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Scholars Junction Scholars Junction
Theses and Dissertations Theses and Dissertations
5-4-2018
Identifying Ideal Body Composition of Female Powerlifters Identifying Ideal Body Composition of Female Powerlifters
Elizabeth A Flinner
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TITLE PAGE
Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
By
Elizabeth A Flinner
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Mississippi State University
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
in Nutrition in the Department of Food Science Nutrition and Health Promotion
Mississippi State Mississippi
May 2018
COPYRIGHT PAGE
Copyright by
Elizabeth A Flinner
2018
APPROVAL PAGE
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
By
Elizabeth A Flinner
Approved
Terezie T Mosby
(Major Professor)
Brent J Fountain
(Committee Member)
Diane K Tidwell
(Committee Member)
Marion W Evans Jr
(Graduate Coordinator)
George M Hopper Dean
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
ABSTRACT
Name Elizabeth A Flinner
Date of Degree May 4 2018
Institution Mississippi State University
Major Field Nutrition
Major Professor Terezie T Mosby
Title of Study Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
Pages in Study 53
Candidate for Degree of Master of Science
Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort of back squat bench press and deadlift
The purpose of this study was to identify the ideal body composition of female
powerlifters Body composition measurements were taken on the day of competition on
women who competed in a raw powerlifting meet in United States Powerlifting
Federation using bioelectrical impedance analysis Participantsrsquo powerlifting experience
ranged from novice to world-class lifters One hundred ninety-five women completed the
study and ages ranged from 18 to 75 years old Mean body fat percentage (BF) of all
powerlifters was 3121 and body mass index was 2668 Results showed an increase in
BF as weight classes increased from 47 kg to 84+ kg weight class Novice lifters had
34 BF and elite lifters had 311 BF Women who had a high BF could lift more
based on their powerlifting total Body composition varied among the women
powerlifters
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people and organizations
My parents for supporting me while I went back to school I am so
grateful for their support
My brothers and sister-in-law for being there when I was home on break
My advisor Dr Mosby for support and knowledge I gained while earning
my Master of Science degree
My committee members Dr Tidwell and Dr Fountain for the help with
my study and thesis
My new friends that I made while being at Mississippi State for helping
me with statistics and editing my thesis
My friends back home that supported me as I moved to a different state
many miles away
USAPL for allowing me to conduct my study at different powerlifting
meets
Mississippi State Powerlifting Club for the support at powerlifting meets
when collecting data
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I Introduction1
II Literature Review3
III Body composition of female powerlifters based on age experience level and weight class 10
Introduction 10 Methods 13 Results and Discussion 14 Conclusion16
IV Difference between body fat percentages and BMI in female powerlifters 22
Introduction 22 Methods 24 Results and Discussion 26 Conclusion27
V Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters33
Introduction 33 Methods 35 Results and Discussion 37 Conclusion40
REFERENCES 48
APPENDIX
iv
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
Template B v30 (beta) Created by J Nail 062015
TITLE PAGE
Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
By
Elizabeth A Flinner
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Mississippi State University
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
in Nutrition in the Department of Food Science Nutrition and Health Promotion
Mississippi State Mississippi
May 2018
COPYRIGHT PAGE
Copyright by
Elizabeth A Flinner
2018
APPROVAL PAGE
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
By
Elizabeth A Flinner
Approved
Terezie T Mosby
(Major Professor)
Brent J Fountain
(Committee Member)
Diane K Tidwell
(Committee Member)
Marion W Evans Jr
(Graduate Coordinator)
George M Hopper Dean
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
ABSTRACT
Name Elizabeth A Flinner
Date of Degree May 4 2018
Institution Mississippi State University
Major Field Nutrition
Major Professor Terezie T Mosby
Title of Study Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
Pages in Study 53
Candidate for Degree of Master of Science
Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort of back squat bench press and deadlift
The purpose of this study was to identify the ideal body composition of female
powerlifters Body composition measurements were taken on the day of competition on
women who competed in a raw powerlifting meet in United States Powerlifting
Federation using bioelectrical impedance analysis Participantsrsquo powerlifting experience
ranged from novice to world-class lifters One hundred ninety-five women completed the
study and ages ranged from 18 to 75 years old Mean body fat percentage (BF) of all
powerlifters was 3121 and body mass index was 2668 Results showed an increase in
BF as weight classes increased from 47 kg to 84+ kg weight class Novice lifters had
34 BF and elite lifters had 311 BF Women who had a high BF could lift more
based on their powerlifting total Body composition varied among the women
powerlifters
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people and organizations
My parents for supporting me while I went back to school I am so
grateful for their support
My brothers and sister-in-law for being there when I was home on break
My advisor Dr Mosby for support and knowledge I gained while earning
my Master of Science degree
My committee members Dr Tidwell and Dr Fountain for the help with
my study and thesis
My new friends that I made while being at Mississippi State for helping
me with statistics and editing my thesis
My friends back home that supported me as I moved to a different state
many miles away
USAPL for allowing me to conduct my study at different powerlifting
meets
Mississippi State Powerlifting Club for the support at powerlifting meets
when collecting data
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I Introduction1
II Literature Review3
III Body composition of female powerlifters based on age experience level and weight class 10
Introduction 10 Methods 13 Results and Discussion 14 Conclusion16
IV Difference between body fat percentages and BMI in female powerlifters 22
Introduction 22 Methods 24 Results and Discussion 26 Conclusion27
V Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters33
Introduction 33 Methods 35 Results and Discussion 37 Conclusion40
REFERENCES 48
APPENDIX
iv
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
COPYRIGHT PAGE
Copyright by
Elizabeth A Flinner
2018
APPROVAL PAGE
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
By
Elizabeth A Flinner
Approved
Terezie T Mosby
(Major Professor)
Brent J Fountain
(Committee Member)
Diane K Tidwell
(Committee Member)
Marion W Evans Jr
(Graduate Coordinator)
George M Hopper Dean
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
ABSTRACT
Name Elizabeth A Flinner
Date of Degree May 4 2018
Institution Mississippi State University
Major Field Nutrition
Major Professor Terezie T Mosby
Title of Study Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
Pages in Study 53
Candidate for Degree of Master of Science
Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort of back squat bench press and deadlift
The purpose of this study was to identify the ideal body composition of female
powerlifters Body composition measurements were taken on the day of competition on
women who competed in a raw powerlifting meet in United States Powerlifting
Federation using bioelectrical impedance analysis Participantsrsquo powerlifting experience
ranged from novice to world-class lifters One hundred ninety-five women completed the
study and ages ranged from 18 to 75 years old Mean body fat percentage (BF) of all
powerlifters was 3121 and body mass index was 2668 Results showed an increase in
BF as weight classes increased from 47 kg to 84+ kg weight class Novice lifters had
34 BF and elite lifters had 311 BF Women who had a high BF could lift more
based on their powerlifting total Body composition varied among the women
powerlifters
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people and organizations
My parents for supporting me while I went back to school I am so
grateful for their support
My brothers and sister-in-law for being there when I was home on break
My advisor Dr Mosby for support and knowledge I gained while earning
my Master of Science degree
My committee members Dr Tidwell and Dr Fountain for the help with
my study and thesis
My new friends that I made while being at Mississippi State for helping
me with statistics and editing my thesis
My friends back home that supported me as I moved to a different state
many miles away
USAPL for allowing me to conduct my study at different powerlifting
meets
Mississippi State Powerlifting Club for the support at powerlifting meets
when collecting data
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I Introduction1
II Literature Review3
III Body composition of female powerlifters based on age experience level and weight class 10
Introduction 10 Methods 13 Results and Discussion 14 Conclusion16
IV Difference between body fat percentages and BMI in female powerlifters 22
Introduction 22 Methods 24 Results and Discussion 26 Conclusion27
V Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters33
Introduction 33 Methods 35 Results and Discussion 37 Conclusion40
REFERENCES 48
APPENDIX
iv
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
APPROVAL PAGE
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
By
Elizabeth A Flinner
Approved
Terezie T Mosby
(Major Professor)
Brent J Fountain
(Committee Member)
Diane K Tidwell
(Committee Member)
Marion W Evans Jr
(Graduate Coordinator)
George M Hopper Dean
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
ABSTRACT
Name Elizabeth A Flinner
Date of Degree May 4 2018
Institution Mississippi State University
Major Field Nutrition
Major Professor Terezie T Mosby
Title of Study Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
Pages in Study 53
Candidate for Degree of Master of Science
Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort of back squat bench press and deadlift
