THE REFLECTION OF SOCIAL

CHANGE IN THE 20th CENTURY IN

HOLLYWOOD WESTERNS

Naz Akyol

History Extended Essay

2012-2013

Word Count: 3837

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Abstract ……………………………………………………………….. 3

2. Introduction: Human History and Popular Culture…….……..…… 4

3. Introduction: The Mirror Effect …………………………………….. 4

4. Section 1: The Western Genre ……………………………..………... 4

5. Section 1: Westerns and Native Americans ………………………... 5

6. Section 2: Early 20th Century Post-Frontier Native American

History ………………………………………………………………... 6

7. Section 2: Corresponding Motion Pictures in Hollywood…………. 7

8. Section 3: Second World War and Mid-20th Century Native

American Life………………………………………………………… 9

9. Section 3: Corresponding Motion Pictures in Hollywood……...…. 10

10. Section 4: The Idea of Self-Determinism Among Native

Americans……………………………………………………………. 11

11. Section 4: Corresponding Motion Pictures in Hollywood………… 13

12. Conclusion and Evaluation: Hollywood As A Reflection of Social

Life...…………………………………………………………………. 14

13. Conclusion and Evaluation: The Mirroring Relationship Between

Western Films and Social Life of Native Americans in the 20th

Century …...…………………………………………………………. 14

14. Works Cited ……………….…………….…………………………... 16

15. Bibliography …………………………………………………………. 17

16. Acknowledgements ………………………………………………….. 18

2

ABSTRACT

I have investigated the relationship between Native American history

throughout the 20th century in the United States and the developments in the

Hollywood film industry, specifically the change in Western genre movies.

This essay is structured around the question of whether the historical events

relating to Native American position in American society during the 1900s is

mirrored in Hollywood movies as plot representations of changing ideas and

viewpoints or not. In order to discover this relationship, several Hollywood

Westerns that were produced during the 20th century are explored in terms of

characterization and plot. On the other hand, the same time periods are

examined for specific events related to Native Americans such as key

legislation or civil rights movements. Each section investigates a section of the

20th century and the movies that correspond to this period. In this structure, it is

possible to see which events have corresponding timing with which films. This

essay doesn’t investigate the direction of a cause effect relationship, but rather

the hypothesis of the existence of a correlation between films and history. In

conclusion, it is apparent that there is a connection between the Red Power

civil rights movements and legislation in favor of Native Americans, and

Native American depictions in Western movies throughout the 20th century.

Not only does the status of Native American characters in movies improve in

sync with such developments, but also, the Native American culture is

portrayed with more respect as well. As earlier historical developments are

reflected in movies at the beginning or middle of the 20th century, it can also be

said that some of these movies support later developments in Native American

rights. This shows a change from positive portrayal of Native American

characters in film to a positive portrayal of Native American culture in society.

Word count: 299

3

INTRODUCTION

HUMAN HISTORY AND POPULAR CULTURE

The most important aspect of human history is the way daily life of

society shifts over periods of time. Motion pictures have become significant

sources of historical documentation since unlike documentaries or scholarly

articles they depict the daily life and society of a specific time period. Movies

don’t aim to be solely informative, which makes them even more intriguing

and insightful. In a movie, it is possible to experience a wholesome, wide

overview of history. Most of the time, academic articles in history don’t reach a

wide public audience, and therefore go unnoticed by the majority. However,

movies can communicate such information in the form of entertainment,

making it more widely appreciated. Social events, music, art, economics, and

even politics can be portrayed in a movie, and in contrast with historical

articles, a movie doesn’t need to focus on any one of these areas of community

life, but it can cover all at once. That is why movies provide a well rounded,

thorough, and simplified portrayal of time periods.

THE MIRROR EFFECT

For as long as Hollywood has existed, it has been a way to express some

perspective about an issue to Americans as well as the whole world. I question

whether or not Hollywood movies truly reflect the socio-cultural development

of their time in the United States. I will specifically investigate whether

Hollywood Western movies act as a mirror in depicting the struggle of Native

Americans for social acceptance and the changing view of Native American

culture in the United States throughout the 20th century.

