@,"o.UNIT-V

7. What is meant by productivity?

Productivity is defined as the ratio of output and input. The output can be water delivered, areairrigated, yield, or income, and the input can be water in the root zone, at the farm gate at the outret orat upstream points in the system incruding the point of diversion or storage. rmproved water suppryinfluences the adoption of high

- yielding agricultural practices by farmers, which justifiT the productivity

criterion of performa nce.

2.. Deline equity.

Equity in canal irrigation systems implies equality, fairness, and even-handed dealing in mattersof allocation and appropriation of irrigation water. There can be several ways to decide the equality ofsupplies to different farmers. Two of them, practiced throughout the world, are the methods of priorappropriation and of proportionate equality.

3. Wite dhout the conjunctive use of water.

conjunctive use means the water lifted from below the ground is used in conjunction with canalwaters lt results in the coordinated, combined, and.creative exploitation of ground water and surfacewater so as to minimize the dislocation caused by nature's inconsistent rainfall pattern. suchcoordinated use of surface and ground waters results in increased amount of available water, smallersurface distribution system, smaler drainage system, reduced canar rinings, greater frood contror, andsmaller eva poration losses.

4. What is meont by short -

term stabitity?

The short -

term or interseasonal stability refers to the variations in productivity and equitybetween irrigation seasons, and is a function of crimate, water suppry, storage and contror, systemmanagement, and other factors such as pests, diseases, and availability of labour and other inputs. lt canbe measured by comparing performance between seasons.

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5, Deline long -tem stobilw.

The long -

term stability is defined as "environmental stability" and "durability" and refers to

the prevention or minimizing of adverse physical changes such as waterlogging, leaching of nutrients

form soils, salinity. erosion, silting, the 'mining' of ground water, and infestations with weeds.

6. write dbout the moin components oI soil reclomotion.

The main componentS of soil reclamation works are as follows

> lsolation of land areas according to their categorization and leveling and bunding of the affected

land as per the category.

> provision of drainage (surfacd or subsurface or vertical) network to remove leaching water and

to keep the water table to a safer level.

> Breaking up of impervious subsoil layer in alkali soils by deep ploughing.

}> Adding suitable chemicals (such as gypsum, sulphur, etc.) dependinB upon the results ofchemical tests ofthe affected soil.

Why o proper plan for operation & maintenonce ol irrigotion system is necessary?

A proper plan for operation and maintenance is, therefore, necessary to

> Achieve stipulated levels of project services including maintenance at mlnimum achievable cost.! Achieve optimum use ofcanal water.> provide detailed operation and maintenance guidelines during various anticipated scenarios of

water availability, including equitable water distribution upto the tail-end of the system, and

> Effect efficient coordination of staff, equipment, physical and financial resources and related

disciplines, active involvement of farmers etc.

What ore the mdin obiedives ol canol lining?

The following are the main objectives of canal lining:

> To canal seepage.> To prevent water-logging.> To increase the capacity of canal.> To increase the command area.> To protect the canalfrom the damage by flood.> To control the growth of weeds.

8.

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Whdt ore the foctors to be considered during the setection ol potticutor type o! lining?The selection of particular type of lining depends on the following factors,

> lm perviousness.) Smoothness.> Dura bility..D Economy.> Site condition.-! Lite of project. r.} Availability of construction materials.

70, How con the water losses be controlled?

The following are thereservoir.

measures that are generally taken to control the water losses from the

Meosure to Reduce Evdporotion Lossa) The reservoir should be constructed of less surface area and more depth.b) Tall trees should be grown on the windward side of the reservoir which act as wind

breakers and hence the rate of evapordtion will be reduced.c) The reservoir basin shoutd be surrounded by plantation or forest area so that cooler' environment exists within the reservoir area.d) Certain chemical like cetyl atcohol is spread over the reservoir surface. lt forms a thin film

on water surface reducing evaporation.2. Measure to Reduce Absorption Loss

a) The weeds and plants at the periphery ofthe reservoir should be removed completery.b) The weeds from the surface of the reservoir should be removed.

