IL. - ERIC · Participation; Urban Schools; Values Collegial Support Groups; School Culture. This monograph concentrates on the components of collaborative cultures and how schools

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Peterson, Kent D.; Brietzke, RichardBuilding Collaborative Cultures: Seeking Ways ToReshape Urban Schools. Urban Monograph Series.North Central Regional Educational Lab., Oak Brook,IL.

Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),Washington, DC.94RP9100200730p.

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1900Spring Road, Suite'300, Oak Brook, IL 60521 ($5.95,order no. UMS-BCC-94).Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.Beliefs; *Cooperation; *Cultural Influences;Disadvantaged Youth; Elementary Secondary Education;*Organiz,s.tional Climate; Participative DecisionMaking; Productivity; Staff Development; TeacherParticipation; *Urban Schools; *Values*Collegial Support Groups; *School Culture

This monograph concentrates on the components ofcollaborative cultures and how schools develop such collaborativecultures. Urban schools face unique challenges in tha frequent lackof resources and the special needs of their often disadvantagedpopulations. The school culture is a unique qualitS Jf the schoolthat is a complex web of norms, values, beliefs, assumptions, andtraditions built up over time. In collaborative school culturesteachers regularly engage in professional dialogue with colleagues;they share knowledge and work together to solve problems.Collegiality and collaboration have been identified as elements ofsuccessful schools. While conflict will still occur in collaborativeschool cultures, situations can be worked out for the good of thestudents through collaboration. Collegial relationships are importantin collaborative schools to enhance productivity and staffdevelopment. Activities that foster these relationships and shaping acollaborative culture are outlined. A 10-item annotated bibliographyis included. (Contains 32 references.) (SLD)

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Urban Monograph Series

Building Collaborative Cultures:Seeking Ways to Reshape

UCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION Urban SchoolsU.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice ol Educational Research and Improvernern

CENTER (ERIC)This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality

Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy

URBAN EDUCATION PROGRAM

by Kent D. Peterson, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsinwith Richard Brietzke, Purdy Elementary School, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin

NCRELBEST COPY AVAILABLE

MS'S. -4-- 3LS, 5)

NCREL10th ANNIVERSARY

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory1900 Spring Road, Suite 300Oak Brook, IL 60521(708) 571-4700, Fax (708) 5714716

Jeri Nowakowski: Executive Director

Lynn J. Stinnette: . Director, U.:ban Education

Robin LaSota: Program Coordinator, Urban EduCation

Robin Fleming: Program Assistant Urban Education

Lenaya Raack: Editor

John Blaser: Editor

Stephanie L. Merrick: 'Production Coordinator

Melissa Chapko: Graphic Designer

Mary Ann Larson: Desktop PubliStic...r

Holly Jovanovich: Assistant, Urban Education

NCREL is one of ten federally supported educational laboratories in the country. It works with educationprofessionals in a seven-state region to support restructuring to promote learning for all studentsespecially those most at risk of academic failure in rural and urban schools.

The Urban Education Program's mission is to improv,e education for urban children and youth, especiallythose who are underachieving and historically underserved. We provide products and services that con-nect superintendents, principals, and teachers from nearly 5,000 urban schools to research and best practic3.We work in partnership with schools and districts to build capacity for (1) teaching advanced skills to allstudents, (2) implementing multicultural education, (3) leading school change and innovation, and (4)supporting professional development that promotes whole school change.

0- 1994 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

This publication is based on work sponsored wholly or in part by the Office of Educational Research andImprovement (OERI), Department of Education, under Contract Number RP91002007. The content ofthis publidation does not necessarily reflect the views of OERI, the Department of Education, or any otheragency of the U.S. Government.

UMS- BCC -94, $5.95

Dear Colleague:

We are pleased to introduce the Urban Education Monograph Series, a new initiative of the North CentralRegional Educational Laboratory ( NCREL) that works to connect practitioners and policymakers to important

research and promising practices.

Throughout the region's urban centers, children and youth continue to achieve at levels significantlybelow national norms. While many urban students complete school and make a successful transition tohigher education, increasing numbers of poor and minority youth in the region's urban centers either dropout of school or finish school lacking the skills and knowledge needed to continue their education success-

fully and to participate fully in today's high-tech, information-service economy.

NCREL believes that connecting practitioners and policymakers to knowledge about what works inurban schools is an important step in crafting effective solutions to the achievement gap between the region'surban children and others. Traditionally, solutions to problems of urban schools have focused on isolatedprograms or single subjects, such as reading, and have relied heavily on knowledge from one fieldeduca-tion. The achievement gap between urban children and others is the result of many factors (e.g., social,cultural, and economic). Solutions that draw on a broad knoWledge base are more likely to be effective inattacking the problems that impede urban children's success in school than solutions that rely solely on

knowledge about schooling.

The Urban Education Monograph Series connects practitioners and policymakers to important informationabout what works in urban schools by drawing on knowledge from the fields of education, sociology, cultural

anthropology, and others. This series, which is being published during 1994 and 1995, addresses suchissues as the following:

Building a Collaborative School Culture (Kent Peterson, University of Wisconsin at Madison,with Richard Brietzke, Purdy Elementary School, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin)

Raising Expectations to Improve Student Learning (Jerry Bamburg, University of Washingtr- n at Seattle)

Synthesis of Scholarship on Multicultural Education (Geneva Gay, University of Washington at Seattle)

Cultural Diversity and Academic Achievement (Barbara Bowman, Erikson Institute, with anintroduction by John Attinasi, California State University)

Multicultural Education: Challenges to Administrators and School Leadership (Carol Lee, NorthwesternUniversity, with an introduction by John Attinasi, California State University)

Developing Resilience in Urban Youth (Linda Winfield, University of Southern California)

Organizational Structures to Promote Teacher Engagement in Urban Schools (Karen Seashore Louis,University of Minnesota at Minneapolis)

Getting Ready to Provide School-Linked, Integrated Services (Jeanne Jehl, San Diego Public Schools)

We welcome your comments on the Urban Education Monograph Series and your suggestions aboutother issues that you would like addressed in the future.

Sincerely,

nn ette

Director, Urban Education

Building Collaborative Cultures:Seeking Ways to Reshape Urban Schools

Kent D. Peterson, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WisconsinWith Richard Brietzke, Purdy Elementary School, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin

Introduction

Educators and policymakers are paying

close attention to the quality ofschools for children in urban settings.Indeed, their concern with reshapingurban schools is increasing as areas suchas Dade County (Florida), Chicago, andSan Diego attempt major transformationsin urban school systems. Transformingurban schools entails many issues andpossible approaches. One approach thatstands out is the attempt by teachers aridadministrators to develop a more collabo-

rative culture in the urban school. Theintended result is a supportive, profes-sional culture that promotes the continu-ous renewal of instructional methodsand curricular offerings in an atmosphere

of collegiality, trust, and shared mission,serving all of the students in the school.This type of school culture may not be apanacea for urban schools, but it can bea foundation for change, improvement,and renewal.