SECTION 1- Introducing the Hollywood Film Industry

THE WESTERN GENRE

4

Westerns form one of the oldest genres in the history of the motion

picture. As moving images without any sound were produced for the first time

at the end of the 19th century, primary filmmaking companies such as the

Essanay Company started putting together “cowboy pictures” and ever since

those first steps of the Western, the genre has been progressing with steady

strides against the attacks of gangster movies, spy movies, and science fiction

movies, managing to survive on its throne in the American movie industry. The

reason behind the success of Westerns lies under a sheet of U.S. history. Pre-

Second World War Westerns usually aim to depict nineteenth century

American frontier life in which justice is taken into the hands of cowboys.

After World War Two, the Western was affected by the loss of nerve to deal

with controversial issues. As certain racial subjects became taboo across the

globe, the Western lost some of its original raw bluntness, but it never lost the

genuine sincerity in which it reflects American ideals. The Western still

translated national experience into popular images, and as the mega star of the

genre John Wayne stated (Playboy 1971), focused on the essentials in human

nature and experience. For such reasons, Westerns have been labeled as

referential cornerstones in American culture.

WESTERNS AND NATIVE AMERICANS

American literary critic Leslie Fiedler defined the Western to be the

“encounter with the Indian, that utter stranger for whom our New World is an

Old Home”(French, 76). It is true that the Western genre is largely based on

the struggle the American cowboy has with his Native American counterparts.

In Hollywood, the Native American was initially a symbol of the savage,

untamed “other” while each cowboy hero had a personality and a voice. Fueled

by this first difference, the faceless symbol of the Native American became a

stereotype of a figure to be defeated in the name of civilization. However, as

history saw the development of different perspectives of Native Americans, the

motion picture industry followed this path and mirrored this development

throughout the 20th century.

5

SECTION 2- The early 20 th century: 1900-1935

EARLY 20TH CENTURY POST-FRONTIER NATIVE AMERICAN

HISTORY

At the beginning of the 20th century, Native Americans comprised more

than about 0.3% of the American population, which accounted for

approximately 250,000 individuals living mostly on “self-governed”

reservation land. (Boxer, 2009) Until the Indian New Deal in 1933, the aim of

the American government was to assimilate Native Americans into the

mainstream white American culture. (Buffalohead, 339-341) In fact, this was

not intended as an effort to patronize another culture and dominate minorities,

but rather as a charitable, well-intended attempt at civilizing savages. However,

this policy led to severe land loss by Native Americans through the selling or

the forced occupation of their territory. Also, this policy failed to consider

Native Americans as a natural part of American society, but rather reinforced

the belief that the Native Americans were the “others”. In 1924, the Citizenship

Act (Nebraska Studies, 7) granted all Native Americans citizenship, and this

act assumed that the assimilation of Native Americans into white civilization

was successfully completed. However this was a false assumption and left

many Native Americans in the midst of a life they were not prepared for,

exposing them to the dangers of extreme poverty, poor nutrition, inadequate

education and insufficient health care. Therefore, the Native American

population welcomed the Indian New Deal, a new point of view promoted by

John Collier in 1933, which suggested that the assimilation of Native

Americans was a valid goal, but the loss of pride in their own culture in the

process was unacceptable. With the idea that Native American culture’s close

proximity to nature and respect for its environment could be a role model to the

materialistic American life-style, Collier founded the 1934 Indian

Reorganization Act (IRA), thereby granting Native Americans a right to govern

their own land. (Wheeler-Howard, 1-6) Until this day, Native Americans were

6

considered savages, leaving them alienated from society, in a metaphorical

glass display at which white America stared with awe. The IRA became a very

important historical stepping stone in the preservation of Native American

land, resources, and culture. Although this act had many benefits and good

intentions, it failed to recognize the desires of all Native Americans, was

heavily criticized by those who wanted to assimilate into white American life,

and eventually proved inadequate to truly improve the living conditions of

Native Americans.

