Imagery

Art Hoomiratana, Damon Burton, Matt VaartstraUniversity of Idaho

What is Imagery?• Imagery is a form of simulation training where experiences are created or recreated in the mind.

• Imagery is an experience similar to a sensory experience but arising in the absence of the usual external stimuli (Martens, 1982).

• Through imagery you can re-create previous positive experiences or picture new events to prepare yourself mentally for performance.

Imagery…more than visualization

• Visualization is picturing or seeing yourself.

• Imagery involves multiple senses: – Sight– Feel – Touch – Sound – Taste – Smell

• Thinking of your sport, what senses seem most crucial for athletes to incorporate into their imagery?

The Use of Imagery in Sport

• More than 90% of surveyed U.S. and Canadian Olympic athletes used imagery (Murphy, Jowdy, & Durtschi 1990).

• On average, these athletes engaged in imagery practice about 4 days a week for 10 to 15 minutes at a time, and some spent 2 to 3 hours using imagery to prepare for their event at the Olympics. – 20% used imagery every day– 40% used it three to five days a week– 80% said they used it to prepare for competition– 48% used it to deal with errors in technique– 44% used it to learn new skills– 40% used it for relaxation– 97% of the athletes agreed that imagery enhances performance– 100% of the coaches agreed that imagery enhances performance

Wayne Gretzky• “We taped a lot of famous pictures on the locker-room door: Bobby Orr, Potvin, Beliveau, all holding the Stanley Cup. We’d stand back and look at them and envision ourselves doing it. I really believe if you visualize yourself doing something, you can make that image come true . . . I must have rehearsed it 10,000 times. And when it came true, it was like an electric jolt went up my spine.”

Jack Nicklaus• “I never hit a shot, not even in practice, without having a very sharp, in-focus picture of it in my head. It’s like a color movie. First, I “see” the ball where I want it to finish, nice and white and sitting up high on bright green grass. Then the scene quickly changes and I “see” the ball going there; its path, trajectory and shape, even its behavior on landing. Then there is sort of a fade-out, and the next scene shows me making the kind of swing that will turn the images into reality.”

Greg Louganis• “I did my dives in my head all the time. At night, before going to sleep, I always did my dives. Ten dives, starting with the first one I’d do in the Olympics, and I did everything as if I was actually there. I saw myself on the board with the same suit—everything was the same. If the dive was wrong, I went back and started over again. It takes a good hour to do perfect imagery of all my dives, but for me it was better than a workout. Sometimes I would take the weekend off and do imagery 5 times a day.”

Does Imagery Work?• To determine whether imagery indeed does enhance performance, sport psychologists have looked at three types of evidence: – Anecdotal Reports: reports of isolated occurrences– Case Studies: researcher closely observes, monitors,

and records an individual’s behavior over a period of time.

– Intervention packages: approaches that use a variety of psychological interventions (self-talk, relaxation, concentration training) along with imagery.

Imagery Works!• More than 200 studies show that imagery is effective in improving performance across a wide variety of sports (Martin, Moritz, & Hall 1999).

• Imagery works best when it supplements, not replaces, physical practice (Hird, Landers, Thomas, & Horan 1991).

Why Does Imagery Work?• Imagined events have a similar effect on the nervous system and mental processes as actual events.– The brain can’t tell the difference between vividly imagined events and the real thing.

– The CNS processes imagined information as it does a real experience. Thus, imagery works by helping an athletes create a blueprint for a performing skill.

– Strong mental blueprint helps make the skill automatic.

How Imagery Works

• Three explanations of the phenomenon– Psychoneuromuscular Theory– Symbolic Learning Theory– Mental Skills Hypothesis

• These approaches taken together suggest that imagery is a cognitive activity that mimics perceptual, motor, and emotional experiences in the brain.

Psychoneuromuscular Theory

• According to the principle, imagery facilitates the learning of motor skills because of the nature of the neuromuscular activity patterns activated during imaging.

• Suinn (1972, 1976) placed electrodes on the muscles of elite skiers and asked them to imagine skiing different events. Although the skiiers were lying down their leg muscles became activated slightly due to the imagery. – Vividly imagined events innervate the muscles in

somewhat the same way that physically practicing the movement does.

Symbolic Learning Theory

• Suggests that imagery may function as a coding system to help people understand and acquire movement patterns.

• Motor blueprint: individuals learn skills is by becoming familiar with what needs to be done to successfully perform them.

• By mentally rehearsing performance, athletes build and strengthen their mental blueprints.

Mental Skills Hypothesis

• Argues that imagery functions as a preparatory set that assists in achieving an optimal arousal level. Optimal arousal level then allows the performer to focus on task-relevant cues and screen out task-irrelevant cues.

• Argues that imagery helps build psychological skills that are critical to performance enhancement (confidence, concentration, stress management).

Factors Affecting Imagery Effectiveness

• Imagery Ability– Athletes who are able to create accurate and

lifelike images benefit more. – Imagery vividness: sharp, clear, details– Imagery control: manipulating the images

• Type of Task– Cognitive Skills v Motor Skills– Cognitive skills improve more than motor skills

• Playing Experience– Novice v Experienced– Both benefit but experienced performers benefit

more

Uses of Imagery• Athletes can use imagery in many ways to improve physically and mentally. Uses include: – Improving concentration– Enhancing motivation– Building confidence– Controlling emotional responses (stress management)

– Improving and learning new sport skills– Improving and practicing strategy – Coping with pain and injury– Problem solving

Improving Concentration• By visualizing what you want to do and how you want to react in certain situations, you can prevent your mind from wandering.