Purpose of this Monograph

This monograph concentrates on twoquestions: (1) What are the componentsof collaborative cultures? and (2) Howdo schools develop collaborative cultures?In seeking to answer these questions, the

monograph first details the importanceof collaboration, paying special attentionto the ways in which collaborativeschool cultures serve quality teachingand learning. It then examines the varietyof cultures that exist among schools.The monograph goes on to discuss howcollegial relationships function in suc-cessful collaborative school cultures, .

how these relationships develop, andhow they can be nurtured. As part ofthis discussion, the monograph looks athow the teachers' sense of efficacy (theirability to affect student learning) affectscollaboration. The next section of themonograph suggests ways to read, shape,and reinforce collegiality, teachers'sense of efficacy, and collaboration.The final section addresses the need touse effective teamwork and teacher lead-ership to support collaborative cultures.

Special Challengesof Urban Schools

Schools in urban settings face uniquechallenges. Often, they are part of alarge, centralized bureaucracy that maybe slow to respond to the needs of theschools. Resources are scarce, andmany buildings are in disrepair. Theexternal context may include gangactivity, widespread availability and useof drugs, and a breakdown of the local

community structure. Students come toschool carrying the burdens of poverty,hunger, and poor housing. These condi-tions are the realities of urban classrooms.Nonetheless, research and experienceshow that it is possible to nurture success-ful urban schools in which collaborationand improvement can occur (Levine andLezotte, 1990).

Effectively serving students in urbansettings is critically important. Formany of these students, schools providethe strongest, most enduring, and mostsystematic part of their educationalworld. When their schools are effective,urban children can develop the skills,knowledge, and capacities needed to besuccessful in work and adulthood (Levineand Lezotte, 1990). When their schoolsare not effective, children in urban settingsmust find learning outside of theschools, in hostile, often unsupportiveenvironments. Making urban schoolsserve all students is key to giving thesechildren the chance for a meaningfuleducation.

School Culture

What Is School Culture?

Parents, teachers, principals, andstudents always sense something specialand undefined about the schools theyattend. Most schools have their own tone,climate, or "ethos" that seems to permeateall activity in the school. This uniquequality of each school, the school culture,affects the way people act. how theydress, what they talk about or never speakof, and whether or not they seek out col-

leagues for help. The school culture is acomplex web of norms, values, beliefsand assumptions, and traditions and ritu-als that have been built up over time asteachers, students, parents, and adminis-trators work together, deal with crises,and develop unstated expectations for in-teracting and working together (Schein,1983; Deal and Peterson, 1990). Thismoving stream of feelings, folkways,and activities flows constantly withinschools (see Deal and Peterson, 1990).

This invisible, taken-for-granted flowof beliefs and assumptions gives mean-ing to what people say and do. It shapeshow they interpret hundreds of dailytransactions. This deeper structure oflife in organizations is reflected andtransmitted through symbolic languageand expressive action. Culture consistsof the stable, underlying social meaningsthat shape beliefs and behavior over time(Deal and Peterson, 1990, p. 7).

What Are CollaborativeSchool Cultures?

Though all schools are different.,many schools exist as isolated work-places where teachers work largelyalone in their rooms, interacting littlewith their colleagues and keeping prob-lems of practice to themselves. In theseschools, teachers feel separated fromone another, seldom engaging tivAr peersin conversation, professional sharing,or problem-solving (see Lortie, 1975 andLittle, 1982). In other schools, however,teachers regularly engage in profes-sional dialogue with colleagues: shareideas, knowledge, and techniques; andparticipate in collaborative problem-solv-

6

2 Building Collaborative Cultures

ing around classroom issues. Teacherswork together to develop shared techni-cal knowledge and discover commonsolutions to challenging problems (Lit-tle, 1982; Rosenholtz, 1989).

In collaborative school cultures, theunderlying norms, values, beliefs, andassumptions reinforce and support highlevels of collegiality, team work, anddialogue about problems of practice. Inshort, collaboration can affect the qualityof teaching in urban settings by enrichingthe work of teachers.

What Is the Importance ofCollaboration in Schools?

Successful schools share characteristicssuch as strong instructional leadership, aclear and focused mission, high expecta-tions for students, a climate conduciveto learning, opportunities to learn, regularmonitoring of students and classrooms,and positive home-school relations(Levine and Lezotte, 1990). New researchalso ties collegiality and collaboration topositive school outcomes. Ongoingresearch into school culture, change,and improvement is finding that successis more likely when teachers are collegialand work collaboratively on improve-ment activities (Levine and Lezotte.1990; Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991).When teachers and administrators worktogether, the level of commitment, energy,and motivation is likely to be higherand change efforts are more easilyimplemented.

Schools with professional collabora-tion exhibit relationships and behaviorsthat support quality work and effective

instruction, including the following:

More complex problem-solving andextensive sharing of craft knowledgeStronger professional networks toshare information

Greater risk-taking and experimenta-tion (because colleagues offer supportand feedback)

A richer technical language shared byeducators in the school that can trans-mit professional knowledge quickly

Increased job satisfaction and identifi-cation with the school

More continuous and comprehensiveattempts to improve the school, whencombined with school-level improve-ment efforts (see Fullan and Hargreaves,1991, for an excellent review)

These schools feature helpful, trust-ing, and open staff relationships (Nias,Southworth, and Yeomans, 1989, inFullan and Hargreaves, 1991). Theyalso may have "a commitment to valuingpeople as individuals" and valuing thegroups to which individuals belong(Nias, Southworth;and Yeomans, 1989in Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991). "Withinthese schools the individual and thegroup are inherently and simultane-ously valued." (Fullan and Hargreaves,1991, p.49, emphasis in original)

These settings also foster practicesthat support success, such as thefollowing:

Building Collaborative Cultures 3

Failure, mistakes, and uncertainty inwork are not "protected and defended"but are openly shared, discussed, andexamined in order to provide supportand help.

"Broad agreement on educationalvalues" exists, but colleagues acceptthe natural disagreements that fosternew dialogue (Nias, Southworth, andYeomans, 1989, in Fullan andHargreaves, 1991).

These schools are "places of hard work,of strong and common commitment,dedication, of collective responsibility,and of a special sense of pride in theinstitution" (Nias, Southworth, andYeomans, 1989, in Fullan and Har-greaves, 1991, p. 48).

Disagreements are openly voicedmore frequently and more strongly aspurpose-and practice are discussed(Fullan and Hargreaves, 1989, p.49).

The teacher receives respect andconsideration as a person (Fullan andHargreaves, 1991)

Collaborative schools have more satis-fying and more productive work envi-ronments (Fullan and Hargreaves,1991).

Students show improved achievement(Fullan an Hargreaves, 1991).

In these schools, teachers and otherslead and work together:

"In collaborative cultures, teachersdevelop the collective confidence to

respond to changes critically, selectingand adapting those elements that willaid improvement in their own workcontext, and rejecting those that willnot." (Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991,p.49)

Interdependence is valued and fos-tered (Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991)

Leadership is dispersed; many teachersare leaders and the principal supportsand nurtures teacher leaders (Fullanand Hargreaves, 1991).

Collaboration is not simply a group ofcongenial, happy teachers. As Fullanand Hargreaves point out (1991), "con-tentment should not be mistaken forexcellence" (p. 47). In collaborativeschools, the natural give-and-take ofprofessionals means that conflict, dis-agreement, and discord will sometimesoccur. But, these situations can beworked out for the good of students.

Thus, collaborative schools may be away to build a professional capacity forchange, improvement, and success evenin the most difficult urban school.

What Types of School Cultures Exist?