CORRESPONDING MOTION PICTURES IN HOLLYWOOD

In this era, Native Americans were the savage heroes of a strange,

distant world that was closer to fantasy than reality for most Americans. They

were trying to be assimilated into mainstream society, but these efforts were

made in a manner that made them seem so alien and untamed in the first place.

It looked as if assimilation would be the most challenging endeavor for the

United States since the frontiers. Therefore, in Western movies that were a

reflection of the American life at this time, Native Americans were depicted as

the strange anti-heroes. Very few Westerns included any Native American

depictions let alone Native American actors. Just as Native Americans had

been absent from the social scene for the past century being denied their

identity as “Americans”, they were completely excluded from films. As can be

seen in earliest Westerns such as the 1927 Richard Thorpe movie The Meddlin’

Stranger, the 1928 John English movie Arizona Days, and the 1929 Irving

Cummings movie In Old Arizona, Native Americans were absent from the

“wild west” where all three of these plots unravel and where, in real historical

context, Native Americans were plenty. Although The Meddlin’ Stranger takes

place in Juniper City, a small town in the western side of Georgia where the

Muskogee Creek Indians and the Hitchiti, Oconee, Miccosukkee Indians were

highly populated, not a single Native American figure or cultural symbol

appears throughout the whole 50 minutes of the silent motion picture. The plot

is comprised of the romance and adventures of the white antagonist Wally

7

Fraser and during his story, Native Americans aren’t even mentioned.

Similarly, Arizona Days directed by John English is set in a train travelling

through Arizona where the Apache, Hualapai, Yavapai, Maricopa, O’odham,

and Hopi tribes are located among several smaller tribes. The plot of the movie

unravels around the train’s robbery by a white outlaw, and the antagonist’s

fight for justice. There are no references, let alone appearances, that depict the

Native American presence. Finally, in Irving Cummings’ Western In Old

Arizona, the plot has a slight twist with the antagonist set as the happy-go-

lucky, charming bandit, and the villain the sheriff of the town, but there aren’t

any parts that address or even allude to the existence of the Native Americans

in Arizona. Some Westerns that were filmed in the same era present alternative

viewpoints of the Native American issue that contrast with the indifference of

these three films. As examples of such movies, The Frontier Trail (1926) by

Scott R. Dunlap, Redskin (1929) by Victor Schertzinger, and The Last Frontier

(1932) by Spencer Gordon Bennet and Thomas Storey can be listed. In The

Frontier Trail, a young American girl Dolly is escorted through “dangerous”

Sioux territory by an ex-cavalry Jim. Although the story is told around the

romance between these two characters, when the Sioux capture Jim, the story

includes some brief scenes of Native Americans. They are shown as savages, in

contrast with the authentic Sioux Indians who were among the most developed

Indian nations and who were welcoming as a part of their culture. Nevertheless,

they are somehow depicted and not completely ignored. In Redskin, “Redskin”

is not meant as a degrading label or discriminative nickname, but rather the

identity of the Native American antagonist who is a Navajo raised in an

otherwise all-white school. The film explores the main character’s identity loss,

making the antagonist “almost” Native American for the first time. In The Last

Frontier, the Native American presence is subtly eluded when the newspaper

editor Kirby decides to fight against the white villain Tiger Morris who causes

“Indian uprisings” to drive settlers out of the area for his personal benefit. The

Native Americans are depicted as the rebels without a cause, but this is still

8

considered an improvement to their complete disregard, as had been the case

previously.

SECTION 3- The Second World War Era and the mid 20 th century: 1935-

1960

SECOND WORLD WAR AND THE MID 20TH CENTURY NATIVE

AMERICAN LIFE

The Second World War damaged the Indian New Deal because war

became the urgent matter for the government as they cut land out of the

reservations for combat purposes, and cut the budget for the Native American

issue to direct money to the battle. However, the integration acceptance of

Native Americans by the general public was greatly enhanced by their

inclusion in the United States Armed Forces. Of the 350,000 Native Americans

in the U.S. in 1941, 25,000 served in the Armed Forces, a higher percentage

than any other minority race. (Boxer, 2009) WWII brought with it a change in

the ideological climate of the nation as Americans began to fear collectivism.

