Ib Psychology 2011 Guide

8/3/2019 Ib Psychology 2011 Guide

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IB PSYCHOLOGY 2011

NOVEMBER REVISION BASIS GUIDEKaterina Lau

PAPER 1BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

COGNITIVE LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

SOCIOCULTURAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

PAPER 2ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

PAPER 3


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BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis.

Patterns of behaviour can be inherited; animal research may informour understanding of human behaviour; cognitions, emotions and

behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of our

nervous and endocrine systems.

Explain how principles that define the biological level of

analysis may be demonstrated in research.

Martinez & Kesner (1991)Bouchard et al (1990) - Minnesota Twin Studies

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at

the biological level of analysis.

Experiment: Martinez & Kesner (1991)

Case Study: Harlow - Phineas Gage

Correlational Study: Bouchard et al. (1990) Minnesota Twin Studies

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at thebiological level of analysis.

Martinez & Kesner (1991)Bouchard et al (1990)

Explain one study related to localisation of function in the brain.

Harlow Phineas Gage

Using one or more examples, explain effects of

neurotransmission on human behaviour.Martinez & Kesner - Acetycholine

Katsumatsu & Hirai - SeratoninJanowsky et al (1972) - Dopamine

Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones

in human behaviour.

Cortisol:

Fernald and Gunner Poverty/Depression

Hans Seyle GASFessler Disgust/Immunity


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Melatonin:

Regulation of Sleep

Rosenthal (1987) higher levels of melatonin contribute to SAD

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiologicalprocesses.

Hans Seyle GAS (stress)Effects of jet lag on bodily rhythms

Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in

terms of behaviour.

Amnesia:

HM

Clive Wearing

Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigatingthe relationship between biological factors and behaviour.

Kilts (2003) MRI

Schlaug et al. (1995) MRI

Brefczynski-Lewis (2007) fMRI

Rain et al (1997) PET

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent doesgenetic inheritance influence behaviour?

Bouchard et al. (1990) Minnesota Twin Studies (intelligence)

Schlaug et al. (1995) Absolute Pitch

Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.

Darwins theory of evolution/natural selection.Fessler (2006)

Discuss ethical considerations in research into geneticinfluences on behaviour.

Bouchard et al. (1990)

Nurnberger & Gershon Depression

Stunkard et al. Obesity


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COGNITIVE LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.

Metal representations guide behaviour;Mental processes can be scientifically investigated;

Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors.

Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis

may be demonstrated in research.

Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts

Schlaug (1932) Absolute PitchHM - Amnesia


the cognitive level of analysis.

HM Case Study

Loftus & Palmer (1974) Experiment

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the

cognitive level of analysis.HM

Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.

Bartlett (1932)

Anderson & Pichert (1978)

Brewer & Trans (1981)

Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process withreference to research studies.

Atkinson & ShiffrinBaddeley & Hitch (1974)

Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process.

Amnesia:

HM

Clive Wearing

Martinez & Kesner (1991)


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Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive

process.

Cole & Scribner (1974)

Bartlett (1932)

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is

one cognitive process reliable?Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Brewer & Trans (1981)

Yulle & Kutshall (1986)

Brown & Kulik (1977)

Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive

processes.Mosconi (2005) PET Alzheimers

Kilts (2003) MRI Products

To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in

emotion?

Two factor theory

Speisman et al. (1964)Ledoux (1999) mapping emotion

Lazarus theory of appraisal

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive

process.

Flashbulb memory:

Brown & Kulik (1977)

Nisser & Harsch (1982)


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SOCIOCULTURAL LEVEL OF

ANALYSIS

Outline principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis.

The social and cultural environment influences individual behaviour;

we want connectedness with, and a sense of belonging to, others; we

construct our conceptions of the individual and social self.

Explain how principles that define the sociocultural level ofanalysis may be demonstrated in research.

Kashima & Triandis (1986)

Asch

Tajfel


the sociocultural level of analysis.

Lee et al. (1977) Experiment

Sheriff Field experiment

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the

sociocultural level of analysis.

Bandura (1981)

Zimbardo simulation

Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in

explaining behaviour.

Lau & Russel (1986)Lee et al. (1977)

Discuss two errors in attributions.

Fundamental Attribution Error:

Lee et al. (1977)

Self-Serving Bias/Modesty Bias:

Kashima & Triandis (1986)

Lau & Russel (1986)


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Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant

studies.