3. Measure to Reduce percoldtion Lossa) Geological investigations should be carried out to locate the zones of pervious formations,

cracks and fissures in the bed a nd periphery of the reservoir basin.suitable treatments should be adopted to stop the leakage of water through these zones.soil stabilization methods should be adopted ifthe basin is composed of permeable bed soil.

b)c)

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77. Whdt is meant by wdter logging?

ln agricultural land, when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops get saturated with the

subsoil water, the air circulation within the soil pores gets totally stopped. This phenomenon is termed

as water logging. The water logging makes the soil alkaline in character and the fertility of the land is

totally destroyed and the yield of crop is reduced.

72. State the eltects ol water logging?

The following are the effects of water logging:

> Stabilization of soil> Lack of aeration) Fall of soil temperature) Growth ofweeds and aquatic plants> Diseases of crops> Difficulty ln cultivation> Restriction of root groMh

73. Wite the methods used for controlling woter logging?

The following measures may be taken to control water logging:

F Prevention of percolation from canals> Prevention of percolation from reservoirs

.P Control of intensity of irrigation> Economical use of water> Fixing of crop pattern> Providin8 drainage system> lmprovement of natural drainage> Pumping of ground water> Construction of sump well

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14. DeJine 0n-farm water management (NOV/DEC 2006)It can be defined as manipulation of water within the borders ofan individual farm, a

farming plot or field.Example: in canal inigation system, OFWM starts at the farm gate and ends at the disposal pointofthe drainage water to a public watercourse, open drain or sink.15. What do you meant by h'ater user association (WUA)?

It is a self-managing group of fanners working together to operate and maintain their

irrigation and drainage network, to ensure fair and equitable water distribution, and to increase

crop yield.I.:

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,16. ll4tat are the problems of irrigation management without pailicipatory management?. Inadequate water availability at the lowest.o Poor condition / maintenance ofthe system.o Lack of measuring devices and control structures.o Inadequate allocation fro operation and maintenance.. Lack of incentives fro saving water.. Poor drainage.

l7).what are the cquses of water loss?I . seepage from the canal

2. over irrigation of field3. heavy surface runoff18) what are ways of water loss in the canal?I . seepage loss

2. evaporation loss

19) What are factors on which seepage loss depends?position of water tableporosity ofsub-soilporosity ofsoilextend of absorbing medium

20) What are two different condition ofseppage?l.pbrculation

2.absorption

21). What are the remedial measures for losses?I .efficient surface drainage

2..restriction of inigation3. change in crop pattern

22) What are the advantages of irrigation water managements?I .achievement of optimum irrigation efficiency2.economical and efficient operation and maintanence of irrigation system3.equitable distribution ofsupplies to irrigators especially at the end

23) Discuss some eomponents ofwater management?I .,'yater shed management

2.land management

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3.rain water management

4.reservoir management

24).What are the imprct of wrter user associetion?I .conveyance efficiency

. 2.operation efficiency3.equity

4.area water unit ratio

25) What are the advantages ofwater user association?l.better maintenance of the distributry2.possibility ofhigh value ofcrop programme3.availability of water ancl irrigation process

26) What are optimization of water user association?I .to reduce the seepage loss and conveyance2.control over the usage ofwater3.planning4.to avoid excess suppl.y of water

27).what are the factors which influence evaporation loss?l.temperature2.wind velocity3.relative humidity

28) What is land management?

The intensity ofraising ploductivity per unit area per unit time reeds to be increased whiclramounts to increasing iroped area.

29). What are the irrigation methods for cultivation?l.border strip-wheat2.funow method --cotton3.basin method --orchard

30) What is meant by cad?Command area developments.the concept oftliis developments is to ensure efficient wateruti I ization.

31). What are the uses of irrigation waters?l.wastages due to over irrigation2.wastages due to surface runoff3.wastages due to escape ofwater

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32), What are the work of on farm devetopment?

