As recently as five years ago, the suggestionthat China was well on its way to becoming amajor player in arctic affairs would have beentreated with a combination of surprise anddisbelief in Canada. Yet it has become abun-dantly clear in the last few years that Chinanot only is interested in arctic issues but is alsoactively developing the means to play anincreasingly powerful position in the region.This has caught Canada off guard. Given thegrowing economic wealth and power of thenew China, Canada needs to take intoaccount Chinese interests in the Arctic. TheChinese government is now spending consid-erable resources on ensuring a sustainableand long-term arctic capability. What then,are the Chinese interests there, and how dothey impact Canada?

Only since 2009 have western acade-mics and media begun to take serious noticeof China’s arctic ambitions.1 Much earlier,however, there were signs that should havealerted Canadians. In 1999 the Chinese arcticresearch vessel Xue Long (Snow Dragon)arrived at Tuktoyaktuk, NWT, at the mouth ofthe Mackenzie River. This marked the firstarctic voyage for this vessel, which had al -ready seen extensive operations in Antarcticwaters. Its arrival caught local Canadian offi-cials off guard. While China had notifiedCanada of its intention to do research in the

adjacent waters of this region, the informa-tion was not passed on to officials in theNorth.2 This was only the beginning of Chi-nese arctic research efforts.

C H I N A : T H E N E X T A R C T I C

S C I E N C EP O W E R H O U S E ?

The Chinese have at least four major areas ofinterest in the Arctic: science, maritime navi-gation, resources, and geopolitics. They arecurrently focussing on developing their scien-tific program to further their understandingof the Arctic, especially the impacts of climatechange on the region. To support these effortsthey rely primarily on the work of the PolarResearch Institute of China, based in Shang-hai, and the China Institute for Marine Affairs,the research department within the StateOceanic Administration, in Beijing.3 As well,several universities are developing increasedarctic expertise. In 1993 China purchased theXue Long, which at 21,000 tonnes is one of thelargest non-nuclear powered research vesselsoperating in the Arctic. It has completed threearctic research voyages and a fourth is plan -ned for the summer of 2012. A second re -search icebreaker, an 8000 tonne vessel de -signed by Finnish engineers and powered byBritish-built engines, is under construction

Canada and China in the Arctic:

A Work in Progress 1

Arctic Shipping:

A Free Ride for Aquatic

Invasive Species? 6

Flexible Design for Public Housing

in Iqaluit, Nunavut 13

Book Review:

Inuit Education and Schools

in the Eastern Arctic 19

New Books 21

Horizon 22

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I N T H I S I S S U E C A N A D A A N D C H I N A I N T H E A R C T I C :

A W O R K I N P R O G R E S SRob Huebert

C A N A D I A N

P O L A R

C O M M I S S I O N

The Chinese arctic research station in Svalbard isunmistakeable with its guardian lions (shishi) at theentrance. Its facilities support research in meteorology,space-earth measuring, glaciology, marine ecosystem,and environment. The station can accommodate 25people. Photo: Chin Q.Z. Chang.

in Chinese shipyards. China established anarctic research station, “Yellow River”, at NyÅlesund, Svalbard, in 2004.

In the spring of 2010, I participated inan academic visit to both the China Institutefor Marine Affairs and the Polar ResearchInstitute of China.4 We were shown the manyresearch buildings currently under construc-tion in Shanghai which, once completed, willgreatly expand Chinese scientific capabilities.It was obvious to the Canadian participantsthat China is investing heavily in science.

Our Chinese hosts made it clear that,while they have several research interests,

they are most interested in understanding theprocesses of climate change in the Arctic, inorder to understand its impacts on China it -self. As one of the Chinese researchers stated,what happens in the Arctic has a direct bear-ing on China’s western deserts and on the sealevels along its eastern coasts.

The Chinese are also very interested inthe potential impacts of climate change onmar itime navigation routes, for much ofChina’s economic growth is based on exportsto North America, Europe, and Asia throughmaritime trade. They are watching for thepossibility of new trade routes developing inthe Arctic Ocean. Our hosts showed us a mapthat places an ice-free Arctic at the centre ofthe globe, with potential new routes markedout between China and Northern Europe, andbetween China and Eastern United States5 –illustrating how an ice-free Arctic would sub-stantially reduce travel distances and times.Of course no one is yet suggesting that this willoccur any time soon, except during very shortperiods in summer, but the Chinese are moni-toring this closely.