They had just fought a war with one form of collective thought, which was

Nazism, and they were now faced with the threat of yet another, which was

Communism. Therefore, the idea of individuality and variety was celebrated

more than ever and the collectivist approach of Collier was disapproved in

Congress. Therefore, WWII marked the end of an era of preservation of

reservation life and the beginning of a period where Native Americans were

expected to assimilate into white society with the condition of bringing in their

culture with them. They were even regarded as war heroes, which did so much

to improve their social status in society. A new policy of relocation swept

across the U.S. as a postwar version of Collier’s act and, his successor as

Commissioner, William Brophy’s efforts recognized the need and importance

of relocating Native Americans to cities with more job opportunities. By the

1960s, 30% of Native Americans were living in cities while this percentage had

remained at a feeble 8% in the 1940s. (Boxer, 2009) Unfortunately, what

9

looked like a foolproof plan at first proved to create just another problem for

the federal government as the majority of Native Americans found urban life

difficult to adapt to. This eventually resulted in unemployment and poverty.

Urban Native Americans faced discrimination and weren’t able to cope, which

led many of them to alcoholism. The majority returned to the reservations and

the federal government had neither the funds nor the time to deal with the

backlash of this new policy.

CORRESPONDING MOTION PICTURES

With the changing social and political scene, the film depictions of

Native Americans also changed drastically in this part of the 20th century. After

the Second World War, the nation embraced a patriotic wave of emotion

rooting from a victory for the United States as well as for humanity. This pride

swept along with it Native American war heroes to the top of the social

admiration ladder. The 2002 movie Windtalkers directed by John Woo is a

heroic depiction of the Navajo Indians who saved the U.S. Marines during the

WWII battles with the Japanese by creating a radio cypher in their native

language that proved to be an unbreakable code. However, returning to the

mid-20th century, the 1950s hosted five legendary Westerns: Delmer Daves’

first Western, Broken Arrow, Anthony Mann’s first attempt at cowboy movies,

Devil’s Doorway and John Ford’s Wagonmaster. Wagonmaster includes the

Navajo Indians and their encounter with Mormon settlers travelling to the

Promised Land as well as a group of white robbers led by “Uncle Shiloh”. In

Wagonmaster, the Navajo Indians are described as peaceful, helpful, and

welcoming people who invite the travellers to their camp. Things take a turn

for the worse when one of the thieves attack a Navajo woman, but even then,

the white villains are shown as the violent, evil ones while the Navajos are the

victims. Similarly in John Ford’s Fort Apache (1948) a changing view of the

Native Americans as the heroes and the white man as the villain is seen. This is

inspired by the guilt induced by the failure of the social policy introduced by

Commissioner Brophy. Fort Apache follows the story of a war veteran who

10

watches with despair as the new lieutenant placed in command of his area

treats the local Indian tribe with no respect, blinded his hunger for glory.

Broken Arrow is the story of ex frontier soldier Tom Jeffords and his attempts

to create a peaceful relationship between white settlers and the Cochise’s

Apaches. Throughout the movie, Tom begins to change perspective regarding

Native Americans and dwells upon the idea that they are also humans with

emotions and intelligence that matches that of the white settlers. Although at

the end, 10 years of cruel war between the communities proves too much to be

forgotten and moved on from, the movie is revolutionary in a sense that

compared to its counterparts from previous decades, it recognizes the Native

American as a part of American life. In Devil’s Doorway, the whole concept of

the white versus Native American characterization takes a sharp turn away

from the conventional white dominance of the previous part of the century.

This development draws a parallel with the acknowledgement of the heroism of

Native Americans during the WWII. The Native American main character

Lance Pool, who has won a Medal of Honor fighting at Gettysburg, returns

from war. His innocence and hard work are not done justice by the greedy

white sheep farmers who want his land and mistreat his people in the process.

As the efforts to improve the living conditions of Native Americans were put to

action through Commissioner Brophy’s acts, the repercussions of this new

point of view are apparent in such movies that give relatively immense

importance to Native Americans.