Lirrigation Practice2.croP Planning3.irrigation method

4.right amount of irrigation

33). what are the components of on farm developments?

1 .field drain

2.crossing in field channel

3.crossing of field ihannel

4.formation of field channel

34). What is called optimum rvater depth?

Thi quantity of water at which the yield is maximum' is called the optimum water depth'

35). What is called optimum utilisation of irrigation?

It generally means. getting maximum yield with any amount of water'

36).what is the relation between efficieny and losses?

efficieny is inversely proportional to the losses'

l. Discuss the inadequacies o7 yn'ni@igai'-'*'agement in India'2. Describe the common *iteriafor judgw the pedormance of an irrigation system'

3.Describetheevaluationofperformanceofcanalirrigationsystems.4.I{hatarethemethodsadoptedforimprovingcanalirriSationmanagement?Explainindetail.5. Why shbuf d fining be provided in conols? Whot orc the

merits ond demerits of condl lining?

6. lilrite the dffirent types of canal lining' Explain them'

7. How con woter be lostirom o reiervoir? How con the losses be controlled?

8, Whot kinds of porticipotion ore necessory for irrigotion monogement octivities?

g. whot is meant bY percototion pond? Drow o neot sketch oI a percototion pond' (NOv/DEc 2006)'

10. What is the need fro WUA? (NOV/DEC 2006)'

77. Whot is the need fro optimizotion of woter use? (NOV/DEC 2006)'

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.1. i?latq i""4\ -,b"'4 on &o. atwue'n"a{ toN FARM DEVELOPMENT (OFD) WORKS

The purpose of irrigation is to enable the fanneni to iurprove the agricr,rlturalproduction. The modern irigation management airns at lriglr efficiency of water conveyanceand appropriate nrethods of water application, through participator, irigation managementat each stage of irrigation development. The Govt. of lrrdia in irlgation departrnent hastaken appropriate decision to promote and implement the parlicipatory irrigationmanagement in all the irrigation projects through formation 0f Water Users' Associations(WUA). The approach to planning. design, construction and maintenance of OFD worksneeds to be, therefore. reoriented.

The efficient management of i.rigution water for maxirmzmg productivity requires both. theeffrcient on fam water management and the optimization of the use or waterand land.through appropriate methods of water appiication. The items of work pertaining to on farmwater management are termed as "On farm development works".

The on farm development works comprise of following,

r Field channels for conveyance ofwaterControl structuresCrossings

Surface drainage syStemFann roads

Field channel protection works andLand forming (Smoothening / grading / leveling).

The general approacr, to design and execution of OFD works

The general approach to dgsign and execution of OFD wolks shall be in accordancewith the Govt. technical circulars, the Govt. Resolution and other directive issued by theGovt. from time to time for this purpose. The participatory irrigation management andefficient water delivery system to provide timely as well as adequate water supply to eachfann, shall be the main focus points in the design and implementation of OFD works.

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vlt.

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'3. Functional utility' The purpose of the OFD works is to provide timely and adequate supplies water to each

holding and presewe environrnental balance as well, by avoiding seepages, leakages and stagnations

of water which trigger problems like water logging. causing adverse impact otr environment. Toachieve this functional utility. the planning ano design ofOFD wolks has to be hydraulically betterand socially aoceptable. The OFD works also need to be such that these are economical fbr theoonstruction and maintenance. In a water delivery system. accuracies are very important. Separatetolemnces are. therefore, prescribed for different works of on-farm development. rhe quality ofconstruction govems the cost of maintenance and overall life of OFD works. Thus the functionalutility of OFD works is governed by following aspects

Ilydraulic designl) Eoonomy for conStructibn and maintenance2) Social acceptance i.e. User friendliness to community of farmers who willactually using OFD works and3) Levels ofaccuracies and qualily ofconstruction.These issues need to have a proper bearing in approach to design and execution ofOFD

works.