The Chinese are also keenly interestedin possible new resource opportunities. Theyhave made it clear that they do not challengethe sovereign rights of the Arctic coastal statesto their resources within the existing 200 nau-tical mile Exclusive Economic Zones or in anyfuture extended continental shelf zones; butthey have both stated and demonstrated thatChina wants to be an active participant in theeconomic development of the region. Theyhave begun to purchase shares in variousresource development companies throughoutthe circumpolar North including Canada,focussing on midlevel corporations and offer-ing premiums on their stock purchases.6 Thisis clearly a long-term strategy designed togive them an important foothold while at thesame time allowing for the corporate world toget used to their increasing participation.

2C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

4. The Canadian delegation was composed primar-ily of legal scholars from Dalhousie Universityand the University of Victoria as well as an histo-rian from St. Jerome’s University and a politicalscientist from the University of Calgary. It tookplace in February 2010. 5. This map is included in Jakobson, p. 4.

1. The first major article on China in the Arctic wasproduced by Linda Jakobson, “China Prepares foran Ice-Free Arctic”, SIPRI insights on Peace andSecurity, no. 2010/2 (March 2010) [http://books.sipri.org/files/insight/SIPRIInsight1002.pdf]. InCanada there is an increasing number of authorswho have been examining this issue. See FrédéricLasserre “China and the Arctic: Threat or Cooper-ation Potential for Canada?” China Papers, no. 11Canadian International Council (June 2010)[www.opencanada.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/China-and-the-Arctic-Frederic-Lasserre.pdf]; Joseph Spears, “China and the Arctic: Awak-ening the Snow Dragon”, China Brief, vol. 9,issue 6, the Jamestown Foundation (March 18,2009) [www.jamestown. org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=34725&cHash=9638471049]; and David Wright, The PandaBear Readies to meet the Polar Bear: Chinaand Canada’s Arctic Sovereignty Challenge(Calgary: Canadian Defence and Foreign AffairsInstitute, March 2011) [www.cdfai.org/PDF/The%20Panda%20Bear%20Readies%20to%20Meet%20the%20Polar%20Bear.pdf].

2 Aldo Chircop, “The Emergence of China as aPolar-Capable State”, Canadian Naval Review,vol. 7, no. 1 (Spring 2011); 9 [http://naval.review.cfps.dal.ca/archive/5548626-5517830/vol7num1art3.pdf].

3. Jakobson, p. 4.

9. Jonathon Watts, “Norway could shut China out ofArctic Council after diplomatic snubs”, the Guard -ian (January 25, 2012) [www.guardian. co.uk/world/2012/jan/25/norway-china-arctic-council].

The Xue Long, China’s Arctic and Antarctic re-supply andresearch icebreaker. Photo: © International PolarFoundation /René Robert.

K N O C K I N G O N T H ED O O R O F T H E

A R C T I C C O U N C I L

China’s fourth area of interest is the geopoli -tical developments of the region, and on anofficial level they are very interested in partic-ipating in the governance forums now devel-oping. In particular they are, like the Euro-pean Union, attempting to become perma-nent observers to the Arctic Council. Therehas been a reluctance within the Arctic Coun-

cil to grant this status to either. After somedebate the Council postponed decision on theEU’s application in 2011 by deciding to createnew criteria for membership.7

In part the arctic states are still adjust-ing to the desire of non-arctic states to partici-pate more actively on this body. To a certaindegree China has been caught in the reluc-tance of Canada to extend permanent observ-er status to the European Union because of itsconcerns over the European ban on seal prod-ucts.8 At the same time the dispute betweenNorway and China over the awarding of a

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Nobel peace prize to Chinese dissident LiuXiaobo has also given rise to speculation thatthe Norwegians are not enthusiastic about theChinese application.9 While it is difficult toknow the official positions of Canada andNorway, it is clear that the Arctic Council hasdelayed addressing this issue. One of thebiggest challenges that will face Canadawhen it takes over the chairmanship of theArctic Council in 2013 will be dealing withthese applications.