School cultures vary considerably.Lortie (1975) described the culture ofmany schools as being oriented towardindividualism, conservatism, and presen-tism. In these schools, teachers view them-selves as working alone (individualism',they employ educational approaches thatfollow long traditions (conservatism),and they focus on immediate issues, notthe long-term development of the school


(presentism). Little interaction, collegi-ality, or collaboration takes place in thistype of school. In urban schools, whichhave a combination of complex studentlearning needs, external dem4r.ds, and on-going pressure improve instruction,this type of isolated and noncollegialorientation often does not produce suc-cessful learning.

Fullan and Hargreaves (1991) describedthree noncollaborative cultures: (1) bal-kanization, (2) comfortable collabora-tion, and (3) contrived collegiality.These noncollaborative cultures do notencourage the level of professional inter-action, collegiality, and pressure toimprove that supports the needs ofurban schools.

Balkanization of the teacher culture isoften found iv high schools and largeelementary schools where separate andcompeting groups seek power and influ-ence for their own ends. Competition,poor communication, and poor integra-tion of curriculum and instructional endscharacterize these schools. This isola-tion of competing groups discouragesthe rich interplay of ideas, solutions, andnetworking of practical knowledge thatis characteristic of more collaborativesettings. Neither vertical nor horizontalcoordination is very successful. Conse-quently, the program and the studentssuffer. in urban schools, this competi-tive atmosphere takes time and energyaway from serving students, when studentsdesperately need a challenging and posi-tive collaborative school climate.

In schools with a culture of comfort-able collaboration, the culture carefullyrestricts collaboration; teachers stay outof deeper, more extended relationshipsthat could foster problem-solving,exchange of craft knowledge, and pro-fessional support. This form of collabo-ration can be thin and superficial, withteachers sharing some materials, someinstructional techniques, or bits of wisdombut avoiding deeper discussions of teach-ing, curriculum, long-range planning,and the shared purpose of schooling. Col-legial interchanges, when they occur, focuson comfortable, immediate, short-termissues that are not likely to solve thorn-ier problems facing teachett. In theseschools, comfortable collaboration mayseem pleasant, but it does not help teach-ers discover and share deeper knowl-edge and solve more vexing problems-found in urban schools.

Cultures of contrived collegiality arecharacterized by "a set of fc.mal, specific,bureaucratic procedures to increase theattention being given to joint teacherplanning, consultation, and other formsof working together" (Fullan and Har-greaves, 1991). But formal structuresare not necessarily collaborative cultures.Examples of these structures includesite-based management councils, schoolimprovement teams, or peer coachingarrangements. While these structuresmay bring teachers together and fosterthe implementation of new programs,structures alone will not necessarily fos-ter the deeper, more substantial, andmore productive informal linkages,norms, and shared commitment found incollaborative settings.

C


Collaborative cultures are not balkan-ized, simply congenial, or only structuresof shared work. Rather, they are culturesthat support deeper, richer professionalinterchange.

Collaborative Cultures

In contrast to these less potent cultures,collaborative cultures support a sharedsense of purpose, focus on long-termimprovement, and support networks ofprofessionals who share problems,ideas, materials, and solutions. Thesecultures are not easy to develop, butthey provide substantial and meaningfulsettings in which teachers develop craftknowledge, a powerful sense of efficacy,and a deep connection to fellow educa-tors, parents, and students.

These cultures contain the followingfeatures:

Regular opportunities for continuousimprovement (Rosenho ltz, 1989)

Opportunities for career-long learning(Rosenholtz, 1989)

Teachers who are more likely to trust,value, and legitimize sharing expertise;seek advice; and help other teachers(Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991)

Decreased sense of powerlessnessand increased sense of efficacy(Rosenholtz, 1989)

Reduced sense of uncertainty associ-ated with teaching (Lortie, 1975;Rosenholtz, 1989)

More team teaching and shared deci-sion-making (Ashton and Webb,1986, in. Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991)

Sharing resources and supplies; plan-ning cooperatively; and developing a"common sense of accomplishment"and a strong sense of efficacy(Ashton and Webb, 1986, in Fullanand Hargreaves, 1991)

Increased confidence in and commit-ment to improvement of practice(Rosenholtz, 1989)

Teachers who regularly seek ideasfrom seminars, colleagues, confer-ences, and inservice workshops(Rosenholtz, 1989) .

Increased external professional net-working with other teachers, schools,programs, and restructuring associa-tions

A place where "continuous self-re-newal is defined, communicated, andexperienced as a taken-for-grantedfact of everyday life [in the school)"(Rosenholtz, 1989, p. 74)

Collaborative schools are exciting,professionally rewarding places forteachers. They are places where instruc-tion and curriculum are regularly beingrefined, changed, and developed. Colle-gial relationships among and betweenstaff are another important feature ofthese schools. School norms and struc-tures provide the purpose and the oppor-tunity for deeper involvement andinteraction on professional issues ofimportance to teachers.


Collegial Relationships

Collegial relationships are importantin collaborative schools. Collegial rela-tionships exist when teachers discussproblems and difficulties, share ideasand knowledge, exchange techniquesand approaches, observe one another'swork, and collaborate on.instructionalprojects (Little, 1982; Rosenholtz, 1989;Smylie, 1988). In schools where collegi-ality is the norm, these professional,interactive, supportive relationships areaccepted, enhanced, and socially encour-aged (Little, 1982). Such relationshipshave a key impact on schools and providethe opportunity for teachers to worktogether on improvement activities.

Effects of Collegiality. Strong colle-gial relationships enhance productivity,staff development, and school improve-ment efforts. Several researchers havefound that collegial systems generategreater productivity in school improve-ment efforts (Oja and Pine, 1984; Rosen-holtz, 1989; Smylie, 1988). Collegialityincreases the capacity for change andimprovement, because collegial relation-ships provide powerful sources of stimu-lation. motivation, and new ideas(Lieberman and Miller, 1984; McLaugh-lin and Yee. 1980; Rosenholtz, 1989;Stallings, 1987).

Little (1982) and Rosenholtz (1989)discovered key behaviors in schoolswith strong collegial orientations. Inthese schools, teachers value professionalrelationships. share ideas, and readilyexchange new techniques. Teachers andadministrators spend time observingeach other, and they instruct each other

Building Collaborative Cultures

in the craft of teaching through formaland informal demonstrations. Theseinteractions can build a powerful andshared technical language about teachingand learning that is precise and concrete.Collegial environments favor in-depthproblem solving and planning. Interac-tions among staff and administrators fos-ter more successful staff development,ongoing refinement of instruction, andimproved teaching.

It is important to understand that col-legial relationships vary in quality andstrength and that these variations affectcollaboration, the exchange of ideas,and school improvement.

Types of Collegial Relationships.Little (1990) identifies four types of col-legial relationships found in schools:(1) storytelling and scanning for ideas,(2) aid and assistance, (3) sharing, and(4) joint work. The first three types arerelatively weak in shaping deeper, moreproductive professional relationships,although they involve some interaction,while the fourth type, joint work, pro-vides ample support and complex con-nections to improve staff relationshipsand collaboration:

(1) Storytelling and Scanning for Ideas.

Teachers share incomplete anecdotesabout practice, complain, and gripe.Interchange is neither deep nor focusedon problem solving.

(2) Aid and Assistance.

