IC - Glossary - Final0914

7/21/2019 IC - Glossary - Final0914

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University of Bath

Glossary

We have put together a short glossary, which we hope you will find useful for reference. Thiscan be expanded if there are terms that you feel we have missed.

Allele A version of a gene; a gene can have multiple alleles and mostgenes have at least 2 alleles

acetylation (protein) The addition of a acetyl group to a protein, carried out byacetylase enzymes and reversed by deacetylase enzymes.

adenocarcinoma Cancer which develops from glandular epithelium lining tubes

adjuvant treatment A treatment which is given together with, or following, anothertreatment. Commonly refers to chemotherapy after surgery.

aerobic In the presence of oxygen.aflatoxin A type of mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus moulds.

amino acids The building blocks of proteins. The sequence of the geneencoding a protein determines its amino acid sequence. Thephysical and chemical properties of the amino acids determinethe functions of the protein.

amplification (of gene) An increase in the number of copies per cell of a gene.

Angiogenesis The formation of new blood vessels (Latin 'angio' - vessel;'genesis': formation)

angiogenesis New blood vessel formation.

antibody A protein produced in response to a specific antigen.antigen A foreign substance which induces an immune response in the

body, in particular the production of antibodies

Apoptosis A type of controlled cell death (derived from the Greek for'falling leaves')

Autophagy A type of cell death by lysosomes

Bases Chemical structures which contain nitrogen and form part ofthe DNA

benign Tumour which does not have the ability to migrate away from

site of origin.bioinformatics A computer science discipline aimed at creating algorithms toanalyse and interpret complex biological data.

biological or targeted therapy A type of drug used to treat cancer which specifically targetsmolecules needed for cancer development rather thantargeting all fast-growing cells.

biomarker A molecule which can be measured and which correlates withthe presence of particular types and sub-types of cancer.

biopsy Using needles or surgery to remove a small part of a tumour inorder to analyse it.

bone scans Nuclear scan to look for abnormalities in bone, such as cancer.cancer Clinical disease characterised by the presence of one or more

neoplastic tumour growth.


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University of Bath

cancer cell or tumour cell A cell in which mutations have arisen to allow it gain somehallmarks of cancer.

cancer genomics The study of the cancer genome

cancer stem cell A cell within a cancer which can both self-renew, and give rise

to the other cells in the cancer.capillaries Very narrow blood vessels in the tissues.

carcinoembryonic antigen A cancer biomarker.

Carcinogens Any agent that can cause cancer

carcinoma A cancer from epithelial cell origin.

case control study Study that compares patients who have a disease with controlswho do not have the disease.

catabolism The metabolic breakdown of complex molecules to producesmaller molecules and energy.

causation A linking between a cause and an effect e.g. smoking and lungcancer.

cell division The division of a cell into 2 daughter cells, after it hasreplicated its DNA.

cell line Cells which are able to keep dividing indefinitely in culture.They are commonly used in scientific research.

checkpoint A control mechanism allowing cells to check for DNA damageand other parameters before continuing with the cell cycle.

chemotherapy A class of cancer treatment drugs which stops rapidly dividingcells from multiplying and causes them to die.

chromatin The components of chromosomes, ie: DNA and associatedproteins and RNA.

chromosome Structures within the cells nucleus that contain the cells DNAbound to proteins (mainly histones); package the cells DNAinto a small volume.

clonal evolution A multistep process through which cells accumulate mutations,and cells with mutations that are favourable for growthbecome dominant in the cell population. One model of howcancer develops.

clone A population of cells derived from one single cell, so that every

cell is genetically identical.c-Myc A gene that encodes a transcription factor (controller for other

genes)

codes for a protein See transcription and translation

codon A group of three adjacent nucleotides in DNA or RNA whichcan code for one amino acid; the basic unit of the geneticcode.

combination therapy The use of more than one treatments together to treat cancer.Usually refers to a mix of chemotherapies.

connective tissue Supportive tissue - includes bone, cartilage, fat, blood vessels,and fibrous tissue.

constitutively active Active all the time, not subject to normal regulation


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University of Bath

Contact inhibition Contact inhibition is an anti-cancer mechanism, in which a cellstops dividing when it comes in contact with another cell

CT or CAT scan Computerised tomography. A series of X-rays are computerisedto show the inside of the body.

curative treatment A type of treatment which aims to remove cancer from thepatient, so that the patient is cured from cancer.

cytology The analysis of samples of cells from a tumour.

cytotoxic A type of drug which kills cells. Often refers to chemotherapydrugs.

deacetylation Removal of acetyl group, opposite of acetylation

diagnosis Determining whether a patient has cancer and, if so, whichtype and sub-type.

differentiation The process through which a non-specialised cell changes intoa specialised cell type (e.g. progenitor blood cell changing intoa mature B-lymphocyte).