6. For example see: Margo McDiarmid, “China keenmarket for oil sands, Oliver says”, CBCNews(November 9, 2011) [www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2011/11/09/pol-oliver-oil-sands-china.html]; Cecilia Jasmasmie, “China secures majorsecond stake in Canadian oil sands with a Cd$2.1billion deal”, Mining.com (November 28, 2011)[www.mining.com/2011/11/28/china-secures-major-second-stake-in-canadian-oil-sands-with-a-cd2-1-billion-deal/].

7. Andrew Willis, “EU gets cold shoulder in the Arc-tic”, euobserver.com (May 13, 2010) [http://euobserver.com/24/32331].

8. CBC news, “Canada against EU entry to ArcticCouncil because of seal trade ban” (April 29,2009) [www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2009/04/29/cda-eu-arctic-seal.html].

Scientists at work on the Arctic Ocean drift ice, seen fromthe deck of the Xue Long. Photo: Timo Palo.

There is growing recognition that itwould be better to have China in the ArcticCouncil rather than outside. But the Canadianposition on new permanent observers will becoloured by the EU request. The European banon seal products has hurt the interests ofCanadian Inuit, and the Inuit CircumpolarCouncil (ICC) and the other Permanent Partic-ipants are therefore reluctant to see the EUgiven permanent observer status. Given Ca -nada’s close relationship with the ICC, Ottawahas objected to the EU application. But thisplaces Canada in a difficult situation. Howdoes Canada support the Chinese efforts tobecome a permanent observer while at thesame time opposing the European applica-tion? There is no easy answer.

Once Canada assumes the chair of theArctic Council it may simply attempt to post-pone any decision. But what impact will thishave on Canadian-Chinese Arctic relations?China could view such a postponement as aslight, which could in turn affect other aspectsof the relationship. If Canada supports boththe European and Chinese applications, thiscould damage Canada’s relationship with thepermanent participants. If Canada supportsonly the Chinese application and not that of

the EU, it runs the risk of being labelled asinconsistent and anti-European. The onlygood solution for Canada is if the Swedishchair surprises everyone and resolves theissue before 2013.

C H I N A I N A R C T I CG E O P O L I T I C S :

P A N D A O R T I G E R ?

Chinese scholars have also begun to addressissues pertaining to the strategic value of theArctic Ocean, and the Polar Research Instituteof China has recently created a department ofstrategic studies to examine these.10 A debateis developing between scholars who contendthat China should take a more assertive roleand those who argue instead that Chineseinterests are best served by focussing on coop-eration with the various Arctic states, includ-ing Canada. The Chinese government has nottaken sides, nor has it indicated its prefer- ence in this regard; some Canadian scholarshave suggested that China is still waiting tosee how this debate develops before issuing aposition.11

China is investing heavily to become asignificant research actor in the Arctic, and itspresence is already being felt. It is only a mat-ter of time before Chinese researchers andscholars take a position at the cutting edge ofarctic studies and debates, and China’s strate-gy of investing in resource industries thatinclude arctic developments will pay divi-dends over the long term.

China has been very careful not to ap -pear overtly assertive in its efforts to become aplayer in the Arctic, and has been very carefulto follow the rules established by the arcticstates; but it is also increasingly apparent thatthe Chinese will continue to press for inclu-sion on arctic-related governance issues, re -gardless of any concerns that may arise. Inaddition to the request for Arctic Councilobserver status, Canada will face a number oflong-term issues pertaining to this increasingChinese presence. Some will be more easilydealt with than others.

First, the increasing Chinese scientificefforts will provide important new avenues ofcooperation for Canadian science. It has longbeen established that cooperation amongstscientists is one of the best ways to reduce thehigh costs of arctic research. China’s willing-ness to invest heavily in research providesCanadians with opportunities to develop newrelationships with Chinese scholars, who willhave substantial support from their govern-ment. This will of course require Canadianscholars to seek out partnerships with theirnew Chinese colleagues, and welcome theirinvolvement. Given Canada’s record of scien-tific collaboration – reinforced during the

4C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

10. Wright, pp. 2–5.11. Ibid.12. Jason Fekete and Mark Kennedy, “Multibillion

dollar deals ‘new level’ for Canada-China rela-tionship”, National Post (February 9, 2012) [http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/02/09/china-and-canada-reach-deals-on-air-travel-oil-and-uranium-and-pandas/].