The purpose of this study was to identify the ideal body composition of female
powerlifters Body composition measurements were taken on the day of competition on
women who competed in a raw powerlifting meet in United States Powerlifting
Federation using bioelectrical impedance analysis Participantsrsquo powerlifting experience
ranged from novice to world-class lifters One hundred ninety-five women completed the
study and ages ranged from 18 to 75 years old Mean body fat percentage (BF) of all
powerlifters was 3121 and body mass index was 2668 Results showed an increase in
BF as weight classes increased from 47 kg to 84+ kg weight class Novice lifters had
34 BF and elite lifters had 311 BF Women who had a high BF could lift more
based on their powerlifting total Body composition varied among the women
powerlifters
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people and organizations
My parents for supporting me while I went back to school I am so
grateful for their support
My brothers and sister-in-law for being there when I was home on break
My advisor Dr Mosby for support and knowledge I gained while earning
my Master of Science degree
My committee members Dr Tidwell and Dr Fountain for the help with
my study and thesis
My new friends that I made while being at Mississippi State for helping
me with statistics and editing my thesis
My friends back home that supported me as I moved to a different state
many miles away
USAPL for allowing me to conduct my study at different powerlifting
meets
Mississippi State Powerlifting Club for the support at powerlifting meets
when collecting data
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I Introduction1
II Literature Review3
III Body composition of female powerlifters based on age experience level and weight class 10
Introduction 10 Methods 13 Results and Discussion 14 Conclusion16
IV Difference between body fat percentages and BMI in female powerlifters 22
Introduction 22 Methods 24 Results and Discussion 26 Conclusion27
V Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters33
Introduction 33 Methods 35 Results and Discussion 37 Conclusion40
REFERENCES 48
APPENDIX
iv
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
ABSTRACT
Name Elizabeth A Flinner
Date of Degree May 4 2018
Institution Mississippi State University
Major Field Nutrition
Major Professor Terezie T Mosby
Title of Study Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters
Pages in Study 53
Candidate for Degree of Master of Science
Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort of back squat bench press and deadlift
The purpose of this study was to identify the ideal body composition of female
powerlifters Body composition measurements were taken on the day of competition on
women who competed in a raw powerlifting meet in United States Powerlifting
Federation using bioelectrical impedance analysis Participantsrsquo powerlifting experience
ranged from novice to world-class lifters One hundred ninety-five women completed the
study and ages ranged from 18 to 75 years old Mean body fat percentage (BF) of all
powerlifters was 3121 and body mass index was 2668 Results showed an increase in
BF as weight classes increased from 47 kg to 84+ kg weight class Novice lifters had
34 BF and elite lifters had 311 BF Women who had a high BF could lift more
based on their powerlifting total Body composition varied among the women
powerlifters
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people and organizations
My parents for supporting me while I went back to school I am so
grateful for their support
My brothers and sister-in-law for being there when I was home on break
My advisor Dr Mosby for support and knowledge I gained while earning
my Master of Science degree
My committee members Dr Tidwell and Dr Fountain for the help with
my study and thesis
My new friends that I made while being at Mississippi State for helping
me with statistics and editing my thesis
My friends back home that supported me as I moved to a different state
many miles away
USAPL for allowing me to conduct my study at different powerlifting
meets
Mississippi State Powerlifting Club for the support at powerlifting meets
when collecting data
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I Introduction1
II Literature Review3
III Body composition of female powerlifters based on age experience level and weight class 10
Introduction 10 Methods 13 Results and Discussion 14 Conclusion16
IV Difference between body fat percentages and BMI in female powerlifters 22
Introduction 22 Methods 24 Results and Discussion 26 Conclusion27
V Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters33
Introduction 33 Methods 35 Results and Discussion 37 Conclusion40
REFERENCES 48
APPENDIX
iv
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people and organizations
My parents for supporting me while I went back to school I am so
grateful for their support
My brothers and sister-in-law for being there when I was home on break
My advisor Dr Mosby for support and knowledge I gained while earning
my Master of Science degree
My committee members Dr Tidwell and Dr Fountain for the help with
my study and thesis
My new friends that I made while being at Mississippi State for helping
me with statistics and editing my thesis
My friends back home that supported me as I moved to a different state
many miles away
USAPL for allowing me to conduct my study at different powerlifting
meets
Mississippi State Powerlifting Club for the support at powerlifting meets
when collecting data
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I Introduction1
II Literature Review3
III Body composition of female powerlifters based on age experience level and weight class 10
Introduction 10 Methods 13 Results and Discussion 14 Conclusion16
IV Difference between body fat percentages and BMI in female powerlifters 22
Introduction 22 Methods 24 Results and Discussion 26 Conclusion27
V Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters33
Introduction 33 Methods 35 Results and Discussion 37 Conclusion40
REFERENCES 48
APPENDIX
iv
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
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Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I Introduction1
II Literature Review3
III Body composition of female powerlifters based on age experience level and weight class 10
Introduction 10 Methods 13 Results and Discussion 14 Conclusion16
IV Difference between body fat percentages and BMI in female powerlifters 22
Introduction 22 Methods 24 Results and Discussion 26 Conclusion27
V Identifying ideal body composition of female powerlifters33
Introduction 33 Methods 35 Results and Discussion 37 Conclusion40
REFERENCES 48
APPENDIX
iv
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
A POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants 18
Table 32 Physical characteristics of female powerlifter by weight class 19
Table 33 Physical characteristics by experience level 20
Table 34 Physical characteristics by age category21
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters 29
Table 42 Physical characteristics of all participants and age categories30
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category31
Table 51 Category descriptions41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years 42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category 43
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category43
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
LIST OF FIGURES
21 Diagram of parallel squat9
41 Differences between body fat percentages and BMI 32
42 Correlation between body fat percentage and BMI 32
51 Body fat percentage at different weight classes44
52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants44
53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category45
54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40 years 45
55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all participants under 4046
56 Body fat percentage categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420 47
57 Regression graph for Wilks total 47
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Body composition is important for determining a personrsquos nutritional status
health and athletic performance (Hirsch Smith-Ryan Trexler amp Roelofs 2016
Loenneke et al 2012) Body composition is comprised of fat mass fat free mass
including organs and total body water Body mass index (BMI) is an estimation of body
composition BMI is also known as the Quetelet index (Nuttall 2015) However BMI
does not always accurately represent an athletersquos body composition correctly (Loenneke
et al 2012) Hydrostatic weighing air displacement plythemography (Bod Pod)
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and skinfold measurements are methods to
measure a person bodyrsquos composition Body composition can be a more suitable measure
for athletes rather than BMI BIA measures body composition by sending electrical
currents throughout the body to determine body composition of an individual (Kyle et al
2004) The portability of the BIA makes it a viable method of assessing body
composition in the field setting
Athletes want to be at their best physical fitness for their sport Differences
between sports create variations of ideal body fat and muscle mass proportion Having
excess fat mass can have a negative influence on performance and can be viewed as a
limiting factor of performance (Malina 2007) Powerlifting is a sport of strength
Athletes compete by doing three lifts at maximal effort back squat bench press and
1
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
deadlift There are many factors that influence a powerlifters performance on the day of
the meet These include technical skills training background genetic predisposition
nutritional status body composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter
(Cleather 2006) There are two divisions of powerlifting raw and equipped The raw
division does not allow supportive equipment The lifter can wear a belt knee sleeves
wrist wraps singlet and shoes In the equipped division lifters can wear supportive
equipment Supportive equipment includes squat suit bench press shirt deadlift suit
knee wraps and other equipment that is allowed from the raw division Lifters are divided
into weight classes for competition Lifters can also be classified further by age
categories If lifters are not being classified by age category during a local meet all lifters
will lift in the open age category Participation in powerlifting events continues to
increase from year to year In 2017 there were 18700 members both males and females