SECTION 4- Late 20 th Century: 1960-2000

THE IDEA OF SELF-DETERMINISM AMONG NATIVE AMERICANS

The idea of terminating the building of new reservations first came into

sight in Congress in 1946. As a staggering development, perhaps to

acknowledge the Native American contribution to the war, an Indian Claims

Commission was set up where Native Americans could make a claim for any

land that had been stolen from them since the founding of the United States in

11

1776. The government would only compensate for the lost land in monetary

form and no land would be given back, but still President Truman as well as a

large percentage of pleased Native Americans welcomed this attempt as a

move to seal the Native American deal in the United States. The commission

got so many claims that it was extended to function until 1978. The second half

of the century came with hopes of a brighter future, and self-determination

fueling the possibility of this dream becoming true for Native Americans. With

the repercussions of President Eisenhower’s “Indian Termination and

Relocation Treaty” resounding in the souls of “urban-Indians”, ideas of self-

determination and united strength began to surface. (Kosburn, 1) The founding

of the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1968, followed by the third and

final successful occupation of the Alcatraz Island by San-Franciscan Native

Americans, gave a feeling of empowerment to the Native American

community. The successful occupation of Alcatraz came on the third attempt

and lasted 19 months to end on June 1971. It was lead by students from the

local Indian college and was initiated by a proclamation that claimed the island

by right of discover. (Oakland Museum of California, 8)The legacy of this

symbolic occupation was wide reaching and long lasting since it inspired

President Nixon to declare an end to the “Indian Termination” policy of the

federal government. Founded with a similar goal of self-expression, the AIM

began in Minneapolis, Minnesota during the summer of 1968. It was led

primarily by George Mitchell, Dennis Banks, Russel Means, and Clyde

Bellacourt. (CivRights, 1) The movement’s main goal was to unite Native

Americans throughout the United States and proudly promote the Native

American culture. Another important role of the AIM was to ensure that the

U.S. Government followed up on its previous treaties. As the government

ignored the existence of the organization, the AIM adopted increasingly

aggressive strategies while protecting the rights of Native Americans. The FBI

and CIA were quick to identify AIM as a threat. Most of the action by the AIM

happened in the 1970s and this included 1000 members of the organization

marching to the capital with a list of 20 demands regarding broken treaties and

12

illegal use of Native American land by President Nixon. As the activists

trashed the Bureau of Indian Affairs Headquarters, the government gave the

organization 66,000$ to end the damage. (CivRights) The greatest

accomplishment of the AIM was to initiate the preparation of the Indian Civil

Rights Act that gave many Native Americans the ability to self govern their

tribes. “Red Power” was determined to stand up for its culture and heritage,

and did so with the United States mindset becoming increasingly celebrative of

differences. Different identities were embraced as the Vietnam War era

approached with flower children and civil rights movements reaching a peak

point in history.

CORRESPONDING MOTION PICTURES

At this point in Hollywood history, the Western genre took a whole new shape

with the increasingly loud Native American voice in the civil rights movements

of the late 20th century. The courage and self-determinism apparent in the

occupation of Alcatraz by the San Franciscan urban-Native Americans became

apparent in the corresponding movies in Hollywood that formed a reflective

picture of this change. Movies like A Man Called Horse (1970) by Elliott

Silverstein, Little Big Man (1970) by Arthur Penn, and Dances With Wolves

(1990) by Kevin Costner are the best examples that demonstrate this

simultaneous development of the genre with the social. In A Man Called Horse,

the main character, an English aristocrat, is captured by the Sioux Indians and

he gradually learns their way of life. Eventually, he is accepted by the tribe and

even becomes their leader. Later when he must confront the white influence

and his white identity, he favors the peaceful, natural way of life of the Sioux.