Tajfel (1971)

Cialdini

Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on

behaviour.Steele & Aronson

Barlett (1932)

Campbell (1967)

Hamilton and Giffords (1976) grain of truth hypothesis

Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant

studies.

BanduraCharlton et al (2000)

Discuss the use of compliance techniques.

Dickerson et al (1992) foot in the door

Cialdini (1974) low balling

Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.Asch (1951)

Discuss factors influencing conformity.

Asch (1955) Group Size

Asch (1956) - Unanimity

Perrin and Spencer (1988) - Confidence

Stang (1973) Self-esteem

Moscovici and Lage (1976) Minority influence

Berry (1967) Culture

Friend et al. (1990) argue that there is a bias in the interpretation

of the findings. Claims that it should be striking to us that in the faceof unanimity so many people did not conform. Perhaps the question

should be which factors allow people to dissent, rather than which

factors influence conformity.

Define the terms culture and cultural norms.

Culture is a set of attitudes, behaviours and symbols shared by a

large group of people usually communicated from one generation to

the next.

Cultural norms are the norms of an established group, which aretransmitted across generations and regulate behaviour in accordance


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with the groups beliefs about acceptable and unacceptable ways of

thinking, feeling and behaving.

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour.

Individualism/collectivism Bond & Smith (1996)Masculinity/femininity Mead

Using one or more examples, explain emic and etic concepts.

Kleinman (1984)

Mead

Depression in China

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors

influence abnormal behaviour?

Evaluate psychological research (that is, theories and/or

studies) relevant to the study of abnormal behaviour.

Examine the concepts of normality and abnormality.

Great Ormond Childrens Hospital in London

Rosenhan (1973)

Rack (1982)

Discuss validity and reliability of diagnosis.

GreatOrmond Childrens Hospital in London

Rosenhan (1973)

Rack (1982)

Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis.

Great Ormond Childrens Hospital in LondonRosenhan (1973)

Rack (1982)

Describe symptoms and prevalence of one disorder from two of

the following groups: (anxiety, affective, or eating disorders).

Affective: Major Depressive Disorder

Affects around 15% of people at some time in their life (Charney andWeismann 1988)

2 3 times more common in women than in men.


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Occurs frequently among members of lower socio-economic groups.

Recurrent disorder, with about 80% experiencing a subsequent

episode, with an episode typically lasting for three to four months.

The average number of episodes is four. In approximately 12% of

cases, depression becomes a chronic disorder with a duration ofabout two years.

Anxiety: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Prevelence rate of 1 3%. Estimated life time prevalence of 5% in

men and 10% in women.

There is a positive correlation between the site of attack and level of

PTSD.

Lasts more than 30 days and develops in response to a specific

stressor.ABCS

Affective: anhedonia (inability to form positive emotions)Behaviour: Hypervigilence.

Cognitive: Intrusive memories

Somatic: headache, stomach ache.

Analyse etiologies (in terms of biological, cognitive and/orsociocultural factors) of one disorder from two of the following

groups (anxiety, affective, or eating disorders).

Depression:

Biological: Genetics and biochemical factors.

Nurnberger and Gershon (1982)

reviewed the results of seven twin studies and found that the

concordance rate for depression was consistently higher for MZ than

for DZ twins. Across the seven studies, reviewed, the average

concordance rate for MZ was 65%, while for DZ twins it was 14%.Long term stress may result into depression.

Duenwald (2003)

have shown a short variant of the 5-HTT gene may be associated

with a higher risk of depression. This gene plays a role in the

serotonin pathways which scientists think are involved in controlling

mood, emotions, aggression, sleep and anxiety.

Janowsky et al. (1972) catecholamine/seratonin hypothesis


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Participants who were given a drug called physostigmine became

profoundly depressed and experienced feelings of self-hate and

suicidal wishes within minutes of having taken the drug. Disturbance

in neurotransmission -> depression. Drugs that increase the available

moradrenaline tend to be effective in reducing the symptoms ofdepression.

Burns (2003) says that although although he has spent many years of

his career researching brain serotonin metabolism, he has never seen

any convincing evidence that depression results from a deficiency of

brain serotonin. Since it is not possible to measure brain serotonin

levels in living humans, there is no way to test the theory.

Fernald and Gunner (2008)

Cognitive:Ellis (1962) proposed the cognitive style theory, suggesting that

psychological disturbances often come from irration and illogical

thinking.