in the United States Powerlifting Federation (Maile 2017)
The purpose of this study was to attempt to identify the ideal body composition of
female powerlifters The objective was to assess body fat percentage (BF) fat free
mass (FFM) and BMI of the women powerlifters according to competition experience
weight class and age categories Additionally BF in relationship to squat bench
deadlift total and Wilks total was examined Body composition measurements were
taken at weigh-ins during several United States Powerlifting (USAPL) meets before the
competition started Meets ranged from local to national competitions
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson Mermier Wilmerding Bentzur amp McKinnon
2009) Although there are various methods to determine a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) Body
composition when measured can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free
mass and total body water (Malina 2007) BMI has been used as a substitute measure for
estimating body fat percentage Obesity is defined as a BMI of 30 kgm2 or greater An
athlete tends to have a lower body fat percentage and greater muscle mass when
compared to non-athletes (Ode Pivarnik Reeves amp Knous 2007) Considering that BMI
only measures the relationship of an individualrsquos weight to height BMI can falsely
categorize athletes as overweight or obese based on the additional muscle mass and
increase bone density that is often found in athletes (Loenneke et al 2012) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletesrsquo sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
3
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
achievement (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy Chang Chai Ang amp Yim 2013) BIA
determines the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume An
electrical current of 50kHz of current passes throughout the body (Kyle et al 2004)
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently in different tissues Adipose
tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination of
resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a strength sport The competitions are comprised of three lifts The
back squat bench press and deadlift Each lift has a set of rules that need to be followed
in competition In the beginning in the 1940rsquos powerlifting was called ldquoodd liftsrdquo
because it was lifts other than Olympic weightlifting movements (snatch and clean and
jerk) (Warpeha 2015) Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) hosted the first national
championship in 1964 in York Pennsylvania (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting
Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The meet was called ldquoThe Powerlifting Tournament of Americardquo
(Warpeha 2015) International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) was created in 1972 and
world championships began with mostly United States and Great Britain lifters
participating (ldquoHistory - International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) AAU was the
governing body in the United States for international competitions until 1978 when
United States Powerlifting Federation became the governing body (Warpeha 2015) By
the end of the 1970rsquos powerlifting was becoming an accepted sport throughout the world
4
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
(ldquoHistory -International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) The original order of lifts
were bench press squat and deadlift but in 1973 todayrsquos order of lifters began to be was
to be performed (squat bench press and deadlift) (Warpeha 2015)
Drug testing for international competitions began in 1979 which led to multiple
lifting federations in the United States (Warpeha 2015) This led to the creation of the
American Drug Free Powerlifting Association Inc which became the governing body
for the United States as a member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF)
(ldquoWho We Are | USA Powerliftingrdquo nd) In 1997 the American Drug Free Powerlifting
Association Inc became United States Powerlifting (USAPL) (Warpeha 2015) The first
womenrsquos world championship was in 1981 and was held in Hawaii (ldquoHistory shy
International Powerlifting Federation IPFrdquo 2008) In 2012 the IPF offered Classic World
Championship due to the popularity of raw lifting (Warpeha 2015) Classic and raw
lifting are referred to without the aid of supportive equipment such as knee wraps bench
press shirts lifting suits and other supportive equipment
According to the USAPL and IPF there are seven female weight classes for open
age category (USA Powerlifting 2016) The weight classes are 47kg 52kg 57kg 63kg
72kg 84kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes there are also
age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules
set by the IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with
anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
5
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
Rules for lifting vary by the lift performed and the federation a lifter is competing
in USAPL a member of IPF is known to have some of the highest standards in
powerlifting No matter what lift is being performed on the platform during the
competition lifters have three attempts to hit the highest weight they are trying to
successfully achieve Three referees observe the lift to see if the rules of the lift are
executed properly One referee is in front of the lifter giving the lifter commands for the
lift The other two referees sit on each side of the lifter and watch side angles In national
and international competition there is also a jury of three referees watching the lifter to
see if the lift is being performed correctly The first lift performed on the day of a
competition is back squat Once the bar is loaded to the correct weight the lifter must
remove the bar from the rack onto their upper backshoulders while facing the front of the
platform After the lifter receives the squat signal ldquothe lifter must bend the knees and
lower the body until the top surface of the leg at the hip joint is lower than the top of the
kneesrdquo (Figure 21) (USA Powerlifting 2016) Once the lifter is in the upright position
with locked knees the referees then gives the rack signal This is for the safety of the
lifters and spotters Two of the three referees have to confirm the lift was properly
executed There are many reasons a lift is not considered a good lift Some of the reasons
for squat failure include not following lifting commands not squatting below depth
movement of the feet and unable to return to upright position
After three lifts of the squat are performed bench press is preformed next Bench
press has three lift commands whereas squat has two During the bench press the head
butt shoulders and feet must maintain in contact with the bench or floor Once the lifter
is in position with the bar over their chest and elbows are locked the referee will signal
6
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
for the start command The lifter lowers the bar towards the chest and must touch the
chest resting the bar on the chest until the command Once the bar becomes motionless
the referee signals the press command The lifter then presses the bar back to the upright
position Once the bar is returned to the top to the movement and the lifter with straight
arms and locked elbows will receive the rack command Reasons why the lift is
considered a ldquono liftrdquo for bench press can be because of not following the refereersquos
signals movement of body position during the lift a second downward movement of the
bar and failure to press the bar after receiving the press command
The last lift of the competition is deadlift Deadlift has only one signal and that is
the down command The bar starts on the floor and the lifter lifts the bar until they are
standing erect The lifterrsquos knees need to be locked in a straight position and the
shoulders are back Once the lifter is standing erect the lifter will receive a down
command from the referee and must set the weight back on the floor Reasons for failure
of the deadlift can be failure to stand with knees straight and shoulders back movement
of the feet lowering the bar before the signal or and not returning the bar under control
Once all three lifts are performed the lifter receives a total The total is determined
by adding the best of completed attempt of each lift The athlete with the highest total
wins the weight class In the case of tie the person with lower body weight wins To
determine the best athlete of the meet amongst all weight classes the Wilks formula is
used to find the Wilks total The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the on fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body
weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) A coefficient is determined by the athletersquos weight
7
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
and gender The coefficient is then is multiplied by the lifters total to obtain Wilks total
(ldquoWilks Formulas for Women (kg) | USA Powerliftingrdquo 1998) It allows for adjustment
for different weight classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999)
Powerliftersrsquo experience varies in different powerlifting meets from novice to
elite To be able to lift at Raw Nationals or Collegiate Nationals a qualification total
needs to be met An experience level scale was developed for the present study Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced participants competed in multiple meets
including Raw National meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any
age category or Arnold Sport classic meet
By understanding the ideal body composition for female powerlifters powerlifters
can make improvements to their overall health Improvements in cardiovascular health
and strength have been shown to improve with changes in body composition (Santos et
al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training are improved bone
health reversing muscle loss due to ageing improved cardiovascular health increased
resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and improved self-esteem and mental health
(Westcott 2012)
8
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
Figure 21 Diagram of parallel squat
This diagram shows proper depth of a squat for the rules of USAPL This diagram is in
the USAPL lifters handbook
9
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
CHAPTER III
BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS BASED ON AGE
EXPERIENCE LEVEL AND WEIGHT CLASS