Teachers help only when asked, offerlittle evaluation, and do not interferewith the other teacher's work. Deep

117

relationships of exchange are seldomestablished.

(3) Sharing.

Teachers share much about themselves,use an expanded pool of resources andknowledge, and frequently share ideasand suggestions that can lead to changein the other teacher's practice. Butteachers undertake little or no actualwork together.

(4) Joint Work.

In contrast to the first three types ofcollegiality, joint work provides theopportunity for teachers to developdeeper and richer ties to fellow staff andto build more productive working relation-ships. Joint work is the highest and mostextended form of collegiality. Teach-ers pursue a course of action togetherinvolving such things as team teaching,collaborative planning, peer coaching,rnentoring, and, at times, action research.Fullan and Hargreaves (1991) note thatjoint work "implies and creates strongerinterdependence, shared responsibility,collective commitment and improve-ment, and greater readiness to partici-pate in the difficult business of reviewand critique" of their colleagues' work.

Joint work identified by Little (1982,p. 330) includes the following:

Designing and preparing materials

Designing curriculum units

Researching materials and ideas forcurriculum

Writing curriculum

Preparing lesson plans

Reviewing and discussing plans

Crediting new ideas and programs

Persuading others to try an idea

Making collective agreements to testan idea

Inviting others to observe one's teaching

Analyzing practices and effects

Teaching others in informal inservices

Teaching others formally

Talking publicly about what one islearning

Designing inservices for the school

Other examples of joint work includeworking together on school improvementplanning, engaging in peer coaching andmentoring, working on interdisciplinaryunits, and meeting to talk about profes-sional topics of interest, such as self-esteem or Whole Language (Johnson,1990; Peterson and Martin, 1990). Theseforms of joint work shape and reinforcecollaborative cultures by affording teachersthe time to interact around problems ofpractice, fostering relationships charac-terized by or,enness and trust, developinga shared technical language, and makingeducational philosophies more congruent.In urban schools, joint work can cementstrong collegial ties and help overcomethe isolation of work.

1


As Susan Johnson (1990) found inher study of teachers and their work:

The teachers made it clear that con-tinuing collegial interaction benefitsboth them and their students. It sustainsthem through difficult times. It deepenstheir understanding of subject matterand pedagogy, supplies them with novelapproaches, and allows them to testand compare practices. It encouragescooperative approaches to schoolchange. It promotes high professionalstandards and a more coherent instruc-tional experience for children. (p. 178)

Joint work and other opportunities tointeract can foster collegiality. Collegialworking relationships also increaseteachers' sense of efficacythe beliefthat they can affect student learning.

Fostering Collegial Relationships

Collegial relationships do not developquickly in urban schools. The structuresand norms of most urban schools dis-courage strong, enduring collegial rela-tionships. Johnson (1990) and otherspoint to important ways to foster collegialrelationships. Johnson suggests that sev-eral factors seem most critical to devel-oping these relationships including"good teachers, supportive organizationalnorms, reference groups for identifica-tion and action, sufficient time, andadministrators who provided encourage-ment and accommodation" (p. 167).

First, for collegiality to take hold, theschool needs "good teachers" who coop-erate in making it work. Staff in schoolswith norms of collegiality credited

1 t.)

teachers who "are committed and gener-ous, who are open to change and eagerto learn, and who see beyond their ownprivate successes and failures" (p. 167).In these schools, a critical mass of teacherswho are sharing, cooperative, and con-genial has formed; "interpersonal har-mony" is the norm; and teachers havetime to develop respect and trust (p. 167).

Second, schools that foster collegial-ity often have organizational norms thatovercome the uncertainties and isolationof teaching by supporting collegialdialogue, the exchange of ideas, debateover issues and techniques, and experi-mentation (Johnson, 1990). Teachers inthese schools show a tendency to cooper-ate rather than compete, and they workin a "safe environment ... free of criti-cism" (p. 170). Collegiality is nurtured,as honest debate and open disagree-ment combine with supportive, trustingrelationships.

Third, collegiality is fostered whenreference groups that support dialogue,growth, and experimentation are avail-able to teachers (Johnson, 1990). Whilethe entire staff of a small school couldserve as a successful professional unitsupporting, encouraging, and debatingin larger schools reference groups aremore likely to be grade-level teams,interdisciplinary units, or departments.When these groups support collabora-tive practice and professional dialogue,collegiality can grow.

Fourth, collegiality seems to witheror die when teachers are given insufficienttime to engage in the kinds of joint tasksthat build collegial relations and collabora-


tive successes (Johnson, 1990). Teachersneed time to meet, talk, think, and interactWhen time is scarce, the dialogue andexchanges of information are more oftensuperficial and focused on immediateproblems, issues, or obligations. Moresubstantial time is needed for opportunitiesthat foster greater collegiality, such aspeer coaching, curriculum planning, orcollaborative school improvement planning.

Finally, collegiality is nurtured whenadministrators provide encouragementand accommodation (Johnson, 1990).While most research points to the waysin which principals have provided leader-ship and support for improvement efforts(Deal and Peterson, 1990; Fullan, 1991),principals also can get in the way of col-legiality and collaboration. Administra-tors can foster collegiality by promotingteacher leadership and encouragingteachers to exchange ideas and work to-gether. This goal may require the princi-pal to set agendas for meetings and to workon issues close to the classroom. Princi-palsand department chairs, in secon-dary schools can create a time andplace for professional dialogue and teamwork, provide substitute teachers andcover classes for teachers who wish toparticipate in collaboration activities,and make similar accommodations forgroups of teachers who wish to work to-gether on a project. Above all, fosteringcollegial relationships requires bothtime and structured opportunitieS forjoint work.

14

Teachers' Sense of Efficacy inCollaborative Cultures

Another key aspect of collaborativecultures is the teachers' sense of efficacy"the extent to which a teacher believesthat he or she has the capacity to affectstudent learning" (Ashton, Burr andCrocker, 1984, p. 29). Teachers with ahigh sense of efficacy believe that theirefforts and expertise will have more impacton student learning than such externalvariables as parental support, class size,student motivation, and student socio-economic background (Smylie, 1988;Rosenholtz, 1989). These teachers (1)believe that student learning can be influ-enced by effective teaching, (2) exhibitgreater confidence in their own teachingabilities, (3) tend to persist longer, (4)provide greater academic focus in theclassroom, and (5) use different types offeedback than teachers with a low sense ofefficacy (Smylie, 1988; Rosenholtz, 1989).

Teachers with a high sense of efficacyare more likely to adopt new classroombehaviors (Rosenholtz, 1989; Smylie,1988); have higher student achievement(Ashton, Burr, and Crocker, 1984);engage in rich and meaningful collabora-tive activities and collegial interactions;and persist in providing intensiveinstruction even with students most dif-ficult to reach (Ashton et al, 1982;Gibson and Dembo, 1984). In urbanschools, the teachers' sense of efficacycould support continued work to help allstudents learn.

The teachers' sense of efficacy isclosely related to the degree of teachercollaboration and may be a factor in fos-


tering collaborative cultures. Teacherswho believe that they can affect theirstudents' learning are more likely to askfor and receive technical assistance fromcolleagues (Little, 1982; Rosenholtz,1989; Smylie, 1988). They seem morecomfortable asking for and giving adviceand sharing techniques that can be usedby others, which increases the degree ofcollegiality and collaborative norms inthe school. In short, the research suggeststhat these teachers are more likely towork to improve their practice (Guskey,1988; Rosenholtz, 1989; Srnylie, 1988).