Beck (1976) suggested a theory of depression based on cognitivedistortions and biases in information processing. Theory: based on

schema processing where stored schemas about the self interferewoith information processing. Schemas are known to influence the

way people make sense of experiences.

He observed that depressive patients exhibited a negative cognitive

triad characterized by: overgeneralization based on negative events.

Non-logical inference about the self

Dichotomous thinking that is black and white thinking and selective

recall of negative consequences.

Alloy et al. (1999) followed a sample of young Americans in their

twenties for six years. Their thinking style was tested and they were

placed in either the positive thinking group or the negative

thinking group. After 6 years, the researchers found that only 1% of

those in the positive thinking group had developed depression

compared to 17% in the negative thinking group.

CBT tries to correct the thinking.

Sociocultural:


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Brown and Harris (1978) carried out a study concerning the social

origins of depression in women. The researchers found that 29 out of

32 women who became depressed had experienced a severe life

event, but 78 per cent of those who did experience a severe life event

did not become depressed. They discovered that life events, whichresembled previous experiences, were more likely to lead to

depression, they suggested a vulnerability model of depression,based on a number of factors that could increase the likelihood of

depression. One out of 5 women reported that a similar severe life

event had previously resulted in depression.

Countries

Prince (1968) claimed that there was no depression in Africa an

various regions of Asia, but found that rates of reported depressionrose with westernization in the former colonial countries. However,

modern researchers argue that depression in non-modernizedsettings tend to be expressed differently and may escape the

attention of a person from another culture.

Kleinman (1982) Chinese rarely complain of feeling sad or depressed

ut instead, they refer these feelings to the body as the medium oftheir distress.

PTSD:

Biological:

High levels of noradrenaline cause people to express emotions more

openly than is normal. (Geracioti, 2001)

Geracioti (2001) found that PTSD patients had higher levels of

noradrenaline than the average. In addition, stimulating the adrenal

system in PTSD patients induced a panic attack in 70% of patients,

and flashbacks in 40% of patients. No control group members

experienced these symptoms. Finally, there is evidence for increasedsensitivity of noradrenaline receptors in patients with PTSD.

Cognitive:

Intrusive memories are memories that come to consciousness

seemingly at random. They often appear to be triggered by sounds,

sights, or smells related to the traumatic event. Brewin et al. (1996)

argue that these flashbacks occur as a result of cue-dependent

memory, where stimuli similar to the original traumatic event may

trigger sensory and emotional aspects of the memory, causing panic.


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Rizzo developed a therapeutic tool using virtual reality to treat PTSD

in veterans based on the concept of flooding (over exposure to

stressful events) because it is well-known that the stress reaction will

eventually fade out due to habituation.

Sociocultural:

Experiences with racism and oppression are predisposing factors forPTSD. Roysircar (2000) cites research that among Vietnam War

veterans, 20% of black and 27% of Hispanic veterans met the criteria

for a current diagnosis of PTSD compared to 13% of white veterans.

1988 in Bosnia, 73% of girls and 35% of boys in Sarajevo suffered

from symptoms of PTSD. Kaminer et al. (2000) credited the higherrate of PTSD in girls to fear of rape.

Social learning theory may play a role in PTSD. Silva (2000) have

indicated that children may develop PTSD by observing domestic

violence.

Discuss cultural and gender variations in prevalence of

disordersDepression:

Prince (1968)

Kleinman (1982)

Women are two to three times more likely to become clinically

depressed than men.

Brown and Harris (1978)

Aim: to examine the relationship between social factors and

depression in a group of women from Camberwell in London.(refer to p.156)

PTSD:

Roysircar (2000)

Breslau et al. 1991) did a longitudinal study of 1007 young adults

who had been exposed to community violence and found a

prevalence rate of 11.3% in women and 6% in men. Horowitx et al.

(1995) reviewed a number of studies and found that women have a


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risk up to 5 x greater than males to develop PTSD after a violent or

traumatic event.

Often, non-western survivors exhibit body memory symptoms.

Symptoms differ in gender. Men are more likely to suffer from

irritability and impulsiveness whereas women are more likely tohave symptoms of numbing and avoidance. Men with PTSD are also

more likely to suffer from substance abuse disorders whereaswomen are more likely to suffer from anxiety and affective disorders.

Examine biomedical, individual, and group approaches to

treatment.

there is now a general belief that a multifaceted approach to

treatment is the most efficient. This is called the biopsychosocial

approach.