Introduction
An athletersquos body composition is an important factor influencing performance
capabilities and health status (Gibson et al 2009) Body composition can provide
information on a personrsquos fat mass fat free mass and total body water (Malina 2007)
Optimal competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes
sports and positions (Gibson et al 2009) Physical health and the health of an athlete are
determined by the athletersquos body composition (Mala et al 2015) Each sport has a unique
determination for ideal body fat and muscle mass needed to compete at an elite level
Gymnastics at the elite level requires low body fat because of complex movements
(Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the lower body is needed for vertical jumps
is needed for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track and field throwers need to have
greater amounts of body mass but still need to have explosive power and strength
(Hirsch et al 2016) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power during high-
intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to high dynamic
and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative influence on
physical performance and is often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
10
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
achievement (Malina 2007) Body composition assessment determines important
factors for performance of athletes from the recreational level to elite level (Mazić et al
2014)
Body composition can be an estimate only a living person (Ackland et al 2012)
Models for estimating body fat can be two three or four compartment models (Malina
2007) The four component model uses body density body water bone mineral and body
mass (Ackland et al 2012) The three component model used fat mass bone mineral
and fat free soft tissue (Ackland et al 2012) Fat mass and fat free mass are used in the
two component model (Malina 2007)
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common technique used to assess
body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA determines the bodyrsquos fat
free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume Electrical signal frequency of
50Hz current conducts differently in different tissues though out the body BIA measures
body composition by using two component fat mass and fat free mass (Ackland et al
2012) Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A
combination of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines the total
body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Powerlifting is the sport of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench
press and deadlift Athletes have three attempts at each lift to attempt the most weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total score and Wilks total The Wilks
total is based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks
11
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
and is based on the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between
body weight and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of
lifting (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment of different weight
classes to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999)
During competition there are three judges observing lifters perform the lifts and being
sure the lifters follow standards A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three
judges believe that it met the standards for the lift As a member of International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting lifters handbook states there are
seven female weight classes for open age category The weight classes are 47kg 52kg
57kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) Besides weight classes
there are also age categories Sub-juniorteen (under 19 years) Junior (20-24) Master 1
(40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting
2016) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug
free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet are drug
tested Anyone who set an American record or higher are also drug tested Lifters can be
tested outside of meets(USA Powerlifting 2016)
There are studies reported on body composition for various sports but only a
limited number on athletes that compete by weight class (Dixon Deitrick Pierce
Cutrufello amp Drapeau 2005 Hirsch et al 2016 Mala et al 2015) Only a few studies
have been conducted about powerlifters in general No studies could be located that
investigated female powerlifters of all experience levels that assessing their body
composition
12
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would like to
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participation time in the study was
approximately five minutes for each participant This study was approved by the
universityrsquos Institutional Review Board
The BIA scale used for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered
into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked
to remove extra clothing they were wearing Each participant was asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in previously to determine their experience levels The
highest weights lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks
total were recorded from official meet results posted on USAPL lifting database These
results are available for public view
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes
13
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM
Corp) One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between weight class by
comparing body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift total and Wilks
total Descriptive analysis were also determined Continuous variables are reported as
means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analysis
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total score and were therefore
excluded from the study Participantrsquos experience levels varied from first competition to
world team competitors There were 104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34
competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and
Minnesota One-way ANOVA showed significant difference (ple05) between weight
classes for body fat percentage fat free mass BMI squat bench deadlift and total and
Wilks total
The mean height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and height
was 708plusmn1954 kg (Table 31) The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years with ages
ranging from 18 to 75 The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn 852 fat free mass
percentage was 6859plusmn85 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg The mean Wilks score was 3473plusmn6901 points Of the 195 participants
seven competed in the 47kg weight class 15 competed in 52kg 33 competed in 57kg 38
competed in 63kg 41 competed in 72 kg 34 competed in 84kg and 27 competed in the
14
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
84+kg weight class The mean results of each lift for each weight class are shown in
Table 32 ldquoPhysical characteristics of female powerlifters by weight classrdquo As the weight
classes increased the mean body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI all increased The
mean total weight lifted for each weight class increased as lifters became heavier
however the Wilks score had little fluctuation The 47kg weight class had the highest
Wilks score and on further examination half of the lifters competed in Raw Nationals
When examining the results based on experience body fat percentage fat mass fat free
mass and BMI changed as the participants gained more experience (Table 33) Novice
was defined as the meet being their first meet Beginners had competed previously in one
to three powerlifting meets Intermediate participants competed in more than three meets
but never at a Raw National meet Advanced competed in multiple meets including Raw
Nationals meets Elite participants competed in an IPF world event in any age category or
Arnold Sport classic meet The means of fat free mass body fat percentage and BMI by
experience level is shown in Table 33 ldquoPhysical Characteristics by experience levelrdquo
Age groups means of body fat percentage fat free mass and BMI did not change with age
progression The results for age categories are presented in Table 34 ldquoPhysical
characteristics by age categoryrdquo
The sport of womenrsquos powerlifting has continued to grow despite no ideal
standard of body composition for women powerlifters The average height of American
women is 637 inches according to the CDC which aligns with the results of the average
height of female powerlifters 6369plusmn284 inches (Centers for Disease and Prevention
(CDC) FastStats 2017) When looking at height by weight class the trend for height is
that taller individuals were more likely to be in heavier weight classes Comparatively
15
height is not a factor in age categories or experience levels Body fat percentage among
weight classes showed the lower weight classes had lower body fat percentages The
mean body fat percentage of the 47kg weight class was 170plusmn54 which was considered
underfat (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Subsequently the mean body
fat percentage of 84+kg weight class was 4470plusmn583 which was considered obese
Body fat percentage also changed as onersquos competitive experience level increased and
lower body fat percentage was observed Novice body fat percentage was 3404plusmn58
intermediate was 3267plusmn38 and elite was 3115plusmn1097 This could be due to the
factor of the powerlifters desire to build muscle to gain more strength The longer one
trains for powerlifting the more opportunity to gain muscle
Measuring body fat percentage through BIA has limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes testing at hypohydration levels either
intentionally to make a weight class or unintendedly retaining water due to womenrsquos
menstrual cycles (water retention) recent alcohol intake (diuresis) andor exercise
(perspiration) Underwater weighing is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition(Medina-Inojosa et al 2017) Underwater weighing could not have been
used in our study because it is not portable not a simple process to use and is time
consuming Another limitation is the low number of participants for each category
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that the majority of powerlifting women have a
healthy body fat percentage The BMI results identified with athletes being labeled as