In urban schools that foster a highsense of efficacy, teachers are morelikely to work together for `he improve-ment of learning. Without some strongsense of efficacy, it is easy to "blame thevictim," blame the central office, or,worse, give up trying new ways to serveall students.

Collegiality, Sense of Efficacy,and Collaborative Cultures

Studies have not closely monitoredthe relationships between collegiality,sense of efficacy, and collaboration inurban schools. But as McLaughlin (1993)points out, schools serving students withlimited English proficiency or low aca-demic skills can promote coherent andpositive professional communities whenthey contain "school level structures forsolving problems" and "sharing informa-tion" and provide "opportunities forrethinking practices." (pp. 90-91). Inthese schools, teachers feel that they arepart of a cohesive professional commu-nity; they also report "high levels of

energy and enthusiasm" and feel more"support for personal growth andlearning" (p. 94).

Norms of collegiality support regularand continuous dialogue among teachersabout problems, ideas, techniques, andinstructional approaches. These collegialexchanges can be enhanced and deep-ened when teachers have a high sense ofefficacy, since teachers who believe thatthey can affect student learning willwant to seek new ways to improve theirteaching and the quality of their work.Collegiality and sense of efficacy maycombine and reinforce each other in col-laborative cultures in which broad-based,extensive projects and shared work pro-vide the opportunities to develop newways to improve classroom instructionand schoolwide programs. In short,urban schools that reinforce collegiality,build up teachers' sense of efficacy, andsupport collaborative work are morelikely to be successful and to build anongoing culture of renewal.

Shaping Collaborative SchoolCultures

School cultures vary considerablyfrom one setting to the next. As notedabove, they can be fragmented and indi-vidualized, comfortable but not collabo-rative. They also can be highlycollaborative cultures where teachers,administrators, and others share problems,ideas, and craft knowledgewhere edu-cators work together on jointly selectedprograms or issues to serve students better.


Collaborative school cultures do notdevelop overnight, but are shaped by theways principals, teachers, and key peoplereinforce and support underlying norms,values, beliefs, and assumptions. AsSchein (1985) notes, an organizationalculture is:

a pattern of basic assumptionsinvented, discovered, or developedby a given group as it learns tocope with problems . . that hasworked well enough to be consid-ered valid and, therefore, to betaught to new members as thecorrect way to perceive, think, andfeel in relation to those problems.

The process of shaping a collabora-tive school culture is neither easy norquick. It requires close attention towhat is going on in the school and toeducational values and daily activity.Few longitudinal studies are availableon the ways in which urban te/achers andadministrators have shaped collabora-tive cultures. Nonetheless, a number ofearly lessons can be learned from exist-ing research, theory, and practice (Dealand Peterson, 1990; Leiberman, 1988).

The process of shaping a collabora-tive school culture involves (1) readingthe existing culture, (2) identifyingaspects of the underlying norms andassumptions that serve the core missionof the school and the needs of students,and (3) reinforcing and celebrating thoseaspects that support development of acollaborative culture and changing thosefolkways and norms that destroy collegi-ality and collaboration (Deal and Ken-nedy, 1982; Deal and Peterson, 1990;Schein, 1985). Additionally, structures,

12 16

actions, and relationships that supportcollaboration and the development of aprofessional community can be developedto reinforce collaborative cultures. Aswe look at the ways in which school cul-tures are shaped, we should rememberthat each school and staff must adjust,reshape, and apply these ideas to fit thespecial features of their school, theirstudents, and their community.

Definitions of Success

Knowing what members of the schooldefine as success is a way to know whatis valued (Schein, 1985). Success inschools can be defined in many waysgiving students basic skills and knowl-edge, providing a safe and secureenvironment, "surviving" until the nextday, preparing students for the world ofwork or college (Rossman, Corbett, andFirestone, 1988), and so forth. Whatteachers, administrators, and othersview as the measures of success oftenshapes how they spend their time, whatproblems they try to solve together, andwhat gets their attention. Several ques-tions can be asked to understand thesedefinitions:

What is a successful school year?

What would good relations with col-leagues be like?

If you and the school were successfulat school improvement, what wouldyou have accomplished?

What socio-emotional conditions forstudents, parents, and teachers wouldyou like at your school?


What would good relationshipsamong students, staff, and communitybe like?

What should students know and beable to do at the end of the year?

Cultural Network to SupportCollaboration

The cultures of organizations oftenare supported by a network of culturalplayers who keep communication flow-ing, ideas spreading, and informationtransmitted (Deal and Kennedy, 1982).This cultural network sometimes includesgossips, storytellers, "priests and priest-esses," and heroes and heroines (Dealand Kennedy, 1982; Deal and Peterson,1990).

Gossips share important newssome-times rumors and sometimes key infor-mationthat is of interest in the school.

Storytellers keep the history of theschool alive by telling and retelling thestories, myths, and sagas of the past. Ifthe stories they select reinforce beliefsand norms that are negative, noncollegial,or noncollaborative, they communicatethe message that new staff should act inthose ways. In contrast, when the storiestell of hard work, collegial sharing. andcollaborative work, new staff are morelikely to understand that the informalexpectations are for collegiality andcollaboration.

Questions to ask:

Who are the key members of thecultural network?

17

Is the cultural network supportingcollegiality and collaboration? If not,how can it help?

Can the informal network be encour-aged to support collegiality, highsense of efficacy, and collaboration?

"Priests and priestesses" are staffwho remember and reinforce the coretraditions and folkways of the school.They are the staff who socialize and"train" the new principal or new staff inhow to think and interact and what tobelieve about student success. Oftenthey are the first to talk ".3 new staffmembers, filling them in on "how thingsreally work around here." In collabord-tive cultures, these purveyors of theculture let new people know that collegi-ality is valued, that collaboration is thenorm, and that teachers work togetherfor the good of students.

. Questions to ask:

Who are the staff or administratorswho socialize new teachers?

How can you provide a forum forthose staff who car, support collegi-ality and collaboration?

What messages are communicated tonew staff members?

Heroes and Heroines. Most organiza-tions have heroes and heroines aboutwhom stories are told. These staff mem-bers are people whose values, work, andactions exemplify the best hopes of theschool. In many schools, stories aretold of teachers, principals, custodians,


and others who worked hard, helpedothers, and were committed to students.They are the heroes or heroines whohave dedicated themselves to studentsand colleagues and to doing what is best.

Heroes and heroines are exemplars ofthe core values of the culture. Honorsand accolades are given to them becausethey represent the best that one canachieve. Sometimes highly visible andsometimes quiet and dedicated, thesepeople demonstrate that, even in themost difficult situations, one can servethe best values and expectations of theculture. These people are teachers whospend the time and effort to reach studentsand see that their best ideas and tech-niques are shared and that the needs ofother staff are supported. They are staff,parents, and community members whomake a special effort to shape a cultureof support and caring. And they areadministrators who support the profes-sional, collaborative needs of staff. incollaborative cultures, members whohave dedicated themselves to being col-legialsharing problems, ideas, andsupportcan become the heroes andheroines of the school. Their commitmentand special efforts are recounted to new,staff and at important ceremonies andtraditions.