Potential arctic maritime trade routes from China toNorth America and Europe. Image: Chinese Arctic andAntarctic Administration (in Jakobson).

recent International Polar Year – there is littledoubt that they will do so.

C A N A D A - C H I N AA R C T I C

R E L A T I O N S : A C O M P L E XC H A L L E N G E

The increasing Chinese presence in the Cana-dian resource industries is a more complicat-ed challenge. On the one hand, Canada iscommitted to the prosperity provided by anopen and liberal international economic sys-tem. Furthermore, the Canadian governmenthas made it clear that they welcome Chineseinvestment and will consider a recent Chineserequest to develop a free trade agreement.12

On the other hand, there have been risingsensitivities about increasing foreign owner-ship of Canadian resource companies. Thiswas recently demonstrated by the response ofthe Canadian government to the efforts by

Australian companies to invest in the Canadi-an potash industry. However, in a period ofeconomic uncertainty following the econom-ic crisis of 2008 and the ongoing European cri-sis regarding the Euro, Chinese investmentsoffer economic opportunities for Canada thatwill be hard to resist. But given the fact thatChina remains an authoritarian government,questions will remain as to the independenceof the Chinese corporations that are buyinginto Canadian resource companies. Does thisprovide undue indirect control of Canadianresources to the Chinese government in thelong term? Does it matter? It may be that thesecompanies are now completely independentof the government – but at the moment this isnot certain, and thus concerns will continueto exist. Perhaps, as Canadians adjust to anincreasing Chinese presence in their resourceindustries, these will subside.

Complicating the situation is the Cana-dian government’s intention to diversify ex -

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port markets from the current heavy relianceon the United States. The ongoing issue of theKeystone pipeline has raised questions aboutthe export of oil and gas to the United States.Furthermore, growing American concernsabout the environmental impact of the oilsands have also raised questions in Canadaregarding the long-term reliability of theAmerican market. The proposed constructionof the Northern Gateway pipeline is partlypremised on the hopes of increased oil exportsto Asian markets, including China. Any effortto limit Chinese investment in Can adian re - source companies could damage these efforts.Canada now faces an increasingly complextrading relationship with China that willimpact resource development across thecountry, including the Arctic.

Northeast Passage

Rotterdam Shanghai

New York

Northwest Passage

A R C T I C S H I P P I N G : A F R E E R I D E F O R A Q U A T I C I N V A S I V E S P E C I E S ?

Farrah T. Chan, Sarah A. Bailey and Hugh J. MacIsaac

In the long term Canada, along withthe other arctic states, may face the issue ofChinese fishing fleets entering the ArcticOcean. There is still considerable debate aboutthe possibility of commercially viable fishstocks developing in an increasingly ice-freeArctic. Many researchers think this unlikely,while others do not rule it out. But if it were tooccur China and other non-arctic stateswould have the right to fish in any regionbeyond the Exclusive Economic Zone ofcoastal states. This means that the water col-umn above the extended continental shelf isopen to international fishing. While it isentirely possible that some form of regionalfishing agreement could be developed thatwould protect and promote the interests ofboth the arctic coastal states and foreign fish-ing fleets, disagreements are also possible.

In the much longer term, questionswill arise over the Chinese view of the legalstatus of the Northwest Passage. There hasbeen no official statement by Chinese officialson this issue and, when asked whether theyview it as internal waters or as an internation-al strait, they have declined to commit. Ulti-mately, their position will reflect a mixture ofconcerns over their own coastal waters andtheir ambitions as a rising maritime and na -val power. Canada can hope that China will

not side with the Americans, but should notassume that they will automatically supportCanada.