4. Farmer's participationSuccess ofcanal irrigation depends on the response ofthe lbrmer, both as an individual and as

a member of the group beneflted by the outlet. Active partioipation of the farmer at the stage ofdesign should therefore be encouraged. This will also help in building up of an atmosphere ofcommon purpose and thereby in the unification ofthe beneficiaries into a lromogeneous group.

The Govt. of lndia in Irrigation Dept. has taken a decision to promote and expedite theformation of WUA's, so that all the created potential under various projects is taken over by WaterUsers' Associations.

5. Organizational coordinationThe works from the canal head down to the distributory and from the distributory head to the

outlet are cagied out by the Construction Organization of the Irrigation Department. Below outlet,OFD wor.ks are the community works, Presently the work below tlre outlet is entusted to the LandDevelopment Divisions. Design and construction proceed on the basis ofthe location ofthe outletand its sill level. To ensure a coordinated effort. it is necessary at the stage ofdesign. that the designofa minor is reated as an overlapping function.

Thus the Land Development Division should not consider the design and layout ofa minor asa work unr.elated to the work below the outlet. Instead. at least conceptually. the process ofdesign ofthe works below the outlet should continue upto the head ofthe minor. For this purpose the LandDevelopment Divisions should approach the Construction Organization for the details ofthe designsand layouts of the distributaries/rninors.

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2, .,,herj- "rr,q +L{ ,funotrZ,n, an4 he^fihtleJe) eP v'o-Lo,v' u}.er4auocrYfi},rriroV I Plr -ertt

WATER USERS ASSOCIATION

Prsenf sfafus of Water Users Associafions

Majority of the f'armers showed enthusiasm and willingness to involve themselvesm the community activities like rehabilitation, water disribution, operation and maintenanceactivities. Nearly 80 % ofthe farmers have contributed to the rehabilitation activities by way of either(a) cash or (b) Iabour or (c) supervision ofworks. Nearly half of the respondents mentioned that theyare involved in water distribution within their land limits. The rest 17 Vo ofthe farmers said that theyare using the services of hired labourers to distribute water even to their own fields. Nearly 20 o/o ofthe farmers in the well functioning WUA sector mentioned that they are not at all involved in theoperation and maintenance activities. The rest ofthe farmers mentioned that they are involved by wayof contributing labour and supervision activities.

Advantages of the WUA formation to solve envitonmenta, issues .The formation of WUAs has brought down some of the environmental problems. For example,

the wat er logging and salinity problems were experienced during pre- WUA period in 40percent of the surveyed schemes. These problems werc morre pronounced in both tank and

canal irrigation schemes. The post - WUA period showed improved situation due to (a)

controlled and regulated supply of water in the canal due to the application of effective water

distribution system and (b) canal improvement works .Nearly 50 % ofthe schemes have experienced slightly poor quality of groundwater below their

ayacuts (command area). Farmer's perception is that it happened due to (a) application of rightquantity of water at right time. the consequence of proper distribution pattem, (b) reducedwater logging condition, (c) awareness about soil. water and crop mBnagement aspects'

Gender sensitivity in water users associafiorrsThree fourth of the surveyed farmers said that they are involving their family women

members for the works like (a) transplanting, (b) weeding and (c) harvesting.A Water User Association is a co-operative association of individual water users who wish tourdertake water-related activities for their mutual benefit. The specific nature of the servicethat a WUA provides will differ fron-r caie to case: as the name suggests, a water userassociation is an institution that serves its members. Because member needs will differ fromone area to another, a WUA is normally established in response to the aspirations of itsmembers. That is, its design. Conforms to their specifications.

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IA WUA may be established for a range ofactivities including streanr flow reduction'

treatment of effluent and waste and its disposal and control the use ofwater for

recreational and environmentaI purposes'

There are thus significant advantages to members of WUAs and to government

offrcials in seeing WUAs as an interface between the state and society ratller than an

organization thaf serves the interests of one of the two parties only'

Functions of WUAs

ln doing sol it also intends to provide some ciariry on the question how WUAs

shosldbe delineated from and link in to umbrella structures of water resource

management.