overweight Most of the women in the healthy body fat percentage were in the 52kg to
16
72kg weight classes Increase in experience level indicated a decrease in body fat
percentage Consistency in training can have positive benefits in body composition for
powerlifters or anyone who does free weight training Understanding body composition
of female powerlifters allows women to improve their performance by choosing an
appropriate weight class in which to compete based on their body composition To
become the best athlete possible one can understand their body composition which can
allow them to make decisions in their training and competitions
17
Table 31 Physical characteristics and average lifting of participants
Participants (n=195)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724
Weight (kg plusmn SD) 708plusmn 1954
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901
18
Tab
le 3
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
fem
ale
po
wer
lift
er b
y w
eight
clas
s
19
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Par
tici
pan
ts(n
) H
eigh
t (c
mplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
wei
ght
(kgplusmn
SD)
Age
(yea
rsplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmn
SD)
Fat
mas
s (k
gplusmnSD
) Fa
t fr
eem
ass
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
7
150
59
plusmn4
14
4
56
8plusmn4
59
2
8plusmn1
58
5
17
0plusmn5
4
79
3plusmn3
27
3
77
5plusmn1
76
1
97
2plusmn1
43
52
kg
15
1
545
2plusmn4
06
5
12
8plusmn3
69
4
34
7plusmn1
73
5
22
35
plusmn48
9
11
58
plusmn34
9
39
70
plusmn17
2
21
15
plusmn19
0
57
kg
33
1
576
3plusmn6
7
55
96
plusmn12
7
31
35
plusmn11
49
2
43
1plusmn3
21
1
36
6plusmn1
92
4
23
0plusmn1
76
2
27
97
plusmn18
9
63
kg
38
1
621
9plusmn4
68
6
16
7plusmn1
7
31
00
1plusmn1
35
2
71
3plusmn3
2
17
63
plusmn50
3
44
06
plusmn48
8
23
55
1plusmn1
6
72
kg
41
1
633
1plusmn5
35
6
94
plusmn28
5
30
31
plusmn13
25
3
3plusmn3
19
2
29
4plusmn2
64
4
66
plusmn21
2
26
26
plusmn23
0
84
kg
34
1
651
plusmn74
9
80
65
plusmn34
1
29
69
plusmn93
2
36
91
plusmn34
4
29
84
plusmn36
5
50
93
plusmn24
3
29
25
plusmn32
7
84
+kg
27
1
662
8plusmn7
2
10
89
1plusmn1
93
8
33
86
plusmn10
83
4
46
7plusmn5
84
4
85
5plusmn1
60
5
86
4plusmn6
59
3
81
68
plusmn78
3
Tab
le 3
2
Conti
nued
Wei
ght
Cla
ss
Bac
k sq
uat
(k
gplusmnSD
) B
ench
pre
ss
(kgplusmn
SD)
Dea
dlif
t (k
gplusmnSD
) To
tal w
eig
ht
lifte
d (
kgplusmnS
D)
Wilk
s To
tal(
po
ints
plusmnSD
)
47
kg
103
92
plusmn12
48
6
35
7plusmn1
18
0
12
69
2plusmn1
66
2
94
00
plusmn31
71
4
04
95
plusmn32
52
52
kg
99
83
plusmn25
76
5
85
3plusmn1
22
2
12
4plusmn2
16
0
28
23
7plusmn5
46
0
35
61
plusmn22
72
9
57
kg
106
51
plusmn22
14
5
95
4plusmn1
13
2
12
86
3plusmn2
9
29
43
1plusmn5
82
4
34
76
9plusmn6
81
8
63
kg
118
35
plusmn25
39
6
97
3plusmn1
90
7
14
78
plusmn30
25
3
22
56
plusmn96
74
3
67
45
plusmn73
84
72
kg
123
48
plusmn25
32
6
90
2plusmn1
28
3
14
96
8plusmn2
58
7
34
22
3plusmn6
33
5
34
13
9plusmn6
11
0
84
kg
133
82
plusmn30
30
7
77
6plusmn1
88
1
15
61
plusmn29
13
3
66
51
plusmn75
43
3
34
79
plusmn65
72
84
+kg
144
83
plusmn47
63
8
29
6plusmn2
27
0
16
85
1plusmn3
26
8
39
64
plusmn97
40
3
23
34
plusmn73
47
20
Tab
le 3
3
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by e
xper
ien
ce l
evel
Exp
erie
nce
Leve
la
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All a
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
70
8plusmn
19
54
1
61
72
plusmn72
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
No
vice
a 1
7
29
88
plusmn93
8
73
22
plusmn10
91
1
65
1plusmn8
3
40
4plusmn5
8
25
43
plusmn75
2
47
78
plusmn42
2
68
3plusmn3
57
Beg
inn
era
36
2
76
6plusmn1
04
4
73
58
plusmn20
66
1
63
58
plusmn65
6
31
42
plusmn88
9
25
0plusmn1
39
8
48
53
plusmn70
8
26
56
plusmn30
67
Inte
rmed
iate
a 2
3
31
65
plusmn95
7
13
1plusmn1
87
5
16
02
plusmn62
3
26
7plusmn8
38
2
45
6plusmn1
28
8
46
75
plusmn64
2
72
9plusmn6
28
Ad
van
cea
89
3
07
7plusmn1
15
6
91
9plusmn1
76
5
16
14
3plusmn7
08
3
02
8plusmn7
96
2
22
7plusmn1
20
9
46
54
plusmn68
2
61
8plusmn5
48
Elit
ea 3
0
42
53
plusmn18
12
4
70
51
plusmn27
22
1
59
6plusmn8
3
11
6plusmn1
09
7
24
56
plusmn19
22
4
59
6plusmn8
36
2
79
4plusmn9
32
a Novic
e F
irst
mee
t B
egin
ner
1-3
mee
ts
Inte
rmed
iate
3 o
r m
ore
but
nev
er R
aw N
atio
nal
s A
dvan
ced m
ult
iple
mee
ts i
ncl
udin
g R
aw
Nat
ional
s E
lite
IP
F m
eet
any a
ge
cate
gory
or
Arn
old
Sport
s C
lass
ic M
eet
Tab
le 3
4
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
by a
ge
cate
gory
21
Age
cate
gory
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s(kg
plusmnSD
)
Bo
dy
mas
s in
dex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Tee
na
13
1
88
5plusmn
038
1
64
02
plusmn52
3
82
33
plusmn24
57
3
54
7plusmn7
68
3
08
9plusmn1
82
9
51
5plusmn6
7
30
45
plusmn8
Jun
iora
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
ena
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I a 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II a
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
IIIa
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20
-24 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
CHAPTER IV
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BODY FAT PERCENTAGES AND BMI IN FEMALE
POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power wherein lifters are
divided into weight categories in order to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al
2009) Maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift create the
sport of powerlifting Athletes have three attempts to accomplish the highest weight
lifted The best of each lift is combined to form a total and Wilks total The Wilks total is
based on the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is
based the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body weight
and informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting
(Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) It allows for adjustment for different weight classes
to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo at meets (Vanderburgh amp Batterham 1999) During
competition there are three judges watching a lifter perform the lift and that the lifter
follows the rules of the lift A lift is considered a good lift when two of the three judges
believe that it met the standards for the lift According to USA Powerlifting (USAPL) a
member of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) there are seven female weight
classes for open category The weight classes are 47kg 52 kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84kg
and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016) In addition to weight classes there are also age
22
categories Sub-juniorteen (19 and under) Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II
(50-59) Master III (60+) and open is for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF is a
member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and must follow drug free rules set
by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in each meet along with anyone who
set an American record or higher is drug tested
There are many factors that influence a personrsquos lifting performance during a
meet These include training background genetic predisposition nutritional status body
composition optimal body size and motivation of the lifter (Cleather 2006) An athletesrsquo
body composition plays a role in their health and performance of the athlete (Hirsch et
al 2016)
Although there are various methods to calculate a personrsquos body composition
body mass index (BMI) is commonly used BMI is defined as weight divided by height
squared (kgm2) BMI does not measure body fat directly (Rothman 2008) To determine
health status BMI is used for athletes and non-athletes (Kruschitz et al 2013) An
individual with BMI at or above 300 kgm2 would be considered obese There are
multiple cases where BMI falsely categorizes athletes and does not correctly reflect body
composition (Loenneke et al 2012) An athlete tends to have a lower body fat
percentage and greater muscle mass compared to non-athletes (Ode et al 2007)
Individuals with a high percentage of muscle mass and low levels of body fat could be
classified as overweight or obese based on BMI which is a measure of a personrsquos weight
in relation to their height BMI has been used as a substitute measure for measuring body
fat percentage Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) a is common technique used to
assess body composition such as fat mass and lean body mass among athletes (Sivapathy
23
et al 2013) BIA measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the
electrical volume An electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on
the different tissues Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly
conductive A combination of resistance and reactance across different tissues determines
total body impedance measurement (Kushner 1992)
BMI has four classifications underweight (lt185kgm2) normal (185shy
2495kgm2) overweight (25-2995kgm2) and obese (gt305kgm2) (WHO Global
Database on Body Mass Index 2018) An individual having a BMI of 30kgm2 or greater
is considered to be at risk for developing hypertension high cholesterol diabetes and
coronary heart disease (Ode et al 2007) Body fat percentage classification for women
also has four categories underfat (lt2199) healthy (22-3399) overfat (34-3999)
obese (gt40) (Women amp Body Fat Tanita Corporation 2018) (Table 41) BMI
calculation does not take age into consideration whereas body fat percentage
classification does The r elationship between BMI and body composition in powerlifting
females has not been previous studied
Methods
Participants were f emales 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also meet
directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on Facebook
event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-in time if they would like to
24
participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Participantsrsquo participation time in the
study was approximately five minutes
The BIA scale used for this study is a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington
Heights Illinois) Height was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer
(Charder Taichung City Taiwan) and then entered into the BIA scale Age was also
entered into the TANITA One pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were
asked to remove extra clothing they were wearing Participants were asked how many
powerlifting meets they competed in to determine their experience levels The highest
weight lifted per each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total was
recorded from official meet results which were posted on USAPL lifting database The