• Imagine yourself in situations where you tend to lose your concentration/focus, then imagine yourself remaining focused/composed on the next play or step.

Enhancing Motivation• Imagery can help build motivation to participate, especially in exercise classes.

• Regular participants in an aerobic dance class used imagery to see themselves becoming healthier and improving their physical appearance (Hausenblas, Hall, Rodgers, & Munroe, 1999).

• In sport, seeing yourself being successful has also been shown to increase motivation to perform.

Building Confidence• Generally, positive imagery has been shown to enhance confidence.

• Athletes can use imagery as a performance boost immediately before competition or practice.

• Imagine a perfect performance and over time you will build a better self-image.

Controlling Emotional Responses

• Imagery can be used to create higher levels of arousal and also to reduce anxiety.

• Example: an athlete than is preparing for the Olympic games but has never been there before. What can he/she do before?

Improving and Learning New Sport Skills

• Learning physical skills is one of the more commonly known uses of imagery.

• A coach can help an athlete use imagery to improve physical skills by integrating imagery into practice.

• Can be used to help athletes correct their mistakes and refine their form. Helps etch the mental blueprint into the mind.

Improving and Practicing Strategy

• Imagery can be used to help athletes learn and master the strategic aspect of their sport.

• Can be used as a bridge between video sessions and practice. It helps you become more actively involved.

• What are some situations in sport where this would be beneficial? – Golf– Racing: ski, motor, etc. – Open sports: soccer, basketball, tennis, etc.

Coping with Pain and Injury

• Imagery is also useful for coping with pain and injury.

• It can help speed up recovery of the injured area and keep skills from deteriorating. Positive healing and performance imagery were related to faster recovery times (Ievleva & Orlick, 1991).

Problem Solving• Athletes can use imagery to discovery or solve problems in performance.

• A player who is not performing up to their capability can use imagery to examine all aspects of their performance to find the problem.

Keys to Effective Imagery

• Multi-sensory process– Creating a new “reality”

• Vividness– Good imagers use all of their senses to make their

images as vivid and detailed as possible.– Many Olympic teams visit the competition site months in

advance. • Controllability

– Key to successful imagery is learning to manipulate your images so they do what you want them to.

• Relaxation training – Imagery preceded by relaxation is more effective than

the use of imagery alone (Weinberg, Seabourne, & Jackson, 1981). – Helps you focus on the task at hand.

Keys to Effective Imagery 2

• Positive Focus– Focus in general on positive outcomes, but also be prepared to deal with errors, mistakes, and situations that are out of your control.

• Image process and outcome– Imagery should include both the execution and the result of skills.

• Real time imagery – Image in real time. The time spent imaging a particular skill should equal the time it takes for a skill to be executed in actuality.

Keys to Effective Imagery 3

• Internal vs External Imagery – Internal: seeing the even through your own eyes and feeling the movements as if actually performing the skill. Greater kinesthetic feel.

– External: experiencing the even from outside of the body, as if watching a videotape. Well suited to evaluating and refining form.

– Which is more effective? – Research suggests both perspectives are effective at different times for different reasons (Hall 1997, Hardy 1997, Hardy & Callow, 1999, Holmes & Collins 2001).

– Athletes should choose the perspective that helps them create the most vivid image possible.

Preparing to Practice• The right setting

– Initially, in a setting with no distractions. – Gradually learn to use imagery amid distractions and even in

actual competition.

• Relaxed attention– Imagery preceded by relaxation is more effective than the use

of imagery alone (Weinberg, Seabourne, & Jackson, 1981). – Two reasons: forget everyday worries and concentrate on the task at

hand.

• Motivation to train– Negative thinking and doubt undermine the effectiveness.

– Excellent athletes are usually intrinsically motivated to practice their skills for months even years.

Preparing to Practice

• The right attitude and expectancy

• ***Systematic practice***– Elite athletes are usually motivated to practice their physical and mental skills for a long period of time.

– As with physical skills, mental skills need to be practiced systematically for the highest level of effectiveness.

Imagery Program How-To’s

• Imagery skill evaluation–evaluate sensory skills, vividness, and controllability–target weak areas to improve

• Setting–no distractions distractions present–away from site on-site– off-the-field on-the-field

• Content–non-sport imagery sport imagery opponent situation-specific imagery

Ideal Times for Imagery• Before and after practice– Scheduling imagery sessions with practice to make it

systematic. • Before and after competition– Optimal timing differs from one person to another.

It should fit comfortably into the pre-event routine.

• During competition– pre-shot, pre-snap, pre-race,• and between play routines

– breaks in action

• Injury rehabilitation– Reduce anxiety about an injury, rehearsing

performances to stay sharp, and positive images of healing.

Supplementing Video• watch video of specific techniques and strategies you want to work on several times,

• guide students and athletes through imagery, highlighting key points,

• have them repeat perfect performance 5-10 times on own.