A number ofissues are important in considering the differences benveen various

. tiers of water management, namelY:

I . The function that the institution has been established to perfonn' Four key

functions of water institutions can be i'dentified' namely:

. Operational functions' related to the management ofa service;

. Bulk supply functions' relatsd to the riranagement ofa bulk rvater supply

system

Resource management functions' related to the management of the resource;

o Representation functions' relatd to the represevttation of stakeholder

needs at higher institutions of water management

2. The functions mentioned above each tequire a certain nature and frequency of

the communication between members or sub-aggregate units'

3. The oommonality ofvision and purpose amongst members or sub-aggrsgateunits

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PARTIC]PATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (PIM)It is believbd that many developmental efforts, more so in water resource sector had been

implemented through participatory approach. ln AD qn Century, Chanaba the author ofArthoshastu, a treatise on political - economy urged the rulers to assist the fanners in theconstruction of irrigation works and give thera various incentives. During I 3h and l6th Centuryin the Vijq,onlgar ernpire (Kamataka). the rulers buih several diversion rveirs and canals withactive voluntary participation f'r'om farrners. Resolution of conflicts and routine maintenancewere achieved tluough community participation. In Tamil Nadu. the Chola King Karikalan builtan ani cut on the rivel Cauvery (known as the Grand Anicut). certain partl of the irrigationsystenr weie maintained by the Covernment and were knorvn as 'surkari'and the-lower partsnraintained by thrmers, rvhiclr were known as 'Kudinarammat' (people's maintenance by donatedlabour).Similarly in Minor irrigation systenrs (Tanks) construction, operation and maintenance ofdistribution chanrrel s,,-stem below the head sluice is the sole responsibility of the f'armers'. Thefarmers provide liee labour periodically to maintain the irrigation works. This should have beenin vogue as a tradition or custom, at least in the southern part ofthe country over a long period,'perhaps frorn the tinres prior to Mughal rule

Need for this project

It could be seen that the revival ofpa*icipatory approach is sought out to be the majot solutionin the operation and maintenance ofrvater resource systems. lt is evidentthat the goal in enabling farmers to participate can be easily achieved ifthe problems tbced byone agency is known to the other. or the success stories ofone organization is made known tothe other. This saves a lot oftime, effort, and investment in such participatory projects. The pointofdeparture ofthis study from the other rvorks is that it will engage in such a comparativeanalysis across regions. size and type or organization, lf experiences are studied and shared. a lotof time and money could be saved in evolving fool proof. cost and time effective programs.

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Pfoject objectivesat To consolidate the experiences of the Watel Users Associations'

b. To compare the sustainability of WUA built on the prenrises of ParticipatoryIrrigation Management usirrg varied strategies lbr exanrple motivation throughNGOs, through Cornmunity Organizers' working under tlre govemmentdepartments etc

c. To study the problems faced by associations and identifying the solutions for' the problems

d. To identify the gender sensitivity in the water user association structule andfunctioning and

e. To present the findings througli publications and disseminate the findings ofthe study for better understanding ofthe scenario. interventions to be made forthe present and future Planning.

Any irrigation project cannot be successful unless it is linked to the stakeholders,that is, the farmers themselves. In fact, people's participation in renovation and

maintenance offield clrannels was the established practice during the pre independencedays. However, the bureaucracy encroached on this firnction in the post independence

period and a realization l.ras dawned that without the participation of farmers, the full

potenrial ofan irrigation scheme may not be realized. Though a water resources etrgineer

not directly lnvolved in such a scheme. it is nevertheless wise to appreciate the nlotive

behind Participatory lrrigation Management (PIM) and keep that in nrind while designingand irrigation system.The national viater policy stresses the participatory approach in water resources

management. It has been recognized that participation ofthe beneficiaries would help

grearly for the optimal upkeep of irrigation system and utilization of irrigation rvater. The

participation of farmers in the management of irrigation would give responsibility for

operation alld maintenance and collection of watef tates from the areas under thejurisdiction ofthe water user's association of concemed hydraulic level'