USAPL lifting database is open to the public to view meet results
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes Statistical analysis
was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM
SPSS Statistics for Window Version 240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive
analysis and one-way ANOVA between body fat percentage and BMI were determined
Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard deviations A significance level of
005 was used for all analysis
25
Results and Discussion
Two hundred seven women agreed to participate in the study 195 women
completed the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total Participantsrsquo experience
level varied from first competition to world team competitors There were 104 women
that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate Nationals and 69 competed
in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota The average age was 3183plusmn1288
years and height was 16172plusmn724 centimeters Ages ranged from 18 to 75 year of age
The mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 BMI is 2669plusmn636 and fat free mass was
468plusmn726 kg (Table 42) Comparing BMI and body fat percentage 49 of participants
were in a heathy category and 52 were classified as having normal body fat percentage
(Table 43) Muscle strength is important for athletes and their performance However
BMI does not make adjustments for amount of muscle a person has This may lead to
miss classification of athletes The one-way ANOVA comparing BMI categories and
body fat categories were found to be significantly different (ple005) There was a 29
difference between the number of athletes labeled overweight by BMI and overfat by
body fat percentage (Figure 41) BMI tended to overestimate female powerlifters body
fat which creates the miss labeling in higher classification compared to body fat
percentage measurements More women were labeled overweight according to their BMI
but according to their body fat percentage they were in the healthy category Using BMI
as the only predictor of healthy state could have a negative impact for women who want
to reduce their body weight Height and weight are the only two factors when
determining BMI Comparatively body fat categories factor in age fat mass and fat free
26
mass to determine the health status of an individual Body fat percentage should be
evaluated if a female powerlifter wants to reduce her weight
Correlation between BMI and body fat of female powerlifters was shown to have
a significant difference (plt005) There was a strong positive correlation between BMI
and body fat percentage (Figure 42) When analyzing the difference between BMI and
body fat percentage by age category the results showed that BMI was overestimated in
every age group In some studies (Ode et al 2007 Rothman 2008) BMI calculations led
to incorrectly categorizing female athletes Body fat percentage appears to be a valid
method to assess body composition in female powerlifters than BMI alone
Measuring body fat percentage using BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes ldquocutting waterrdquo to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake andor exercise Athletes to
make weight will withhold water for various amounts of time before weigh-ins to make
the weight class they desire Underwater weighing for body composition is the gold
standard for measuring body composition (Talbert et al 2009) Another limitation to the
study is the low number of participants for each group
Conclusion
Muscle strength is important in the sport of powerlifting which can affect body
composition without a change in overall body weight BMI classification for female
powerlifters tended to overestimate body fat percentage The majority of the women were
classified as healthy by body fat percentage but BMI classification labeled them as
overweight BMI factors the weight and height of the induvial regardless of fat free mass
27
and fat mass Body fat percentage classification also takes into consideration the age and
gender of an individual
28
Table 41 Classification of body fat percentage BMI and age categories of lifters
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Body Fat Percentage Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBody Mass Index (kgm2)
Body fat percentage classification from TANIA corporation for women (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) Age categories were based on USAPL rules (USA
Powerlifting 2016) BMI categories were taken from the World Health organization
(ldquoWHO Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018)
29
Tab
le 4
2
Ph
ysi
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
of
all
par
tici
pan
ts a
nd a
ge
cate
gori
es
30
Age
cate
gory
a
Par
tici
pan
ts
(n)
Age
(yea
rsplusmnS
D)
Hei
ght
(cm
plusmnSD
)
We
igh
t
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
fat
per
cen
tage
(plusmnS
D)
Fat
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Fat
free
mas
s
(kgplusmn
SD)
Bo
dy
mas
s
ind
ex
(kg
m2
plusmnSD
)
All
195
3
18
3plusmn1
28
8
16
17
2plusmn7
24
7
08
plusmn 1
95
4
31
22
plusmn85
2
23
71
plusmn13
52
4
68
plusmn72
6
26
69
plusmn63
69
Teen
1
3
18
85
plusmn0
38
16
40
2plusmn5
23
8
23
3plusmn2
45
7
35
47
plusmn76
8
30
89
plusmn18
29
5
15
plusmn67
3
04
5plusmn8
Jun
ior
47
2
13
8plusmn1
03
1
62
64
plusmn76
6
50
2plusmn1
43
2
27
29
plusmn76
33
1
79
5plusmn8
2
46
3plusmn5
68
2
42
8plusmn3
77
Op
en
90
2
91
5plusmn4
2
16
15
0plusmn7
08
7
17
5plusmn1
95
5
31
94
5plusmn8
4
24
71
plusmn13
79
4
70
7plusmn7
09
2
73
1plusmn6
73
Mas
ter
I 2
2
44
55
plusmn27
6
15
90
9plusmn7
39
7
83
6plusmn2
49
6
35
08
plusmn86
37
2
96
9plusmn1
64
9
48
59
plusmn84
8
29
68
plusmn76
7
Mas
ter
II
14
5
36
plusmn36
8
16
12
plusmn69
1
65
67
plusmn16
66
3
02
4plusmn9
04
2
08
8plusmn1
17
4
47
9plusmn5
57
2
45
6plusmn4
9
Mas
ter
III
9
66
7plusmn4
62
1
62
98
plusmn73
2
64
41
plusmn12
8
32
4plusmn7
11
2
23
6plusmn8
85
4
20
5plusmn4
21
2
51
plusmn48
8
a Tee
n 1
8-1
9 Ju
nio
r 20-2
4 O
pen
25
-39 M
aste
r I
40
-49 M
aste
r II
50
-59
Mas
ter
III
60+
Table 43 Body fat and BMI classification for all participants in each age category
Body fat percentage
classification
Body mass index classification
All
Underweightunderfat 26 2
Normalhealthy 102 96
Overweightoverfat 44 62
Obese 31 43
Teen (18-19)
Underweightunderfat 7 2
Normalhealthy 4 6
Overweightoverfat 2 4
Obese 13 5
Junior (20-24)
Underweightunderfat 12 1
Normalhealthy 26 24
Overweightoverfat 7 19
Obese 2 3
Open (25-39)
Underweightunderfat 7 0
Normalhealthy 44 44
Overweightoverfat 22 24
Obese 17 22
Master I (40-49)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 11 7
Overweightoverfat 4 6
Obese 7 9
Master II (50-59)
Underweightunderfat 4 0
Normalhealthy 5 10
Overweightoverfat 3 2
Obese 2 3
Master III (60+)
Underweightunderfat 0 0
Normalhealthy 6 4
Overweightoverfat 2 3
Obese 1 2
31
26
102
44
31
2
96
62
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Par
ticp
ants
Body Fat Percentage Classification BMI Classification
Figure 41 Differences in body fat percentages and BMI categories
Figure 42 Correlation between body fat percentage and body mass index (BMI)
32
CHAPTER V
IDENTIFYING IDEAL BODY COMPOSITION OF FEMALE POWERLIFTERS
Introduction
Physical health and the health of an athlete are determined by the athletersquos body
composition (Mala et al 2015) Every sport has different ideal anthropometrics for
enhanced performance (Hirsch et al 2016) Gymnastics at the elite level requires low
body fat because of complex movements (Filaire amp Lac 2002) Explosive strength in the
lower body is needed for vertical jumps for volleyball players (Mala et al 2015) Track
and field throwers need to have greater amounts of body mass but still need to have
explosive power and strength (Hirsch et al 2016) In the sport of female powerlifting
identifying what is ideal body composition in relationship to strength has not been
previously studied Body composition assessment determines important factors of
athletes performance from the recreational athlete to the elite athlete (Mazić et al 2014)
Measured body composition can provide information on a personrsquos fat mass fat
free mass total body water and body mass index (BMI) (Malina 2007) Optimal
competitive body weight and percentage of body fat varies between athletes sports and
positions (Gibson et al 2009) Fat free mass contributes to the production of power
during high-intensity activities and provides greater absolute strength for resistance to
high dynamic and static loads (Mala et al 2015) Excessive fat mass can have a negative
influence on physical performance and often viewed as a major limiting factor in athletic
33
achievement (Malina 2007) Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a common
technique used to assess body composition among athletes (Sivapathy et al 2013) BIA
measures the bodyrsquos fat free mass and fat mass by measuring the electrical volume
Electrical signal frequency current conducts differently based on the different tissues
Adipose tissue is a poor conductor whereas muscle is highly conductive A combination
of resistance and reactance across the different tissues determines total body impedance
measurement (Kushner 1992)
By understanding the ideal body composition of female powerlifting powerlifters
to make improvements to their overall health and performance Improvements in
cardiovascular health and strength have shown to improve with changes in body
composition (Santos et al 2014) Benefits of powerlifting as a form of strength training
are as follows improved bone health reversing muscle loss due to age improved
cardiovascular health increased resting metabolic rate reduction of body fat and
improved self-esteem and mental health (Westcott 2012)
Powerlifting is a contest of muscular strength and power Lifters are divided into
weight categories to facilitate equitable competition (Gibson et al 2009) It is the sport
of maximal effort for three lifts the back squat bench press and deadlift Athletes have
three attempts per each movement to obtain the highest weight lifted For powerlifting
competitions athletesrsquo weight class and weight lifted are in kilograms (kg) The best of
each lift is combined to form a total weight lifted and Wilks total There are three judges
watching the lifter perform the lift and following the rules of the lift A lift is considered
successful when two of the three judges agree that it met the standards for the lift As
member of International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) the USA Powerlifting Lifters
34
Handbook states there are seven female weight classes for open category The weight
