will be important to know how various features of service-learning projects should be implemented to meet specific peda-gogical goals.

With far reaching effect, service learning in teacher education can benefit the teacher candidates, the community, and the univer-sity, strengthening ties between the three groups. The practice is especially useful in the preparation of special education teachers because it can provide hands-on experience and positive early experiences with people with disabilities. Implemented early in teacher preparation, service learning promotes the direct application of content knowledge and fosters long-lasting positive attitudes toward people with disabilities. Service learning, therefore, may be a useful tool at many stages of teacher preparation for special education teachers.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or pub-lication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: Development of this article was sup-ported in part by a grant from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Chancellor’s Task Force on Civic Commitment in the 21st Century and the Preparing Leaders in Access by Design (PLAD), a grant funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (H325D050066).

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BiosRosa Milagros Santos, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor in the Department of Special Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her primary research interest focuses on develop-ing culturally competent professionals who are knowledgeable and skilled to design and imple-ment culturally and linguistically appropriate early childhood intervention services to infants, toddlers and preschoolers with disabilities and their families.

Andrea Ruppar, M. Ed. is a doctoral candidate at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her research focuses on curriculum planning for students with severe disabilities.

Laurie M. Jeans, Ed. M. is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Special Education at the University of Illinois and a developmental thera-pist. Her research interests include families and children with disabilities and their involvement in their home communities.

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