Biomedical approach: based on the assumption that biological factorsare involved in the psychological disorder

Individual therapies are those in which a therapist works one on one

with a client, usually including cognitive therapy where a therapist

helps to change negative thought patterns. Highly individualised tomeet the needs of the client. Generally has a positive effect.

Group therapy: a group of clients meet with one or more therapists.

Useful for specific groups to come together and share their

experiences in group sessions. Allows them to talk about private

matters that they have kept secret and this can be a part of the

healing process. Opportunity to counsel several clients at the same

time. Less expensive than individual therapy. Provides a support

group and diminishes the role of the therapist, allowing the client to

be less dependent. Helps clients to realise that they are not alone.

Allows clients to role-play and develop social skills in a safe,supportive environment.

Culture:

Mutlaq and Chaleby (1995) have identified several problems with

group therapy when applied in Arab cultures. Strict gender roles,

deference to members in the group based on age or tribal status, and

the misperception that the therapy session is simply another social

activity.


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Therapists may use indigenous healing practices (encompasses

therapeutic beliefs and practices that are rooted within a given

culture)

In Malaysia, religion is incorporated into psychotherapy. Focuses on

verses of the Koran. Research has found that the Chinese Taoistcognitive psychotherapy was more effective in the long term

reduction of anxiety disorders than treating the patients withmedication.

Miller (2000) proposes a community-based treatment to

complement traditional therapy. Her ecological model emphasizes

the relationships between people and the setting they live in.

Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual and group approaches

to the treatment of one disorder.

Discuss the use of eclectic approaches to treatment.

Discuss the relationship between etiology and therapeutic

approach in relation to one disorder.


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HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors

influence health-related behavior?Evaluate psychological research (that is, theories and/or

studies) relevant to health psychology.

Describe stressors

Any adverse or challenging event physiological or psychosocial

could be labelled as a stressor.

Acute stressors: appear suddenly, do not last long, and cal forimmediate attention. This is the case with physical injury or the

attack of a predator. The body will move into a state of alert

and deal with the stress, eventually returning to what is called

homeostasis.

Chronic stressors: last for a long time and are a constant sourceof worry. This kind of stress is dangerous because it affects the

body in many damaging ways, partly because of a rise in the

stress hormone cortisol. In chronic stress, the body does not

return to homeostasis because the stressor is constantlypresent whether real or imagined.

Hans Seyle - GASDiscuss physiological, psychological and social aspects of stress.

Physiological: Hans Seyle, Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984)

Psychological: Reed et al. (1999), Kemeny et al. (2005)

Social Aspect: Taylor (2002)

Evaluate strategies for coping with stress.MBSR Shapiro et al. (1998)

Social Support Taylor (2002)

Explain factors related to the development of substance abuse

or addictive behavior.

Biological:

Nicotine: it simulates the release of adrenaline, which increases heart

rate and blood pressure. It stimulates the release of dopamine in the

brains reward circuits, which results in a brief feeling of pleasure. It


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acts on acetylcholine receptors in the brain, as if it were the natural

neurotransmitter.

DiFranza et al. (2006)

Cognitive and Sociocultural:

Social Learning Theory: Bauman et al. (1990)Unger et al. (2001)

Examine prevention strategies and treatments for substance

abuse and addictive behavior (for example, alcoholics

anonymous, family therapy, drugs and bio psychosocial

treatments).

Advertising: Charlton et al. (1997) formula one racing

Treatments: Nicotine replacement therapy, Zyban,

Multifaceted approach: Olsen et al. (2006)

Discuss factors related to overeating and the development ofobesity

Physiological aspect:

Genetic predisposition.

Stunkard et al. (1990)

Sociocultural:

Prentice and Jebb (1995)

Cognitive:

False hope syndrome (Polivy 2001)

Discuss prevention strategies and treatments for overeating and

obesity

CBT:: cognitive behavioural therapy.

Beck (2005)

Stahre et al. (2007)

Diet::

Brownell et al. (1989)

Drug Treatments::

Berkowitz et al. (2006)

Surgical:

Maggard et al. (2005)


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Examine models and theories of health promotion (for example,

health belief model, stages of change model, theory of reasoned

action).

Rosenstock (1974) the health belief model

Prochaska et al. (1982) stages of change model

Discuss the effectiveness of health promotion strategies (for

example, measurement of outcomes, cultural blindness,

cognitive dissonance).

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Ib Psychology 2011 Guide