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid - a chemical carrier of geneticinformation found in almost all cells (except certain viruses).Structurally resembles a twisted ladder and contains the sugar(deoxyribose), phosphate and bases (4 types: thymine,adenine, guanine and cytosine)

DNA base A nucleotide. A single component of the DNA code. Can be A,T, G, or C.

DNA damage Damage to the cells DNA, can include single or double

stranded breaks. Can be repaired or can result in mutations oreven cell death.

DNA polymerase Enzyme which synthesizes DNA from constituent molecules.DNA repair Repair of damaged DNA by a series of enzyme and molecules.

dominant A genetic condition in which only one mutated copy is requiredto be inherited for an individual to display symptoms.

dose response Effect of a drug on an organism at different concentrations.

Dysplasia The process of abnormal expansion of a cell type duringdevelopment

E-cadherins Type of membrane bound protein

ECM Extracellular matrix - mixture of polysaccharides and proteinsthat fills the spaces between cells and gives support to atissue

efficacy Measure of a drugs ability to produce the desired effect.

EGFR Cell surface receptor for the EGF growth factor; mutated EGFRcan act as an oncogene.

endocrine therapy Therapy which modulates hormone levels or activity in order totreat hormone-dependent cancers.

endogenous Produced from within.

enzyme A protein or other molecule produced by a cell that catalyses achemical reaction; examples include proteases, kinases, andmethylases.


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University of Bath

epidemiology The study of how often diseases occur in a population andwhy.

Epigenetics Physical changes to DNA that do not involve a change in theDNA base sequence (i.e. the order of ATCGs); e.g. addition of a

methyl group to a cytosineepigenome The total of all epigenetic modifications in a cell.epithelium A type of tissue which lines most of the internal and external

surfaces of the bodyestrogen receptor Steroid receptor for estrogen. Estrogen can only act by binding

to the receptor.

estrogen/oestrogen Female sex hormone, released from the ovaries, whichstimulates growth of the breast epithelium.

exon Parts of the genome that remain in mature RNA aftertranscription and RNA processing steps including intronremoval. Includes but is not limited to protein-coding regions.

extracellular Out of the cell

extracellular matrix The structural mesh of proteins, glycoproteins andproteoglycans which is produced by cells, and which surroundscells within a tissue.

familial Inherited

free radicals An uncharged molecule with an unpaired electron. Highlyreactive. Reactive oxygen species are a type of free radical.

G1 phase Gap1 (pause in cell division before DNA replication)

G2 phase Gap 2 (pause in cell division after DNA replication)gain of function A mutation which gives a gene/protein a function which the

wild-type does not have.

gene A DNA sequence which codes for a functional RNA. Usually thisRNA will code for a protein.

gene expression The frequency at which the DNA from a gene is beingtranscribed into mRNA and protein.

genetic counselling Process by which individuals are given information about aninherited condition, risks of recurrence, therapy andprophylactic measures.

genetically engineered Organism in which the DNA sequence has been alteredspecifically.

genome All the chromosomes of an individual.

genomics The study of the genome.

genotoxic agent Chemical which can damage the genetic material within a cell.

germ-line Relating to reproductive cells. Any changes in a reproductivecell (egg or sperm) will be passed on to the offspringoriginating from that cell.

Germ-line cells Sperm cells and egg cells.

glycolysis The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate,NADH, and ATP (energy), occurs in the cytoplasm.

grade A measure of the appearance of cancer cells.


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University of Bath

growth factor A protein which binds to specific receptors on target cells andstimulates growth and proliferation.

hallmarks of cancer Characteristic alterations of normal cell function which mustoccur in order for a cell to become cancerous.