ThesustairrabilityandsuccessofPlMdependsonmutualaccountabilitybetweenthe water user's association and the irrigation department of the concemed state. attitudinalchange in the bureaucracy, autonomy for the water user's associations, multiiltrctional nalure

of the water user,s association and the choice of appropriate rnodel for PIM with appropriate

tegal and institutional framework. If the farmers lrave to take over and manage the system, then

the system must be fectified by the irrigation department to a minimum standard to can:y the

design discharge before it is harided over to the water user's association. The success of thePIM is also linked to the introduction of lotational water supply and water charges withrationalized establishment costs. Unlined field chanrrels need to be manually constructed in a

'V' shape which is considered stable and efficient for car'rying wator'

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47 fri-rn -h*k fl"ti"3 qaA &w-1,r"*n{ .r'fi*9"#ur fu"fu'b,tPI-ANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF ]RRIGATION PROJECTS

'lie purpose of the planning and implementation process is to:I . Provide rnethodorogy that helps pranners work effectivery with sponsors to

identify opportunities and needs to solve identified resource probrems orconcerns

2. Help sponsors recognize and understand natural resource oonsewationprinciples. concems and problems. Resource treatment and effects areconsidered for eaclr altemative

3. Develop and evaluate altematives that lead to decisions to implement andmaintain conservation

4. Treatments and rnanagement for the project5. Entible sponsors to achieve their objectives as well as meet social. legal. and

program. requirements6. Help sponsors develop a plan thht meets established project specific quality

criteria including7. Environmentalconcems8.Assess the effectiveness of installed practices in meeting the goals and. objectives ofthe sponsors while solving problems and impacts onenvironmental values

I. Watershed-based planningThe watershed-based planning approach provides a comprehensive process that

considers all natural resources in the watershed as well as social, cultural. and economicfactors. The process tailors workable solutions to ecosystem needs through theparticipation and leadership of sponsors. The watershed approach follows the established

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\"plannillg process and empowe$ Iocal people to recognize problems and oppoitunities

i

and find workable solutions for resolving issttes and attaining goals related toecosystems. This approach provides a tbrum for successful planning and con{'lictresolution, 'fhe result is a watershed plan that is a clear description of resourceconcerns, goals to be attained and identified sources for technical assistance. education

assistance, and funding assistance fronr federal. state, and local entities For'implementing solutions.

2. Outline for irrigation project planning

It can assist planning personuel with irrigation aspects ofplanning a project'Adherence to the principles ofthe outline will help elrsure a uniform approach iuestimating physical t'easibility, benetlits. effects, and impac s at ttre various stages ofprogressive planning. The outlirre is not intended to indicate a fixed chronological order

or procedure. Many ofthe investigations may be ca|ried on conctlrrently. Perlbrm onll'those items descr.ibed in the outline that are directly applicable to appraise the capabilitl'

of satisfoing a component need. Intensity of investigations required lbr various outline

components varies with the level ofplanning atrd the scope and significance oftheproject being planned. cenerally. the lowest interrsity is associated with pre applicationplarrning level. It increases to frlll intensity for investigation ofthe selected plarr. Theprocedural outline does not describe program requirements or tbfln:]t for plan 'prcparation. It provides an orderly format for plaruling, implementation and evaluation.

It also provides guidance for writing of plans, organizing supporting documentation,and facilitating reviews.

3. Degree of ptanning

Irigation planning can be cornplex, involvirrg environmenlal assessmenls and

impacts, agronomy, soil, animal husbandry, engineering. economics, ecology, and thmr

and ranch lranagement. On the other hand, it can be direct. addressing only one collcel'n

and its effect on the environment. Plan preparation and content should be based on the

irrigation decision maker's needs and identified resoulce concelns. A couseryation

planning process oonsiders the farm, ranch, or community as a whole even if thedecision maker is intercsted in only one field or practice. This can ensure tlrat delivery

system components of pipelilles and ditches are an adequate size and elevation toservice the entire unit.

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