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n the second day of January 1492, Boabdil,

the last Moorish ruler in Spain, reluc­

tantly handed over the keys of Granada

and the beautiful Alhambra palace to

the Christian monarchs, King Ferdinand

and Queen Isabella. This was the catalyst

for an extraordinary time. By the end

of the year, Christopher Columbus had

discovered the Americas and, within thirty years, Spain had unex­

pectedly exploded, like a meteor, onto the international scene to

become the dominant power in Europe. Rich, powerful and newly

intolerant, Spain had finally come of age, after a sustained history

of disunity and international impotence.

In fact, until 1492 Spain had never been united for long, in any

meaningful sense, as a single nation. Over a thousand years it

had been invaded or colonised by the Phoenicians, the Romans,

the Vandals and the Visigoths. Finally. in 711, the Moors crossed

into Spain and, helped by ferocious Berber mercenaries, subdued

most of the Iberian peninsular.

The Moors remained in Spain for almost 800 years, bring­

ing technical advances and tremendous scholarship into the

country. They were also remarkably tolerant to other cultures and

religions allowing Jews, Christians and Moors to live together in

relative peace. Cordoba became the capital of 'AI Andalus' (Moor­

ish Spain) and was famous throughout Europe for its learning

and extraordinarily beautiful architecture.

But Moorish rule was opposed almost from the start, initially

from the tiny Asturias in the 8th century. Then, over hundreds

of years, Christian forces gradually pushed Moorish control ever

southwards. From the 11th century the removal of the Moors

took on a strongly religious aspect, consistent with the hysterical

Christian fanaticism of the time. Increasingly, the Reconquista

was seen as tantamount to a Crusade, with a medieval vision

aiming to create a strong and independent Christian Spain. How­

ever, as the Moors were slowly repelled, a series of independent

fiefdoms and kingdoms emerged throughout Spain, splintering

any potentia I nationa I unity.

A major step towards unifying Spain finally occurred when

the two most powerful kingdoms were effectively joined by the

marriage, in 1469, of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.

By chance, this not only firmly allied two powerful families, it also

brought together two rema rka bly competent leaders who ruled

as equal partners. Isabella was clearly a feisty, politically astute

and determined woman, whilst Ferdinand was a master diplomat

of Machiavellian talents.

Ferdinand and Isabella immediately set out to remove the

last remaining Moors from their strongholds in Granada, whilst

securing and extending their own authority throughout their

domains. Over ten years, the Moors in Granada were remorse­

lessly overwhelmed by a sustained and determined campaign

that honed Ferdinand and Isabella's military into a battle-hard­

ened and experienced force. This was to prove important in the

years to come, as Spain extended her influence to the Americas

and secured her future territories in Italy and further afield. ~

the}4>at I 75

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~ Of course, after nearly

centuries of occupation,

Spain had numerous

Moors and Jews who had

integrated over the gen­

erations, albeit retaining

their own distinct religions

and customs. Indeed, to its

credit, Spain had become

one of the most heteroge­

neous countries in Europe

and one renowned for

its toleration. However,

this was a concern for

Ferdinand and Isabella,

who were understandably

worried that a possible

'fifth col umn' of ind iffer­

ent loyalties remained in a

country still struggling to unify under a national identity. In

1478 the Inquisition was formed, with the radical and brutal

hypocrite, Tomas de Torquemada, created Grand Inquisitor

in 1483. The Inquisition was a vital political tool for Ferdinand

and Isabella, as it was the only institution with undisputed

authority throughout the kingdom. It served to 'purify'

the population into hard line Catholic Christians and was

devastatingly effective in attacking or weakening politi­

cal opponents. As the appointment of the Grand InqUisitor

was in the sale remit of Ferdinand and Isabella, it prOVided

them with a critical implement with which to tighten their

control over Spain. In 1492 all Jews who had not converted

were expelled and, in 15°2, the Muslims in Granada were

tlimeline

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. \ told to convert or leave the country. Spain was fast 10Sit1.gtits__.

tolerance and laying the grounds for the Counter Reforma

tion, later in the century, when it would become a pillar Of\ "-.

hard-line European Catholicism. \

By extraordinary fortune, in the very year that Spain gaine.~q

its independence from the Moors, Christopher Colum~a

finally authorised to find a route to India and China by going \

west across the Atlantic - appropriately known as the 'Sea of \

Darkness' by the Moors. After five weeks sailing, Columb"l:;I.s"

,

found the Bahamas, thinking that he had come across India. Ii},

fact, of course, he had touched upon the Americas, until ther.(

an unknown landmass. During the course of three further

journeys, he was to discover South America and make t~e

previously inconceivable concept of crossing the Atlantic

aImost pedestria n event.

The importance of Columbus' discoveries was not io /

on Ferdinand and Isabella and they agreed, at the Tre'aty 0'

Tordesillas in 1494, with King John II of Portugal to divide

up the New World. A north-south line was drawn through ~ the Atlantic, with Portugal agreeing that Spain had a rig~t

to possession of all lands lying to the west. Effectiv~I~'L_ _.__ , Portugal gained modern day Brazil, whilst Spain benefitl=d

from the enormous but still unknown territories of the resyt of the Americas.