HER2 Receptor for EGF, a growth factor involved in cancer.heritable A characteristic which is passed on from parent to offspring.

heterogeneity The state of being heterogeneous, i.e. consisting of dissimilarparts rather than multiple identical parts.

histology Microscopic study of the anatomy of tissues and cells.

histone Protein around which DNA packs, affecting its ability to betranscribed.

Homeostasis Control of internal conditions, maintaining them at a stablelevel.

hyperplasia An increase in the number of cells.

hypertrophy An increase in the size of cells.

hypoxic / hypoxia Low or lack of oxygen.

Imatinib (gleevec) A drug used to treat multiple cancers. The first example of atyrosine kinase inhibitor as a targeted cancer therapy.

immunogenic Likely to trigger activation of the bodys immune systemdefences.

immunohistochemistry A laboratory technique that uses antibodies to detect aparticular protein of interest in a tissue sample.

immunosuppression Suppression of immune system responses.

immunosuppressive Suppresses the activity of the bodys immune system.in situ Situated in place of origin.

incidence The number of new cases in a population over a defined periodof time.

inflammation Protective response of the body against harm.

Integrins A receptor protein that attaches the cell to its surroundingintercalating agent A type of chemotherapy. See Chemotherapy article in week 4

for detailed description and examples.interphase Stage of the cell cycle where the cell prepares for cell division

by duplicating its DNA

intracellular Within the cell

ionising radiation Radiation with high energy particles which can ionise thetissue they travel through.

karyotyping Examination of the chromosomes to look for large-scalemutations. Usually performed at metaphase stage of the cellcycle.

leukaemia Cancer of the blood.

ligand A molecule that specifically binds to a receptor. For example,each growth factor is the ligand for a specific growth factor

receptor.local treatment Treatment which only affects an area of the body. Opposite of

systemic treatment.


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University of Bath

lymph node Small bodies located along the lymph vessels which draininterstitial fluid.

lymphadenectomy Removal of one or more lymph nodes by surgery.

lymphatics Vessels which carry lymph fluid to the lymph nodes and

eventually back into the blood circulation.lymphatics (lymphatic vessels) The parts of the circulatory system that carry lymph, which is a

plasma-like fluid containing white blood cells.

lymphoma Cancer of the lymph nodes.

M phase Mitosis phase (cell cycle)

malignancy / malignantdisease

Cancer which has spread from the primary site to secondarysites.

mass spectroscopy A scientific technique which allows determination of thechemical components of a sample.

mastectomy Surgical removal of one or both breasts.

melanoma Tumour of melanin forming cells, a type of skin cancer.

metabolism The chemical reactions occurring within a living cell ororganism; made up of anabolism and catabolism

metaphase Stage of cell division during which the chromosomes becomeattached to the spindle fibres.

metaplasia The reversible process of replacement of one differentiated cellby another mature differentiated cell

Metastasis Spread of cancer cells to a different location (Greek - tochange or transit)

methylation (DNA or protein) The addition of a methyl group to DNA or protein, carried outby methylase enzymes and reversed by demethylase enzymes.

microenvironment The immediate small-scale environment of a cell or tumour.

micrometastases Very small metastases which cannot yet be detected orvisualised.

miRNA Micro RNA

mismatch repair Cellular system which corrects wrong bases inserted e.g.during DNA replication.

missense mutation A single nucleotide change in DNA, which alters the amino acidsequence of the encoded protein. A type of point mutation.

Mitosis Process of cell division, which results in one cell splitting intotwo daughter cells.

MMP Matrix metalloproteinases - enzymes that digest proteins inthe ECM

modality of therapy A type of therapy

Molecular genetics The study of genes are the cellular and molecular level usingmicroscopy or molecular biological methods

molecular pathology The science of analysing diseased tissue using moleculartechniques such as PCR or transcriptomics.

monoclonal antibody A protein produced by immune cells that recognises and bindto only one specific target. Can be produced artificially and areused as therapies because of their specificity.


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University of Bath

mortality The death rate.