Questions to ask:

Who are those special people fromthe past or present who exemplify thehighest values of the school?

How can the school recognize Theseexemplars?

How are new staff members intro-duced to these heroes and heroines?

Stories that communicate culturalvalues and norms. Research on organi-zations suggests that leaders often sharestories of past success, special effort,and unique accomplishments to commu-nicate the core values of the organiza-tion (Deal and Kennedy, 1982). Tellingstories that exemplify the importanceand quality of collegiality can reinforcecollaborative cultures. When schoolprincipals and teachers tell stories toparents and new staff about staff whoworked together on projects, sharedideas, materials, and support, it commu-nicates in a dramatic may schoolwideexpectations and what is important forcollegial working relationships.

During interviews and initial visits,potential staff members are listeningclosely to learn what the school valueshighly and how the school works.These situations provide importanttimes to tell stories of hard work, col-laboration, and serving all students as away of reinforcing collegiality and col-laboration in the school. These storiesshould be concrete, engaging, and richlytextured to capture the imagination ofthe storyteller and the listener. Staffnew to a school have a heightened senseof awareness as they join the group.

Questions to ask:

What are the stories now told aboutthe school? If they are negative anddemoralizing, find stories of successand professionalism.

1c14 Building Collaborative Cultures

How often are these stories recountedto build pride and a sense of strongidentification with the school?

What are stories of teacher collabora-tion, joint work, and success that canbe told to new staff and parents? (SeeDeal and Peterson, 1990.)

Symbolic Information

Symbolic information comes in manyforms, from the logo over the door tothe mission statement displayed in thefront hall. This information signalsvalues and assumptions about the schoolculture, reinforces key values for exist-ing members of the school, and adver-tises these values to those who are new.

Symbolic information comes in manyforms that reinforce collaboration. Inone school, the school logo shows staffand students hand-in-hand to symbolizetheir work together. In another school,the motto is "We care, We share, WeDare"directly communicating theimportance of sharing across the school.In a third school, staff begin each meet-ing by sharing ideas, techniques, andmaterials that work with their students.

Questions to ask:

What is the school logo? Motto?Mission statement? Do these symbolsreflect the values of collegiality andcollaboration?

What actions and interactions modelthese norms?

How often are these symbols used?

C


Ceremonies, Rituals, andTraditions

Most schools have some formal cere-monies that mark transitions in theschool year, rituals that bind people toeach other and shape the unwritten cul-ture, and meaningful traditions thatshape and mold new recruits and seasonedstaff. These activities can reinforce col-legiality and collaboration.

Ceremonies are complex and organ-ized activities within the culture thatcelebrate successes, communicate cul-tural values, and recognize special con-tributions of school staff and students.Each transition of the year can providetime to communicate the collaborativenature of the school. For example, inone urban school, staff gather togetherbefore classes start in the fall to sharetheir hopes, ideas, and plans for thecoming year. This practice helps bindstaff together in a shared experience.

In another urban school, the staffholds a special art night during which apiece of art work by each student ismatted and displayed. Parents and com-munity members are invited and specialawards are given for their cooperationand help. The collaborative work ofteachers is described in the carefullydesigned brochure for the evening.

In still another urban school, staffhold an end of the year ceremony to rec-ognize the individual and group contri-butions of teachers. Sometimes funnyand sometimes serious, the school com-municates how it values the ways inwhich teachers work together.

15

Rituals are routines infused withdeeper values. In one large urbanschool, staff meet for coffee and donutsonce a week to share stories and rechargebatteries with colleagues whom they seeonly occasionally. In other schools,decision-making councils begin meet-ings with ritual sharing of personal andprofessional activities before planningand decision-making begin.

Traditions are significant annualevents that have a special history andmeaning. Many of the routine activitiesof schools become traditions in whichthe history of the event and its importancecommunicate and reinforce core valuesand norms.

Examples of these yearly traditionsare (1) a collaboratively developed,school-sponsored professional develop-ment conference for local teachers; (2)retreats for collaborative planning; and(3) regular shared development ofschool improvement plans and budgets.

Questions to ask:

What are the meaningful ceremoniesand traditions of the school?

What values do those traditions rein-force?

What activities could be made tradi-tions? What ceremonies can markspecial transitions?

Structures and Activities ThatSupport Collaboration

While these aspects of culture buildingcan reinforce, mold, and shape theschool culture, a number of structuresand programs also may foster greatercollaboration. When staff have moreopportunities to collaborate in activitiesthat are positive, self-directed, and im-portant to them, a culture of collabora-tion is more likely to develop (see Little,1982; Fu llan and Hargreaves, 1989).

Structures that support collaborationin urban schools include the following:

Shared decision-making and site-based management models

School improvement planning teams

Faculty study groups that meet todiscuss professionally relevant topics

Regular and continuous communica-tion of ideas, sharing of materials,and time to reflect on one's work

Interdisciplinary curriculum projects

Team teaching

Peer observation

Collective work on new instructionalmethods

Collaborative decision-making andplanning of staff development activities

In these organized ways, teachershave the chance to work together, get toknow each other, and build on collegialrelationships.

16 2C Building Collaborative Cultures

Summary. Developing collaborativecultures is not easy. It requires attentionto the relationships, structures, andnorms of the school. And, as Johnson(1990) notes, teachers also have a rolein developing collaborative cultures:

Whatever support administrators pro-vide, teachers themselves must ulti-mately take responsibility forcollaboration. Teachers both constituteand create the context for collegiality.Removing the structural barriers toexchange will not alone ensure thatteachers eagerly and confidently cooperateand critique each others' practice.Strong norms of autonomy and privacyprevail among teachers. Creeping fearsof competition, exposure to shortcomings,and discomfiting criticism often discour-age open exchange, cooperation, andgrowth. Until teachers overcome suchfears and actively take charge of theirown professional relations, teaching willlikely remain isolating work. The initia-tive is theirs, but the responsibility forcreating more collegial schools cannotbe theirs alone. (p. 178-179)

Working Together in Groups:Teamwork

Collaborative cultures, as the namesuggests, involve professionals workingtogether. Collaborative schools devoteconsiderable time to working together ingroups on various task forces, projects,and programs. Working alone is easy;working together is hard. In many set-tings, the skills and knowledge of effec-tive teamwork is limited. The researchon teamwork (see Maeroff, 1993) sug-

21

gests that teams need skills and knowl-edge in the following areas:

Group roles

Stages of group development

Leadership in small groups

Effective communication

Trust building

Problem-solving, planning, and deci-sion-making strategies

Effective ways to conduct meetings

Conflict resolution

Group process evaluation

Without skills in these areas, groupplanning, decision-making, and workcan easily get bogged down in trivialities,conflict, and administrivia. In manyurban schools, staff and administratorsalike have had few opportunities to col-laborate due to time constraints andpressing needs in the school. Collabora-tive decision-making and planning maybe uncommon practices and will needadded support and time. Nonetheless, inmany urban schools the opportunity totalk about practice and make decisionsabout the school has fostered a sharedsense of direction and belief in improve-ment. To build collaboration, develop-ing skills in the areas listed above maybe helpful.


Shaping and NurturingCollaborative Leadership

In collaborative cultures, leadership ismore widely dispersed, regularly enacted,and important to change and improve-ment. Every teacher can be a leader incollaborative schools (Fullan and Har-greaves, 1991). Collaboration requiresshared leadership. But leadership is nolonger associated only with the positionthat one holds. Myths and resistancefrom individuals keep leadership fromflourishing throughout schools.