The staggering part of this movie is the “Sun Dance ceremony”, which has

been depicted as accurately as historically possible. The headdresses, body

paint, rituals, and songs are completely accurate and are so visually impressive

that one can’t help but watch with amazement as the Native American tradition

takes its course. The meticulous effort by which this ceremony is filmed is a

major improvement in favor of the Native American culture in America since it

13

shows the interest and respect that has been roused towards this culture. In

Little Big Man, the Pawnee and Cheyenne nations are described in a colorful

story of culture and history set in the 19th century. The antagonist Jack is

attacked by Pawnees and raised by the Cheyenne. His relationship with these

two tribes proves to be an eloquent insight into the Native American history as

well as the United States one. Although some scenes and depictions such as the

hostility of the Pawnee and the main character’s sexual relationship with three

Cheyenne sisters, on the demand of one of the sisters, are controversial, this

movie is the first to evaluate Native American history as a part of 19th century

American life and not a separate entity. Similarly in Dances With Wolves, the

main character prefers the Native American culture to his white upbringing,

which is a representation of the social and national pride being taken in Native

American history during the civil rights movements of the late 20th century by

both white Americans and Native Americans.

CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION

HOLLYWOOD AS A REFLECTION OF SOCIAL LIFE

My initial thought was that, throughout history, entertainment has

always been a necessity of human existence because of the need to express

thoughts and information in an interesting manner. Whenever it was desired to

bring an issue of importance to the public’s attention, the most effective way

was through popular culture since it speaks to the mainstream population.

Therefore, I began this investigation questioning whether or not Hollywood

Westerns during the 20th century were a mirror of developments regarding the

Native Americans in the social scene of this time period.

THE MIRRORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FILM AND SOCIAL

LIFE IN THE 20TH CENTURY AS INVESTIGATED THROUGH

NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE UNITED STATES

14

As I traced the civil rights movements and social inclusion of Native

Americans in American society during the 20th century, I saw that my

prediction of a correlation between film and history was accurate. As the

efforts to integrate Native Americans into society began taking shape in the

1920s with Commissioner Jimmy Collier, the Indian New Deal in 1933, and

the contributions of Native Americans in WWII, I investigated Hollywood

Westerns that corresponded to these developments and discovered that the

depiction of Native Americans improved directly proportionally with the

improvement of their social and political status. I can now say that with the

most recent examples reaching as far as 2002 with the motion picture

Windtalkers, Native American portrayal in Hollywood Westerns has been a

mirror of the social happenings about this issue throughout the 20th century. At

least as examined through Native American history in the United States during

this era, Hollywood movies present a reflection of societal development.

Word count: 3837

15

WORKS CITED

1. French, Philip. Westerns: Aspects of a Movie Genre. New York: Oxford

University Press, 1977. Print.

2. CivRights. Wikispaces. American Indian Movement.

http://civrights.wikispaces.com/American+Indian+Movement+-+1968.

26.09.2012

3. Oakland Museum of California. Picture This: California Perspective on

American History. Unforgettable Change: 1960s: American Indians

Occupy Alcatraz.

http://www.museumca.org/picturethis/timeline/unforgettable-change-

1960s/american-indians-occupy-alcatraz/info. 20.09.2012.

4. Buffalohead, W., Roger. The Indian New Deal: A Review Essay.

Minnesota Historical Society. Winter 1983.

5. Nebraska Studies, NPS Government. Native American Citizenship:

1924 Indian Citizenship Act. 7-8. Nebraska Studies 1900-1940.

6. Wheeler-Howard Act. The Indian Reorganization Act. June 18, 1934.

http://www.cskt.org/gov/file/reorganizationact.pdf. 29.09.2012.

7. IWeb, tnTech. Relocation and Termination.

http://iweb.tntech.edu/kosburn/history-444/Termination%20and

%20Relocation%20Policies.htm. 27.09.2012.

16

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. The Frontier Trail. Dir. Scott R. Dunlap. Perf. Harry Carey, Mabel

Julienne Scott, Ernest Hilliard. Internet Movie Database Media

Archives. 1926.

2. The Meddlin’ Stranger. Dir. Richard Thorpe. Perf. Hal Taliaferro,

Nola Luxford, Charles K. French. Internet Movie Database Media

Archives. 1927.

3. In Old Arizona. Dir. Irving Cummings. Perf. Warner Baxter,

Edmund Lowe, Dorothy Burgess. Internet Movie Database Media

Archives. 1928.