Canada may eventually need to dealwith a Chinese naval presence in the Arctic, asin time China could come to see the region asstrategically important. While most westernobservers suggest that such a move is un -thinkable, it needs to be remembered thatvery few observers had thought that Chinawould become a major actor in Africa, andwould begin to deploy warships off the Hornof Africa under the mandate to engage pi -rates; and yet in 2012, the Chinese presence isan accepted fact both in Africa itself and in itswaters. Given the current efforts of China toextend its economic involvement in the Arc-tic, it would be naïve to believe that therecould never be a Chinese naval deployment inthe future. The arrival of Chinese surface orsub-surface vessels near its arctic waterswould complicate the strategic picture facingCanada.

The evolving Canadian-Chinese arcticrelationship is one that will grow in com -plexity over time. Very few people had eventhought that such a relationship was likely orpossible just a few years back. But China’s de -termination to understand the changes thatare now occurring in the Arctic, and to avail

itself of the opportunities that may arise as aresult, will increasingly challenge Canadiandecision-makers. The Chinese are willing toapproach their new arctic enterprises in acooperative fashion; but they have made itequally clear that they will proceed regardlessof the response from the other arctic states,including Canada. They are clearly makingthe expenditures to transform themselves intoa major arctic power. This will bring opportu-nities for mutual gain, as Canada can benefitfrom working with the Chinese on a widerange of issues, but China is beginning to viewthe Arctic in a broader geo-political context,and on this level Canadian and Chinese inter-ests may not always meet.

Canada needs to recognize that there isa new actor in the Arctic, one that will soonbecome much more powerful. Canada wouldbe wise to start thinking much more seriouslyabout this increasingly complex and interest-ing relationship.

Rob Huebert is Associate Professor of Politi-cal Science and Associate Director of theCentre for Military and Strategic Studies at the University of Calgary. He is a mem-ber of the Board of the Canadian Polar Commission.

6C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

Sea lampreys, zebra mussels, and green crabare among the invasive species familiar tomany in southern Canada. Unintentionallyintroduced in areas outside their native habi-tat, they have reproduced, spread, and dis-rupted ecosystems where they have no natur-al place. So far very few invasions of non-indigenous species have been recorded in theArctic – but with a warming climate andincreasing ship traffic that could change.

A Q U A T I CN O N I N D I G E N O U S

S P E C I E S A N DC O M M E R C I A L

S H I P P I N G

Nonindigenous species (also known as non-native, invasive, introduced, exotic, foreign,or alien species) include plants, animals,microbes, and fungi that have establishedreproducing populations outside their native

range, sometimes with negative conse-quences for the environment, ecology, oreven economy of the invaded area.

A typical invasion is a three-stage pro -cess: introduction, establishment, and spread(Figure 1). First, a transport vector picks upand carries individuals of the nonindigenousspecies from its source region and introducesthem to a new area. Next, the individualsestablish themselves in the new environment

Figure 1Stages of a typical invasion by a nonindigenous species(left) with possible effects of climate change indicated(right).

Source population

Introduction

Establishment

Spread

Facilitates AIS transport– natural dispersal– human-mediated transport e.g., shipping

Reduces climatic constraints– enhanced AIS survival, growth,

and competitive ability

by surviving the environmental con ditionsand interactions with resident species. Theestablished population may then spread andbecome the source of further invasions.

Profound negative impacts from aquat -ic nonindigenous species (ANS) have beenrecorded in aquatic systems worldwide. InCanada, the sea lamprey (Petromyzon mari-nus) has contributed to the collapse of laketrout fisheries in the Great Lakes; the zebramussel (Dreissena polymorpha) causes mil-lions of dollars in damage to human infra-structure in the Great Lakes each year; thegreen crab (Carcinus maenas) has broughtabout the decline of native shellfish popula-tions on the East and West Coasts; the clubbed

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Figure 2Barnacle colony fouled on a ship propeller. Photo: FarrahChan.

Figure 3A variety of species (brown symbols) can be movedbetween ports through the ballast water activities ofships.

tunicate (Styela clava) is threatening fishingand aquaculture industries on the East Coast;and spiny (Bythotrephes longimanus) andfishhook (Cercopagis pengoi) waterfleasinterfere with sport and commercial fishingand compete with native fish for food in theGreat Lakes (DFO, 2011).