MRI scan Magnetic resonance imaging. Uses powerful magnets togenerate an image of the inside of the body.

mRNA Messenger RNA (see transcription)

mutagens Any agent (chemical or physical) which causes DNA mutationsmutation A change in the the normal DNA sequence.

myc An important oncogene; a transcription factor.

ncRNA Non-coding RNA, all types of RNA that are not directlyinvolved in protein synthesis. Includes microRNA etc.

necrosis A type of cell death, involves cell lysis (bursting open)

neo-adjuvant therapy Treatment to reduce tumour size before surgery.

neoplasia An abnormal mass of tissue of which cancer is one type.

neoplasm/tumour Abnormal growth of a mass of tissue

next-generation sequencing Technologies that can sequence an entire cell genome in a fewdays

non-curative Tumour or cancer which cannot be cured with current availabletherapies.

nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

nucleosome A unit of a chromosome, including the DNA and its associatedhistone proteins.

nucleus The membrane-bound organelle within a cell which containsthe genetic material.

oncogene A gene which can induce cancer.

Oncogenes Genes that can cause cancer. They are usually mutatedversions of normal genes called proto-oncogenes, which ensurethat a cell divides at the right time. Hence mutant proto-oncogenes are called oncogenes.

oncologist A medical professional specialising in cancer management andtreatment.

oncology The study and treatment of cancer.

oxidation A particular type of chemical reaction, often involving oxygen.oxidative phosphorylation The metabolic reactions that occur within the mitochondrion in

the presence of oxygen to produce ATP.

p53 An imporant tumour suppressor gene; a transcription factor.

palliative treatment Treatment for a cancer which cannot be cured. The aim of thetreatment is to ease pain and symptoms and prolong life, butnot to cure the cancer.

pap smear A sample of cervical epithelium cells is taken and analysed tolook for the very early stages of cervical cancer.

pathology The science of analysing diseased tissue.

PDGF Platelet derived growth factor (a protein factor that controlscell division, especially during angiogenesis).

PET scan Positron emission tomography. Produces detailed 3-D imagesof the body, and can show how effectively some parts of thebody are functioning.


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University of Bath

phase I, II and III trials Clinical trials, carried out in humans, which test the safety andefficacy of a new drug candidate.

phospholipid A type of lipid (fat) that is especially important in making cellmembranes.

phosphorylation (protein) The addition of a phosphate group to a protein, carried out byprotein kinase enzymes and reversed by protein phosphataseenzymes.

Photon beam A high energy X-ray beam. The dose given is measured in unitscalled Grays (Gy).

placebo A dummy drug, used as a control in clinical trials.

Point mutations Mutation of a single base pair (nucleotide) (see DNA base).

polymerase (RNA and DNA) Enzyme which allows DNA to be copied (DNA polymerase) ortranscribed to RNA (RNA polymerase).

precursors Cells which are more differentiated than stem cells but candifferentiate into more mature cells.

prevalence The proportion of people affected in a population at any giventime.

prevalence ratio The number of people with a specific cancer divided by thosewho were risk of it

primary cancer The initial tumour or site where the cancer originated.

progenitor cell A cell which can give rise to many other types of cells; a stemcell.

progesterone A female sex hormone release from the ovary.

prognosis A prediction about the clinical outcome for the patient.prognostic Predictive

proliferation Cell multiplication.

Promoter Part of the DNA sequence that lies ahead of the genesequence. This is where some proteins called transcriptionfactors bind, in order to start the process of transcription (seetranscription).

promoter (of gene) The DNA sequence that controls the transcription of a gene,usually found near the start of the gene.

prophylactic Preventative.

proteasome A complex of proteases which selectively destroy proteins inthe cell.

protein A chain of amino acids, which is encoded by mRNA.proteomics The study of all the proteins in a sample.

proton A sub-atomic particle, part of all atom nuclei.

proto-oncogene The normal cellular version of a gene which, when mutated, canbecome an oncogene.

quality adjusted life year(QALY)

A measure of disease burden, including both the quality andthe quantity of life lived. Used in assessing the value for money

of a medical intervention.quality adjusted life years A measure of disease burden, based on both the number ofyears of life expected, and the quality of life of those years.


