Ideologies and Upheavals

The Advents of the “Isms”

Background

• Industrialization + French Revolution = new doctrines & movements

• 1815-1848 = advent of the “isms”

• Enlightenment “philosophy” + activism/partisanship of French Revolution = new systemization of ideas

A note on language

• “liberalism” appeared in English lang in 1819 • “radicalism” in 1820• “socialism” in 1832• “conservatism” in 1835• 1830s: “individualism”, “constitutionalism”,

“humanitarianism”, “feminism”, and “monarchism”

• 1840s: “nationalism”, “communism”• 1850s: “capitalism”, “Marxism”

Romanticism

• 1800-1850• Literature/art theory• Rejected classical rules & rational order• Celebrated idiosyncrasies & creative

individuals• Produced modern image of “defiant artistic

rebel”• Affected thinking on social & public questions

Romanticism

• Love of– Moods, impressions– Scenes, stories– Sights, sounds– Mysterious, unknown

• Valued feeling & reason• Importance of subconscious• Original or creative genius nationalism

Gothic Revival (Middle Ages)

England

France

Germany

Classical Liberalism

• Origins:– Spain (Napoleon’s opponents)– France (opposition to royalism in 1814)

• England, 1850s (Liberal Party)

Classical Liberalism

• WHO? Generally business/professional classes & enterprising landowners

• WHAT? Emphasis on individual rights & liberties– Belief in what was modern, enlightened, efficient,

reasonable, & fair– Self-government, self-control– Valued parliamentary/representative gov’t– Freedom of press & right to assemble– Constitutional monarchy

Classical Liberalism

• NOT democrats!– Opposed giving every man the vote (until later in

the 19th c.)– Generally opposed female suffrage

• John Stuart Mill

Classical Liberalism

• Economic views:– Laissez-faire (distrust of gov’t regulation)– Against guilds/unions– Favored freedom of int’l trade

• Disliked:– Church– Aristocracy– War, conquerors, military, revolution

Radicalism

• Origins:– England, 1820s

• WHO? “Philosophical Radicals”– Unrepresented in parliament• Industrial capitalists• Working-class leaders

Radicalism

• Based ideas for institutions on traits of human nature & psychology

• “Radical” from Latin word for “root”• Wanted to completely reconstruct laws,

courts, prisons, poor relief, municipal organization, & clergy

• Demanded reform of Parliament

Radicalism

• Detested:– Church of England– Royalty

• Democratic:– Demanded a vote for every adult Englishman

Republicanism

• Radicalism on the continent = militant republicanism

• Minority groups in France, Italy, & Germany• WHO? Drawn from intelligentsia – Students/writers– Working-class leaders– Elderly veterans

• Police repression secret societies

French Republicanism

• Viewed Reign of Terror as years of hope and progress

• Favored:– Further revolutionary upheaval– Political equality (universal male suffrage)– Parliamentary gov’t

French Republicanism

• Opposed:– Catholic Church (enemy of reason & liberty)– Monarchy of any kind (even constitutional

monarchy)– Aristocracy

• Heirs of the French Revolution!

Socialism

• Shared political views of republicanism• Economic views:– Current system unjust– Improper for wealthy to have so much economic

power (give/deny work, set wages/hours, private profit)

– Questioned value of private enterprise

Socialism

• Favored: – Communal ownership of productive assets (banks,

factories, machines, land, & transportation)– Harmony, cooperation, association– Fairer/more equal distribution of income

• Rejected: – Laissez-faire – Competition-based economic system

British Socialism

• Robert Owen (1771-1858)– Cotton lord from Manchester– Created model community for employees– Paid higher wages, reduced hours– Build schools, housing, & community stores

French Socialism

• Count de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)– Fought in war of American

Independence– Supported French Revolution– Followers called “Saint-Simonians”

• Planned society– Public ownership of industrial

equipment & capital– Captains of industry & social engineers

French Socialism

• Charles Fourier (1772-1837)– Society organized into small units of 1,620 ppl– Work suited to natural inclinations– No successful units created in France

French Socialism

• Revolutionary republicanism + socialism• Louis Blanc, Parisian journalist & spokesperson

for working-class socialists• Organization of Work (1839)– Social workshops– State-supported manufacturing centers– Workers labor by and for themselves

Feminism

• Origins:– Term “feminist” used in France, 1830s– Inspired by Enlightenment ideas & writers– Developed more rapidly in England & America

• Aims:– Expand rights of women (public & private life)– “Rights of man” existed also for women– Secure voting & civil rights for women– “Egalitarian” feminism

English Feminism

• “Philosophical Radicals” & followers of Owen• Harriet Taylor & John Stuart Mill: The

Subjugation of Women (1869)– Women inherently equal to men & entitled to

same rights– Society will benefit from increased participation of

women in public life– Translated & published around Europe

American Feminism

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton• Seneca Falls, New York 1848

French Feminism

• “Saint-Simonians” & followers of Fourier• Inspired by Germaine de Staël• Many moved away from egalitarian feminism– Motherhood & educating rising generation– Schools specifically for girls– Access to higher education

Nationalism

• Britain, France, Spain = national unity already existed

• Italy, Germany, Poland, Austrian & Turkish Empires = politically divided or subject to foreign rule– Looked to success of Britain, France, Spain as

motivator for unification• Movement led by intellectuals• Revolutionary

Nationalism: Western Europe

• Volksgeist = “national spirit”• Cultural nationalism – Shared language, history, worldview, culture – Needed preservation

• Political nationalism – Sovereign state to protect national culture, liberty

& justice for individuals– Those governing should be same nationality as

those governed

Nationalism: Western Europe

• Highly persecuted secret societies & masonic lodges

• Circulated literature & maintained revolutionary excitement

• Feared by conservatives• Not really dangerous to gov’ts

Nationalism: Italy

• Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872)• Founded society “Young Italy”• Advocated for unification of Italy• Organized, conspired, wrote• Exiled to France, England• The Duties of Man – Man’s responsibility to nation lies between duty to

family and God

Nationalism: Germany

• Grimm brothers• Grimm’s Fairy Tales

(1812)• Hoped to find ancient,

indigenous, native “spirit” of Germany

Nationalism: Germany

• Hegel (1770-1831)• “State” = embodiment of reason & liberty• Historian, studied change over time• Hegelian dialectic– Process of endless change– Thesis antithesis synthesis– Disunity of Germany complete unit of Germany perfect German state

Nationalism: Eastern Europe

• More cultural than political• Czechs, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Romanians,

Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Poles, Magyars– Native language = peasant language– Upper classes looked to Paris or Vienna for ideas

• Early 19th c. demanded preservation of culture• Studied languages, collected folktales, wrote

books in mother tongue, etc.

Nationalism: Eastern Europe

• Slavic Revival• Early-mid 19th c.• Slavs = Russians, Poles, Ukrainians,

Byelorussians, Ruthenians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Bulgars

• Publishing works & lecturing at university in native language, revival of native history

Nationalism: Russia

• Slower to develop a national sense• Western/European orientation prevailed• 1825 “Slavophilism” spreading

Conservatism

• Remained strong throughout Continental Europe– Supported: Absolute monarchy, aristocracy,

church– Opposed: liberals (constitutional/representative

gov’t)• Monarchism = conservative & reactionary (no

more Enlightened despots!)• Maintain “the throne and the altar”

Humanitarianism

• Concern about the cruelty inflicted upon others

• General decrease in:– Overwork– Torture– Unjust confinement– Separation of families

• General improvement of living/working conditions