For Spain, 'ownership' of the Americas was to have a .' .

profound effect that cannot be underestimated. In modern "

terms it was like a poor country finding fantastic reser~~ cr-f oil on its territory. Within three decades, Spain was to havt-­

access to an almost inexhaustible supply of gold and silfr

with which to fund the country's extraordinary growt~!and I

international ambitions. Spain's monarchs would become the

richest in Europe and have power unthinkable to an{prevj- I ous Spanish ruler. ",~~

/'~!"-.."-.I "-. I

Moorish occupation Formation of the Reconquista Treaty of Tordesillas Vasco de Nunez de Hernando Cortes I of Spain Inquisition by completed with the dividing the unknown Balboa reaches the defeats the Aztecs/ - /'

Papal Bull fall of Granada; Spain world between Spain Pacific and becomes __ i...::/ Governor of MeXICO '--'--------­

/ --_.

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Francisco Pizzaro defeats the Intas

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Charles I proclaimed king

Ferdinand dies 1516 "~. . .

Charles lotSpain becoinesHoiyRoman Emperor Charles V uniting the House of Bourbon with the House of Habsburg

Queen Isabella dies

Moorish uprising

and Portugal

voyage of discovery Muslims in Granada to the Americas- told to convert or

leave Spain Alhambra Decree expelling all Jews

united under the rule of Ferdinand and Isabella

Christopher Columbus' 1'1

Appointment of the Grand Inquisitioner (Tomas de Torquemada)

/

fERDINAND OF ARACiON ·1452- '1516' '. • King un ~ 15.16 . ~ Amaster diplomat and administrator

ISABEllA OF CASTILE ~ 1451.,.1504 • Queen 1492 -1504 • Feisty, religious and strong

~ If the overthrowing of the Moors was the cata Iyst for

modern Spain, then access to the Americas was to become

the means to greatness, However, Spain's acceleration was

to be given a further critical and incredible push. In 1S16,

Ferdinand died, Isabella having pre-deceased him in 1S04,

Through a qUirk of fate, the throne passed to their grandson,

Charles I, who inherited the lands of no less than four Euro­

pean royal houses, including that of the Habsburgs.

By 1419, after enormous bribery, Charles I of Spain consoli­

dated his power by becoming Holy Roman Emperor (Charles

V), making him, by far, the most powerful ruler in Europe.

Spain now controlled the Low Countries (roughly the modern

day Netherlands), vast tranches of Germany, Naples, Sicily

and, of course, a fast developing empire offabulous value in

the New World,

And in that New World matters moved with extraordi­

nary speed, due to the actions of a few intrepid, ruthless and

driven men. By 1521 Hernando Cortes had subdued the Aztecs

and by 1533 the Inca Empire had been brutally destroyed and

brought under the control of Spain by the cruel and relent­

less actions of Francisco Pizzarro. As each year passed, Spain's

American territories and associated riches were increasing at

a rate that made other European country's efforts look paltry

by comparison.

By the 1520S Spain had, for the first time, become a recog­

nisable, modern state and one ruled by a single, undisputed

and absolute monarch. It had also become a country with

a defined, albeit imposed, national identity - as a Catholic

Christian state, Furthermore, through Charles I's extensive

inherited territories throughout Europe, Spain had sud­

denly, and improbably, become a major power broker within

European affairs. And, of course, with colossal wealth coming

to Spain from its New World colonies, Spain was actually

in the enviable position of being able to exert its influence,

whether by bribes or military means,

Unfortunately, Spain's explosively sudden Golden Age

was not to last long, even if the idea of a unified state of

Spain was never again to be seriously disputed. The follow­

ing centuries were to bring costly wars, often fought as Spain

sought to act as a bulwark of Catholicism against Protes­

tantism. Perhaps more damaging, ironically, was its long

term relationship with the decaying Habsburg Empire and

the Wars of Succession that erupted periodica Ily over the

next two hundred years.

Finally, Spain also made the critical mistake of relying too

heavily on its wealth from across the Atlantic. It made no se­

rious effort to industrialise and little of the riches produced

by its colonies were used to invest within Spain itself, to

develop a strong self-perpetuating infrastructure. Power and

wealth in Spain remained within the hands of the monarchs

and a self-absorbed aristocracy, resulting in a country of

tremendous inequality, poverty and oppression.

What happened so explosively between 1492 and 1530

created Spain and defined its very future. Like a shooting star,

it had a brief glorious period, before decaying into one of the

most economically and politically backward states in Europe. It

is only in the past thirty years that the country has regained its

dynamism and energy, having discarded its religious intoler­

ance, gained political stability and developed a powerful eco­

nomic base. Let us hope that Spain's future has now been built

upon firmer foundations than those of the 16th century. l3