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University of Bath

Quiescence A term used to describe non-dividing cells

radiation oncology The use of ionising radiation to treat cancer. Also referred to asradiotherapy.

radiotherapy dose The total amount of radiation applied to tumour or normal

tissues.randomized control trial A scientific study to help determine whether a drug has real

benefit.

receptor A protein, usually at the cell surface, which binds to specificsignals from outside the cell, such as growth factors.

recessive A genetic condition in which two mutated copies are requiredto be inherited for an individual to display symptoms.

recurrent disease Disease which returns after it has been reduced or hascompletely disappeared due to treatment.

remission A cancer is said to be in remission if the symptoms and lumpreduce or disappear.

replication (of DNA) The duplication of DNA during mitosis to allow cell division tooccur correctly.

retinoblastoma Cancer which develops from the immature cells of the retina.

ribosomal proteins Proteins which, along with rRNA are involved in translation ofmRNA to protein.

Ribosome A complex cellular factory that synthesizes proteins in a cell.Made of a type of RNA and proteins to form a complexstructure.

RNA Ribonucleic acid - a single-stranded polymer that contains thesugar (ribose), phosphate and bases (4 types: uracil, adenine,guanine and cytosine) the sugar ribose; made through theprocess of transcription; three primary types exist, and allthree function in the interpretation of the information stored inDNAed ladder.

RNA microarray A scientific technique allowing determination of the RNAcomponents of a sample. DNA and protein arrays are alsoavailable.

rRNA Ribosomal RNA, a type of RNA that is part of the ribosome (see

ribosome).S phase Synthesis phase (DNA replicates during cell cycle).sarcoma Malignant connective tissue tumour.

screening A programme aimed at diagnosing cancer before any signs andsymptoms have appeared.

secondary cancer A tumour that has spread from a primary site to a different siteor organ.

senescence A resting state, where cells remain viable, but no longerprogress through the cell cycle and lose their ability to

replicate.side effect Effect of a drug which is not the main desired effect.


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University of Bath

signalling cascade A series of chain reactions used to amplify and transmit asignal within a cell. Also called a signal transduction pathway.

single nucleotidepolymorphism

SNP, a single base pair mutation found in the population.

somatic Relating to the cells of the body, as opposed to relating togerm line (reproductive) cells.

Somatic cells All cells except sperm cells and egg cells.

sporadic Not inherited.

stage Measure of how invasive a cancer has become.

stem cell A progenitor cell which can self-renew, and generates all othercell types in a particular tissue.

stromal cells The cells (such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells and immunecells) and their associated extracellular matrix, that support atissue or tumour

targeted therapy See biological therapy.

tissue microarray Many small tissue samples arranged so that they can beanalysed in multiple different experiments at once.

topoisomerase I and II An enzyme which unwinds DNA, and a target forchemotherapy.

Transcribed In the cellular context, this refers to the process when thegenetic message on DNA (the order of ATCGs) is copied to anew molecule called messenger RNA.

transcription The synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template.

transcription factor A protein which binds to DNA and regulates the transcriptionof a gene.

transcriptional target A gene whose transcription is affected positively or negativelyby the gene or protein in question.

transcriptome The total of all RNA molecules expressed in a particular celltype.

transcriptomics The study of all the RNAs in a sample.

Translated In the cellular context, this refers to the process when aprotein is synthesized using the transcribed message from themessenger RNA. A 3-letter sequence on mRNA (codon) makes

one amino acid, and a string of amino acids joined togethermake a protein.

translation The synthesis of protein from an mRNA template.

translational research Research which bridges basic science and clinical applications.

translocation The rearrangement of parts of chromosomes, which results infusing together sections of DNA that would not normally beadjacent.

transporters Proteins that transport specific molecules (e.g. drugs,metabolic intermediates) either into / out of the cell, or into /

out of particular compartments (organelles) within the cell.tRNA Transfer RNA, a type of RNA that is vital for synthesis ofproteins. Acts as a key adaptor molecule.


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University of Bath

tumour A lump formed from cancer cells.

tumour microenvironment The cells, molecules, and blood vessels that surround a tumourcell.

tumour suppressor gene A gene which slows cell proliferation, and when inactivated,

increases the chances of cancer developing.tyrosine kinase An enzyme that adds a phosphate group to tyrosine residues

on target proteins, altering their function. Often involved ingrowth factor signalling pathways.

ubiquitination The addition of a ubiquitin protein to another.

vasculature Blood vessels.

VEGF Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (protein factor thatpromotes angiogenesis (see angiogenesis).

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IC - Glossary - Final0914