The five myths of leadership noted byBennis and Nanus (1985) need to beovercome in collaborative cultures:

Myth 1. Leadership is a rare skill.

In many schools, teachers have leader-ship skills, but need the opportunities touse them.

In collaborative schools teachers, par-ents, and others enact leadership

Myth 2. Leaders are born, not made.

In many schools, teachers, parents,and others have become leaders throughsupport, trust, and specific training.

In collaborative schools leaders nur-ture the skills and abilities of others sothey can become leaders.

Myth 3. Leaders are charismatic.

Most collaborative leaders in groupsare not charismatic, but are skilled,talented motivators of others.

22

In collaborative schools, leadershiptakes on many forms and emanates frommany different people.

Myth 4. Leadership exists only at the top.

Leaders are found in every role andposition in the school.

In collaborative schools, leadership isspread throughout the school.

Myth 5. The leader controls, prods,directs, and manipulates.

Effective leadership is not heavy-handed and pressuring.

In collaborative schools, leaders facili-tate, motivate, solve problems, and builda shared sense of purpose.

Leadership can be developed. Leadersare nurtured, supported, and developedin collaborative urban cultures in a num-ber of ways. For collaboration to work,teacher leadership needs to develop,grow, and flourish. Developing teacherleadership does not mean that teacherstake on the hierarchical, authoritarianleadership styles of traditional schools.Rather it requires that teachers engage inthe type of collaborative, facilitativemodes of leadership necessary in suc-cessful organizations. Nurturing qualityleadership is not easy, but it can beachieved. New cultures are developingat schools in every urban area. Princi-pals are important throughout the proc-ess of supporting expanded leadershiproles for teachers. As a collaborativeculture becomes stronger, teacher lead-ers then nurture the ongoing develop-ment of the school.


In a study of teacher leaders, Leiber-man, Saxl, and Miles (1988) identifiedkey skills of leaders: (1) building trustand rapport, (2) diagnosing the organiza-tion, (3) dealing with the collaborativeprocess, (4) using resources, (5) manag-ing work, and (6) building skill and con-fidence in others. These skills supportthe interactions of colleagues and staffas they engage in joint work, collaborativeprojects, and collegial problem solving.Teachers can develop these skills inurban schools through training, informallearning, and practice. These six aspectsof leadership may be necessary for teach-ers to reinforce collaborative cultures.

Building trust and rapport. Allleaders find ways to increase the trust inthe group and rapport in working together.Especially in the difficult and demandingsituations facing urban educators, trustbuilding requires considerable attention.Leaders learn to address resistance in thegroup and find ways to overcome it with-out coercion. Leaders also engage inopen and supportive communication asthe work progresses. And leaders develop"shared influence" in the process, en-couraging the active participation of eve-ryone. In urban schools, building trustand rapport are key to creating the moti-vation needed for school improvement.

Diagnosing the organization.Teacher leaders in collaborative culturessupport the problem finding and problemsolving work of colleagues. They knowhow to collect and analyze student per-formance data. They are able to make adiagnosis of the educational situationand to share it in a clear and helpfulway. They sometimes place their diag-

23Building Collaborative Cultures

nosis within some conceptual frameworkto aid in understanding the nature of theinstructional or curricular issue. Diagno-sis of educational problems models forothers the kind of deeper analysis thatsupports rich collaborative problem solv-ing and improvement efforts.

Dealing with the collaborative process.Collaboration is a complex and demand-ing activity. It requires developing trust-ing, collegial relationships; dealing withconflict; and maintaining clear focus. Inurban schools, teacher leaders help thisprocess to succeed by knowing how tobuild collaborative relationships, how tomediate conflict as it develops, how todeal with confrontation in a productiveway, and how to maintain the focus onstudents.

Using resources and managing thework. Any form of joint work needsresources and some coordination. Effec-tive urban teacher leaders know how totap into the resource network to gainmaterials, ideas, time, and people tohelp. Resources, personal and financial,are often at a premium in urban schools,so teacher leaders will need to know howto seek resources, find time, and connectto key sources outside of the school.Learning to "work the bureaucracy"can bring needed resources to the school.

Collaborative work also requiresmore planning, organizing, and schedul-ing. It requires coordination. Teacherleaders maintain the flow of collabora-tive activities by helping manage thiswork, smoothing the work flow, andfacilitating the direction and progress ofwork. Given the demands in urban

19

schools, leaders wno help plan andorganize joint work are very important.

Building skill and confidence in others.Leaders also take on the key task ofbuilding greater skills and deeper confi-dence in their coworkers. As leaders,teachers in collaborative cultures helpothers develop leadership skills, planningskills, and problem solving skills. Theysee their role as increasing the skills andknowledge of others through examples,ideas, and support. Additionally,teacher leaders in collaborative cultureshelp increase the confidence that othershave in themselves and in the group as awhole. These efforts should also payoff in increased teacher sense of efficacythe belief that they can have a substan-tial impact on student learning. Withincreased confidence and a sense of effi-cacy, urban teachers are more likely toengage in school improvement efforts.

20

Summary and Conclusions

Principals and teachers face specialchallenges in urban settings, but it ispossible and important to transformtheir schools into settings in which allstudents are successful and all teacherscontinually improve. In schools thathave collaborative cultures, teacherswork together continuously to fine tuneand improve their instructional methodsand curricular offerings. All studentscan benefit from this approach. Thekinds of professional communities thatcan support change and improvementmight develop when teachers shareideas and problems, take on leadershipand followership, increase their sense ofefficacy, and have traditions and ceremo-nies that celebrate successes. AsJohnson (1990) has noted, principals areimportant, but teachers also must moti-vate and lead. Developing strong, trust-ing collaborative cultures in urbanschools may help build a foundation forcontinued growth for students, teachers,and principals.

2 4


Annotated Bibliography

(See References section for all citations.)

Barth, Roland. Improving Schools from Within.This book on improvement lead by to Ichers and principals is highly readable. Itfocuses on the development of a "community of learners" and articulately discusseshow teachers and principals can work together to improve the school. The booklists specific ways to work together, learn together, and improve together. Thesections on becoming a community of learners and leaders describes how schoolscan articulate goals, provide authority to teachers, and engage everyone in adialogue about what's important. This book is especially useful for schools whowish to start to collaborate and want a practical and clearly written book on thesubject.

Deal, Terrence, and Peterson, Kent. The Principal's Role in Shaping School Culture.OERI: U.S. Department of Education.This book describes ways that school principals shape school culture. Whilefocusing on the school principal, specific examples of how teachers and studentscan develop rituals, traditions, and ceremonies that support collaboration are given.Leadership roles such symbol, potter, poet, actor, and healer are described andillustrated. This book is particularly useful to understand the idea of school culture.It gives concrete case studies and examples of cultures in different settings.

Fullan, Michael, and Hargreaves, Andy. What's Worth Fighting For: Working Togetherfor Your School.Fullan and Hargreaves have written an enormously useful book about collaboratingin schools. The book details the problems of collaboration in schools, the researchon the topic, and specific guidelines to help teachers and others develop bettercollaboration. Core topics are the problems of collaboration, developing teacherswho are professionals, and shaping collaborative school cultures.