4. Redskin. Dir. Victor Schertxinger. Perf. Richard Dix, Julie Carter,

Tully Marshall. Internet Movie Database Media Archives. 1929.

5. The Last Frontier. Dir. Spencer Gordon Bennet, Thomas Storey.

Perf. Lon Chaney Jr., Dorothy Gulliver, Ralph Bushman. Internet

Movie Database Media Archives. 1932.

6. Arizona Days. Dir. John English. Perf. Tex Ritter, Syd Saylor,

William Faversham. Internet Movie Database Media Archives. 1937.

7. Fort Apache. Dir. John Ford. Perf. John Wayne, Henry Fonda,

Shirley Temple. Internet Movie Database Media Archives. 1948.

8. Devil’s Doorway. Dir. Anthony Mann. Perf. Robert Taylor, Louis

Calhern, Paula Raymond. Internet Movie Database Media Archives.

1950.

9. Broken Arrow. Dir, Delmer Daves. Perf. James Stewart, Jeff

Chandler, Debra Paget. Internet Movie Database Media Archives.

1950.

10. Wagonmaster. Dir. John Ford. Perf. Ben Johnson, Joanne Dru, Harry

Carey Jr. Internet Movie Database Media Archives. 1950.

11. A Man Called Horse. Dir. Elliot Silverstein. Perf. Richard Harris,

Judith Anderson. Netflix Online Media Archives. 1970.

17

12. Little Big Man. Dir. Arthur Penn. Perf. Dustin Hoffman, Faye

Dunnaway, Chief Dan George, Martin Balsam. Amazon Online

Media Services and Store. 1970.

13. Dances With Wolves. Dir. Kevin Costner. Perf. Kevin Costner, Mary

McDonnell, Graham Greene, Rodney A. Grant. Stanford Cecil H.

Greene Library Media Archives. 1990.

14. Windtalkers. Dir. John Woo. Perf. Nicolas Cage, Adam Beach, Peter

Stormare. Internet Movie Database Media Archives. 2002.

15. French, Philip. Westerns: Aspects of a Movie Genre. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1977. Print.

16. Pilkington, William T., and Don Graham. Western Movies.

Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978. Print.

17. Canby, Vincent. “Dances With Wolves (1990): A Soldier at One

With the Sioux.” New York Times. 9 November 1990

18. Morais, Richard C. “Dances With Wolves: Kevin Costner Journeys

to a New Frontier.” New York Times. 4 November 1990

19. Boxer, Andrew. Native Americans and the Federal Government.

History Today. History Review 2009.

20. CivRights. Wikispaces. American Indian Movement.

http://civrights.wikispaces.com/American+Indian+Movement+-

+1968. 26.09.2012

21. Oakland Museum of California. Picture This: California Perspective

on American History. Unforgettable Change: 1960s: American

Indians Occupy Alcatraz.

http://www.museumca.org/picturethis/timeline/unforgettable-

change-1960s/american-indians-occupy-alcatraz/info. 20.09.2012.

22. Buffalohead, W., Roger. The Indian New Deal: A Review Essay.

Minnesota Historical Society. Winter 1983.

23. Nebraska Studies, NPS Government. Native American Citizenship:

1924 Indian Citizenship Act. 7-8. Nebraska Studies 1900-1940.

18

24. Wheeler-Howard Act. The Indian Reorganization Act. June 18,

1934. http://www.cskt.org/gov/file/reorganizationact.pdf.

29.09.2012.

25. IWeb, tnTech. Relocation and Termination.

http://iweb.tntech.edu/kosburn/history-444/Termination%20and

%20Relocation%20Policies.htm. 27.09.2012.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

19

I would like to especially thank my professor of College Writing: Race,

Culture, and Ethnicity at Stanford University Summer College Program Prof.

Arturo Heredia for his initial support and encouragement that led to my

courage in exploring the issues presented in this essay. Furthermore, I would

like to thank my Extended Essay Advisor Mr. Tom Hemingway for all his

time, valuable advice, and especially sincere enthusiasm and interest in my

topic and writing.

20