classes are 47kg 52kg 57 kg 63kg 72kg 84 kg and 84+kg (USA Powerlifting 2016)
In addition to weight classes there are also age categories Sub-junior (19 and under)
Junior (20-24) Master 1 (40-49) Master II (50-59) Master III (60+) and open which is
for all ages (USA Powerlifting 2016) IPF relies on its own method of adjusting for
different weight class to find the ldquochampion of championsrdquo of the meet which is called
the Wilks formula The Wilks formula was developed by Robert Wilks and is based on
the fifth order polynomial reflecting the best fit relationship between body mass and
informed estimation of what world class lifters should be capable of lifting (Vanderburgh
amp Batterham 1999) IPF is a member of International Olympic Committee (IOC) and
must follow drug free rules set by IOC USAPL is also drug free and 10 of lifters in
each meet along with anyone who set an American record or higher is drug tested
Lifters can be also drug tested outside of powerlifting meets
There are many studies conducted on body composition for different sports but
only a limited number were completed on athletes that compete by weight class A few
studies have been published about powerlifters in general No studies have been done on
female powerlifters of all experience levels which assessed their body composition
Methods
Participants were females 18 years and older current USAPL members
competing in a full meet raw competition Raw powerlifting is defined as only using
knee sleeves wrist wraps and lifting belt during the competition Meet directors gave
permission and allowed a table to be set up at weigh-ins to recruit participants Also
35
meet directors were given a digital copy of a flyer to email participants and post on
Facebook event pages Potential participants were asked during weigh-ins if they would
like to participate in the study Weigh-ins started two hours before the first lifter took the
platform Participation was completely voluntary Meet directors gave permission to
conduct this study at powerlifting events This study was approved by the universityrsquos
Institutional Review Board
Due to time constraints between weigh-in and competition BIA was chosen as
the method to measure fat mass and fat free mass because the method is portable simple
for participants brief testing session and no discomfort for athletes The BIA scale used
for this study was a TANITA TBF 300 (TANITA Arlington Heights Illinois) Height
was measured by Charder HM200P Portable Stadiometer (Charder Taichung City
Taiwan) and entered into the BIA scale Age was also entered into the TANITA One
pound was used for clothing allowance Participants were asked to remove extra clothing
they were wearing To determine their experience levels participants were asked how
many powerlifting meets they had competed in previously The highest weight lifted per
each lift that was good according to the judges total and Wilks total were recorded from
official meet results that were posted on the USAPL lifting database The USAPL lifting
database is open to the public to view all meet results
Participants were assigned into different categories based on experience age
body fat percentage and BMI Participants self-reported their experience level An
experience level scale was developed for this study Novice was reported if it was their
first meet Beginner competed between one to three powerlifting meets Intermediate
competed in more than three meets but never at a Raw National meet Advanced
36
competed in multiple meets including Raw Nationals Elite competed in IPF world event
in any age category or Arnold Sport classic meet Age categories followed the USAPL
guidelines BMI categories were defined from the World Health Organization (ldquoWHO
Global Database on Body Mass Indexrdquo 2018) BMI is defined as weight divided by
height squared (kgm2) Body fat percentage classification was defined as underfat
health overfat or obese (ldquoWomen amp Body Fat Tanita Corporationrdquo 2018) (Table 51)
To find the ideal body composition a one-way ANOVA was used on Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp 2016 IBM SPSS Statistics for Window Version
240 Armonk NY IBM Corp) Descriptive analysis were also determined Body
composition categories in relationship to squat bench deadlift total weight lifted and
Wilks total were analyzed Continuous variables are reported as means plusmn standard
deviations A significance level of 005 was used for all analyses
Results and Discussion
A total of 207 women agreed to participate in the study 195 women completed
the study 12 did not achieve a powerlifting total and were excluded from the study
Participantsrsquo experience levels varied from first competition to world team competitors
There were104 women that competed in Raw Nationals 34 competed in Collegiate
Nationals and 69 competed in local meets in Ohio Kentucky and Minnesota
Participantsrsquo participation time in the study was approximately five minutes The mean
height for women powerlifters was 16172plusmn724 centimeters and weight was
708plusmn1954kg The average age was 3183plusmn1288 years and ranged from 18 to 75 The
37
mean body fat percentage was 3122plusmn852 fat mass was 2371plusmn1352kg and fat free
mass was 468plusmn726kg
The physical characteristics of all competitors and all competitors under 40 years
are summarized in Table 52 To determine the ideal body composition statistical
analysis was conducted on all lifters lifters under 40 years old experience level of
advanced and elite lifters having Wilks total greater than 420 Significant difference were
observed in squat bench deadlift and total (plt0001) However it was not found in the
Wilks total (pgt005) The classification Wilks gt 420 category consists of women who
meet the criteria for competing at the Arnold Classic andor Classic Open Worlds The
Arnold Classic Powerlifting meet in Columbus Ohio has high standards to qualify
because it is an international event Criteria for the 2018 women to participate in the Raw
Challenge is a minimum Wilks total of 420 and have competed at 2017 Raw Nationals
Of the 195 participants in the study 28 had a Wilks total over 420 Descriptive
information regarding lifters with Wilks gt 420 is presented in Table 53 The number of
women in the Wilks gt 420 category weight class and age categories are presented in
Table 54 The percentage of body fat increases as the weight class increases resulting in
heavier weight classes capable of heavier powerlifting totals (Figure 51) When the data
of all participants were analyzed the relationship between the participants mean of
Wilks total and body fat percentage categories obtained a higher Wilks total in the
healthy category and decreased in overfat and obese categories (Figure 52) When the
Wilks gt 420 category was analyzed in the same method as all participants a higher mean
Wilks total was observed in the overfat category (Figure 53) When analyzing all
participants under the age of 40 the results showed a higher mean for Wilks total in the
38
healthy category and lower in overfat and obese (Figure 54) One reason why a
significant difference was not present when identifying body fat classification could be a
bias towards intermediate weight class lifters in the squat (Vanderburgh amp Batterham
1999) Furthermore the Wilks formula accounts for body weight and could be one of the
limiting factors influencing the results Since Wilks total did not produce a significant
difference the total weight lifted was then examined using one-way ANOVA All
participants participants under 40 and participants with a Wilks total over 420 had
similarities All three groupings observed an increase in mean total when body fat
increased (Figure 55) This shows the association between body fat and level of
competition The difference between Wilks total and total weight lifted in the Wilks gt
420 category showed a relationship between body fat and the ability to lift double or
triple onersquos body weight Overfat in Wilks gt 420 category correlated with the higher
Wilks total and the obese produced the highest total of weight lifted Healthy is defined
as 22-33 body fat and overfat is 34-39 body fat Healthy and overfat categories were
divided in half and created lower and upper categories Upper percentage of healthy and
lower percentage of over fat had the higher Wilks total (Figure 56) The average of best
of best category body fat percentage was 31 and falls into the upper healthy category
Obese category had the highest total weight lifted when comparing the body fat
percentage categories Body fat plays a role in the amount of weight a woman is capable
of lifting An increase in body fat can increase onersquos total weight lifted The healthy body
fat category on the higher end is around the ideal range to be a competitive powerlifter
Linear regression analysis indicated that body fat percentage fat free mass fat
mass BMI age and experience levels are predictors for the Wilks total Wilks total =
39
377894 ndash 354 (body fat) ndash 786(FFM) + 272 (FM) + 381 (BMI) ndash 2622 (age) +
35015 (experience level) This formula is accurate 391 of the time and the ANOVA
had signiant difference This number is taken from the adjusted R square Positive strong
correlation was found with six factors in predicting the Wilks total (Figure 57) Body
composition does play a large role even though there are multiple factors in onersquos ability
to lift heavy weight
Measuring body fat percentage though BIA has some limitations Some of the
limitations are the accuracy of the BIA athletes cutting water to make weight class
retaining water due to menstrual cycle recent alcohol intake and exercise Underwater
weighing for body composition is considered the gold standard for measuring body
composition (Talbert et al 2009) Underwater weighting could not be used because it is
not portable difficult process and it time consuming The Wilks total could be a
limitation to the study since it uses body weight as a factor and the study was focusing on
body fat percentage Age is not a factor in the Wilks total An additional limiting factor is
the low number of individuals for each category
Conclusion
The sport of women powerlifting will continue to push the limits of physical
strength for women This sport continues to grow each year By identifying what is an
ideal body composition for female powerlifters it allows for athletes to have a better
understanding of body weight to strength ratio Body composition plays an important role
in physical performance and nutritional status More research needs to be conducted to
40
have a better understanding of the ideal percentage of body fat and fat free mass for
competitive powerlifters