Johnson, Susan Moore. Teachers at Work: Achieving Success in Our Schools.This study uses interviews and other data about teachers and their work to describehow schools can support quality work settings for teachers. It is a rich study of howteachers view their work and the problems in building collaborative schools. Filledwith excellent examples and quotes from teachers, it provides a complete picture ofthe work of teachers. Johnson describes the problems of collaboration, but also listsmany of the advantages. This book provides useful background to anyoneinterested in a broader understanding of teachers in their schools.


Little, Judith. "Norms of Collegiality and Experimentation: Workplace Conditions of

School Success."This article is the classic study of collegiality among teachers. Based on research in

many schools, this study found norms of collegiality and improvement to beimportant to school success. It is especially useful to see where many of the ideas

of collegiality and collaboration originated.

Lortie, Dean. Schoolteacher.Schoolteacher identifies three basic orientations of teachers: conservatism,individualism, and presentism. He details the history and development of teaching

as an occupation and the problems of the complexity and uncertainty of teaching.

This book is particularly helpful for understanding the history of teaching and the

demands of teaching as an occupation.

Louis, Karen, and Miles, Matthew. Improving the Urban High School: What Works

and Why.This study is one of the most widely read examinations of school improvement inurban settings. Based on data collected in urban schools, the book provides case

studies of successful school improvement in several high schools. The second part

of the book details features of school improvement found in these schools. Bothcase studies and features of school improvement can be read independently. Each isan excellent source of ideas and concrete examples. While it focuses on urban highschools, this book also can provide insights and useful ideas for schools at any level.

Maeroff, Gene L. Team Building for School Change: Equipping Teachers forNew Roles.This book provides specific ways for schools to use teams to support change andimprovement Clearly written and well organized, the book provides usefulsuggestions as well as guidelines for working together. Specificchapters deal withselecting teams, bonding and growing, time, and obstacles to overcome. (In

addition, a shortened version of this book and its ideas was published in the March

1993 Phi Delta Kappan.)

Rosenholtz, Susan. Teachers' Workplace: The Social Organization of Schools.This study of schools, teachers, and leadership describes the importance of teachers'working together as professionals. The insightful descriptions of teachers advances

our understanding of collaboration among teachers in schools. This book providesuseful data and research-based knowledge.

Bibliography on Restructuring.This bibliography on school restructuring is available from the Center onOrganization and Restructuring of Sellouts, University of Wisconsin-Madison(WCER 1025 W. Johnson St., Madison, WI 53706). Providing several hundredcitations to useful readings on school rerructuring, curriculum and instructionalreform, the professional life of teachers, school governance, and collaboration withthe community, this list is one of the best available.

26


Bibliography

Ashton, P., Buhr, D., & Crocker, L. (1984). Teachers' sense of efficacy: A self- ornorm-referenced construct? Florida Journal of Educational Research, 26 (1),29-41. (ERIC No. ED 323221).

Ashton, P., Webb, R.G., & Doda, N. (1982). A study of teachers' sense of efficacy:Final Report, Vol. I. Gainesville, FL: Florida State University. (ERIC No. ED231-834).

Ashton, P., & Webb, R. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers' sense of efficacy andstudent achievement. New York: Longman.

Barth, R. S. (1991). Improving schools from within. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategy for taking charge. New York:Harper & Row:

Deal, T.E., & Kennedy, A.A. (1982). Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals ofcorporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Deal, T.E., & Peterson, K.D. (1990). The principal's role in shaping school culture.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Researchand Improvement.

Dembo, M., & Gibson, S. (1985). Teachers' sense of efficacy: An important factor inschool improvement. Elementary School Journal, 86 (2), 173-184.

Fullan, Michael G., & Hargreaves, Andy. (1991). What's worth fighting for: Workingtogether for your school. Ontario, CAN: Ontario Public Schools Teachers'Federation.

Fullan, M., & Steigelbauer, S. (1991). The new meaning of educational change. NewYork: Teachers College Press.

Guskey, T.R. (1988). Teacher efficacy, self-concept, and attitudes toward theimplication of instructional innovation. Teacher and Teacher Education, 4 (1),63-69.

Johnson, S. M. (1990). Teachers at work: Achieving success in our schools. NewYork: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.

Levine, D.U., & Lezotte, L.W. (1990). Unusually effective schools: A review andanalysis of research and practice. Madison, WI: National Center for EffectiveSchools Research and Development.

27Building Collaborative Cultures 23

Lieberman, A. (1988). (Ed.). Building a professional culture in schools. New York:

Teachers College Press.

Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (1990). Teacher development in professional practice andschool. Teachers College Record, 92 (1), 105-122.

Lieberman, A., Saxl, E. R., & Miles, M. B. (1988). Teacher leadership: Ideology andpractice. In A. Lieberman (Ed.), Building a professional culture in schools. (pp.129-147). New York: Teachers College Press.

Little, J.W. (1982). Norms of collegiality and experimentation: Workplace conditions ofschool success. American Educational Research Journal, /9(3), 325-340.

Little, J.W. (1990). The persistence of privacy: Autonomy and initiative in teachers'professional relations. Teachers College Record, 91(4), 509-536.

Lortie, D.C. (1975). Schoolteacher. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Louis, K.S., & Miles, M.B. (1990). Improving the urban high school: What works andwhy. New York: Teachers College Press.

Maeroff, G. (1993). Team building for school change: Equipping teachers for new role.New York: Teachers College Press.

Maeroff, G. (1993). Building teams to rebuild schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 74 k7),

512-519.

McLaughlin, M. W. (1993). What matters most in teachers' workplace conditions? InJ.W. Little and M.W. McLaughlin (eds.) Teachers' work: Individuals, colleagues,and contents. New York: Teachers College Press.

McLaughlin, M., & Yee, S.M. (1988). School as a place to have a career. In A.Lieberman (Ed.), Building a professional culture in schools. (pp. 23-44). NewYork: Teachers College Press.

Nisas, S., Southworth, G., & Yeomen, R. (1989). Staff relationships in the primaryschool. London: Cassell.

Oja, S.N., & Pine, G.J. (July, 1984). Collaborative action research: A two-year study ofteachers' stages of development and school contexts: Executive summary. .Durham, NH: New Hampshire University. (ERIC No. ED 167512).

Peterson, K.D., & Martin, J.L. (1990). Developing teacher commitmenv: The role of theadministrator. In P. Reyes, Teachers and their workplace. (pp. 225-240).Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

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Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Teachers' workplace: The social organization of schools. NewYork: Longman.

Rossman, G.B., Corbett, H.D., & Firestone, W.A. (1988). Change and effectiveness inschools. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Schein, E.N. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco,.CA:Jossey-Bass.

Smylie, M.A. (1988). The enhancement function of staff development: Organizationaland psychological antecedents to individual teacher change. American EducationalResearch Journal, 25 (1), 1-30.

Stallings, J. (1987). What students should learn in schools: An issue for staffdevelopment. NASSA Bulletin, 71 (498), 67-76.


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IL. - ERIC · Participation; *Urban Schools; *Values *Collegial Support Groups; *School Culture. This monograph concentrates on the components of collaborative cultures and how schools

IL. - ERIC · Participation; Urban Schools; Values Collegial Support Groups; School Culture. This monograph concentrates on the components of collaborative cultures and how schools