Table 51 Category descriptions
Age (years) BF Teen 18-19
Junior 20-24
20-40 lt2199 Open 25-39
41-60 lt2399 Master I 40-49
61-79 lt2499 Master II 50-59
Master III 60+
20-40 22-3399
41-60 24-3599
61-79 25-3699
20-40 34-3999 Underwight lt1849
41-60 36-4099 Normal 1850-2499
61-79 37-4299 Overweight 2500-2999
Obese gt30
20-40 gt40
41-60 gt41
61-79 gt43
Age category (years)
Classification
Obese
Underfat
Healthy
OverfatBMI
Body Fat Percentage
41
Table 52 Physical description of all participants and participants under 40 years
Participants
(n=195)
Participants
under 40 years
old (n=150)
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 3183plusmn1288 2571plusmn527
Height (cmplusmnSD) 16172plusmn724 16208plusmn723
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 708plusmn 1954 7056plusmn1905
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2669plusmn637 2665plusmn636
Body fat percentage (plusmnSD) 3122plusmn852 3087plusmn843
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2371plusmn1352 2313plusmn1327
Fat Free mass (kgplusmnSD) 468plusmn726 4721plusmn674
Back Squat (kgplusmnSD) 12185plusmn3224 12606plusmn3083
Bench Press (kgplusmnSD) 7001plusmn1873 715plusmn1734
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 14668plusmn3123 15004plusmn2983
Total weight lifted(kgplusmnSD) 3357plusmn8338 34873plusmn7338
Wilks Total (pointsplusmnSD) 3473plusmn6901 35793plusmn6470
42
Table 53 Physical description of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
Height (cmplusmnSD) 15891plusmn623
Age (yearsplusmnSD) 2821plusmn719
Weight (kgplusmnSD) 676plusmn2453
Body Fat Percentage (plusmnSD) 2913plusmn958
Fat mass (kgplusmnSD) 2255plusmn1785
Fat free mass (kgplusmnSD) 4507plusmn865
Body mass index (kgm2plusmnSD) 2789plusmn929
Squat (kgplusmnSD) 16084plusmn3842
Bench (kgplusmnSD) 9023plusmn2244
Deadlift (kgplusmnSD) 18583plusmn2722
Total (kgplusmnSD) 43702plusmn8021
Wilks Total 45485plusmn3324
Table 54 Classification of Wilks gt 420 category
Wilks gt 420 (n=28)
weight class Participants
(n)
47kg 1
52kg 4
57kg 3
63kg 11
72kg 2
84kg 4
84+kg 3
Best of the best
age category Participants
(n)
Teen 2
Junior 4
Open 19
Master I 3
43
Figure 51 Body fat percentage at different weight class
Figure 52 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants
44
Figure 53 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for Wilks gt 420 category
Figure 54 Body fat percentage and Wilks total for all participants under 40
45
Figure 55 Body fat percentage and total for all participants Wilks gt 420 and all
participants under 40 years old
46
Figure 56 Body fat percent categories for athletes with a Wilks total gt 420
Figure 57 Regression graph for Wilks total
47
REFERENCES
Ackland T R Lohman T G Sundgot-Borgen J Maughan R I Meyer N L
Stewart A D amp Muumlller W (2012) Current Status of Body Composition
Assessment in Sport Review and Position Statement on Behalf of the Ad Hoc
Research Working Group on Body Composition Health and Performance Under
the Auspices of the IOC Medical Commission Sports Medicine 42(3) 227ndash 249
Center for Disease and Prevention (CDC) FastStats (2017 August 14) Retrieved
January 30 2018 from httpswwwcdcgovnchsfastatsbody-measurementshtm
Cleather D J (2006) Adjusting Powerlifting Performances for Differences in Body
Mass Journal of Strength amp Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing
Services Inc) 20(2) 412ndash421
Dixon C B Deitrick R W Pierce J R Cutrufello P T amp Drapeau L L (2005)
Evaluation of the BOD POD and Leg-to-Leg Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
for Estimating Percent Body Fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Division III Collegiate Wrestlers JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING RESEARCH (1) 85
Gibson A L Mermier C M Wilmerding M V Bentzur K M amp McKinnon M M
(2009) Body Fat Estimation in Collegiate Athletes An Update Athletic Therapy
Today 14(3) 13ndash16
Hirsch K R Smith-Ryan A E Trexler E T amp Roelofs E J (2016) Body
Composition and Muscle Characteristics of Division I Track and Field Athletes
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research National Strength amp
Conditioning Association 30(5) 1231ndash1238
httpsdoiorg101519JSC0000000000001203
History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF (2008) Retrieved February 10 2018
from httpwwwpowerlifting-ipfcomfederationhistoryhtml
Kruschitz R Wallner-Liebmann S J Hamlin M J Moser M Ludvik B Schnedl
W J amp Tafeit E (2013) Detecting Body FatndashA Weighty Problem BMI versus
Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes PLoS ONE 8(8) 1ndash9
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0072002
48
Kushner R (1992) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis A review of Principles and
Applications Journal of the American College of Nutrition 11(2) 199ndash209
Kyle U G Bosaeus I Lorenzo A D de Deurenberg P Elia M Goacutemez J M hellip
Pichard C (2004) Bioelectrical impedance analysis - Part I Review of principles
and methods Clinical Nutrition 23(5) 1226ndash1243
Loenneke J P Wilson J M Wray M E Barnes J T Kearney M L amp Pujol T J
(2012) The Estimation of the Fat Free Mass Index in Athletes Asian Journal of
Sports Medicine 3(3) 200ndash203
Maile L (2017 December 29) Presidentrsquos Message USA Powerlifting p 1
Mala L Maly T Zahalka F Bunc V Kaplan A Jebavy R amp Tuma M (2015)
Body Composition of Elite Female Players in Five Different Sports Games
Journal of Human Kinetics 45 209ndash217
Malina R M (2007) Body Composition in Athletes Assessment and Estimated Fatness
Clinics in Sports Medicine 26 37ndash68 httpsdoiorg101016jcsm200611004
Mazić S Lazović B Đelić M Suzić Lazić J Aćimović T amp Brkić P (2014)
Body Composition Assessment in Athletes A Systematic Review PROCENA
TELESNOG SASTAVA KOD SPORTISTA SISTEMATSKI PREGLED 67(78)
255ndash260 httpsdoiorg102298MPNS1408255M
Medina-Inojosa J Somers V Jenkins S Zundel J Johnson L Grimes C amp
Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Validation of a White-light 3D Body Volume Scanner
to Assess Body Composition Obesity Open Access 3(1)
httpsdoiorg10169662380-5528127
Nuttall F Q (2015) Body Mass Index Nutrition Today 50(3) 117ndash128
httpsdoiorg101097NT0000000000000092
Ode J J Pivarnik J M Reeves M J amp Knous J L (2007) Body mass index as a
predictor of percent fat in college athletes and nonathletes Medicine And Science
In Sports And Exercise 39(3) 403ndash409
Rothman K J (2008) BMI-related errors in the measurement of obesity International
Journal of Obesity (2005) 32 Suppl 3 S56-59
httpsdoiorg101038ijo200887
Santos D A Dawson J A Matias C N Rocha P M Minderico C S Allison D
B hellip Silva A M (2014) Reference Values for Body Composition and
Anthropometric Measurements in Athletes PLOS ONE 9(5) e97846
httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0097846
49
Sivapathy S Chang C Y Chai W J Ang Y K amp Yim H S (2013) Assessment of hydration status and body composition of athlete and non-athlete subjects using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Journal of Physical Education amp Sport 13(2) 157ndash162
Talbert E E FLYNN M G BELL J W CARRILLO A E DILL M D CHRISTENSEN C N amp THOMPSON C M (2009) Comparison of Body Composition Measurements Using a New Caliper Two Established Calipers Hydrostatic Weighing and BodPod International Journal of Exercise Science 2(1) 19ndash27
USA Powerlifting (2016 June) USA Powerlifitng Lifterrsquos Handbook
Vanderburgh P m amp Batterham A m (1999) Validation of the Wilks powerlifting formula Validation de la formule de Wilks pour comparer les performances des halterophiles en fonction de leur poids corporel Medicine amp Science in Sports amp Exercise 31(12) 1869ndash1875
Warpeha J (2015 September 4) History of powerlifitng Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusaplmncomwp-contentuploads201404History-ofshyPowerlifting-Warpeha-9-4-15pdf
Westcott W L (2012) Resistance Training is Medicine Effects of Strength Training on Health Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(4) 209 httpsdoiorg101249JSR0b013e31825dabb8
WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index (2018 February 3) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpappswhointbmiindexjspintroPage=intro_3html
Who We Are USA Powerlifting (nd) Retrieved February 10 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomwho-we-are
Wilks Formulas for Women (kg) USA Powerlifting (1998) Retrieved February 15 2018 from httpwwwusapowerliftingcomlifters-cornerwilks-formulas-forshywomen-kg
Women amp Body F at Tanita Corporation (2018) Retrieved February 3 2018 from httpwwwtanitacomenmessageforwomen
50
APPENDIX A
POWERLIFITNG VOCULARY LIST
51
Powerlifting Vocabulary list
Attempt- a powerlifterrsquos selection of weight that they will try to lift
Back squat- first lift of the competition
Bench press- second lift of the competition
Bench only- when the lifter only competes in bench lift
Classic- a division of lifting where no supportive equipment can be used Only knee
sleeves belt wrist raps can be used
Deadlift- last lift of the competition Bar is on the ground and the lifter must pick the bar
off the ground Once the bar is off the ground the lifter must also locked out shoulders
hips and knees
Equipped - a division of lifting where supportive equipment can be used A lifter can use
a squat suit bench shirt deadlift suit belt andor knee wraps
Full meet- when a lifter competes in all three lifts
Good lift- when a lifter receives two out of three white lights
IPF- International Powerlifting Federation
IOC- International Olympic Committee
Lifting commands- head referee will tell the lifter when to lift the weights and to rack the
weights Along with other commands during the lift Examples would be ldquobar is loadedrdquo
ldquopressrdquo and ldquorackrdquo
Meet- competition
Parallel- A lifter has to squat by have the hip joint below the knee joint
PushPull- when lifter only competes in the bench press and deadlift for the meet
Raw- same a classic
52
Referee - three people who judge lifter to see if lift is performed correctly
Red lights- color of light given when a referee see the lift not being performed correctly
Total- best of all three lifts added together
USAPL- United State Powerlifting
Weigh-ins- two hours before the start of the meet A referee records the athletersquos weight
Wilks total - derived from the Wilks formula and is used to compare athletes amongst
weight classes
White lights- the color of the light when the referee determines the lift is done properly
53
![[DPnF] Female x Female = Love](https://img.dokumen.tips/doc/110x75/577cd9a01a28ab9e78a3c67d/dpnf-female-x-female-love.jpg)