Commercial shipping provides aneffective mechanism for invasive species tobypass geographic barriers and reach areasfar beyond their natural range. All the speciesmentioned above, except the sea lamprey, areexamples of ship-mediated ANS. Ship hullsand other underwater surfaces like propellersand rudders can harbour fouling organismssuch as barnacles, tunicates, and mussels indense colonies that shelter and protect mobilecrustaceans from the strong shearing forcesproduced when a ship is under way (Figure2). These organisms drop off and can releaselarvae during transit or at destination ports,establishing populations anywhere along theship’s route.

In addition, a menagerie of speciesfrom microbes to fish can move around theglobe in the ballast water used to control aship’s stability and trim. Organisms in thewater column, and sometimes bottom dwell -ing species in harbour sediment, may bepumped into ballast water tanks during wateruptake and travel to the destination port,where they are released when the water ispumped out (Figure 3). To prevent introduc-

8C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

Cargo

Source port

Cargo

Destination port

Ballast

Transit

tion of invasive species Canada has ballastwater management regulations that requiremost transoceanic vessels entering and oper-ating in Canadian waters to replace ballastwater loaded near shore with open-oceansaltwater (Canada Shipping Act, 2006).Empirical studies indicate that the process,known as ballast exchange, purges 60–100%of coastal planktonic organisms pumped in atthe source port, and it is over 99% effective inreducing freshwater species (Gray et al., 2007;Ruiz and Reid, 2007). Open-ocean species inexchanged ballast water are unlikely to thrivein coastal and freshwater environments andthus present a low risk for invasion. Regula-tions also require transoce anic ships carryinglittle or no ballast to flush residual ballastwater and sediment with open-ocean saltwa-ter. As a result, ballast water from foreignsources is not discharged in Canadian waters,reducing the risk of ballast-mediated oceanintroductions.

S H I P - M E D I A T E DA N S I N V A S I O N S

A N D T H EC A N A D I A N A R C T I C

At first glance, the Arctic seems an unlikelyregion for ANS invasions. Ship traffic to north-ern ports is low compared to temperate loca-tions, and cold temperatures and limited food

resources in the Arctic may hinder survival,reproduction, and growth of many organ-isms. There are no confirmed reports of ship-mediated ANS invasions in Canadian arcticwaters; however, at least nine non-indige-nous species have been recorded in arctic andsubarctic waters outside Canada. It is notknown how or when they arrived (Molnar etal., 2008). These species include the soft-shellclam (Mya arenaria), zebra mussel (Dreisse-na polymorpha), Akartia copepod (Acartiatonsa), red king crab (Paralithodes cam -tscha ticusthe), marine pill bug (Sphaeromawalkeri), naval shipworm (Teredo na valis),hydroid (Ectopleura crocea), green algae (Cla -do phora sericea), and dinoflagellate (Alexan-drium affine). All except the red king crabcan be introduced through hull fouling andballast water discharge (Molnar et al., 2008).The small number of ANS recorded in arcticand subarctic waters may re flect in suf fi-cient research efforts and limited tax onomicknowl edge of the region (Ruiz and Hewitt,2009), but none theless suggest that invasionsto northern regions by temperate ANS are pos-sible under current climatic conditions.

Most arctic communities are on thecoast and, with no road or rail access, rely onmarine transport for supplies of food, cloth-ing, materials and equipment, fuels, and con-sumer goods (Figure 4). Ships also carry rawresources, such as minerals, hydrocarbons,and grains, through arctic waters to domesticand international markets. Churchill’s prox-imity to the Prairies and its connection to therail system has established it as a major tran-shipment port for grain, while resourceextraction sites, including the Raglan Mine inDeception Bay, Quebec, rely on ships to trans-port mineral concentrates for processing.Ship traffic is far lower than on the Atlanticand Pacific coasts, but is expected to increasein the near future. Several large-scale re -source developments have been proposed forthe next 20 years, including iron ore at Mary

River, Baffin Island, magnetite at Roche Bay,also on Baffin Island, and High/Izok Lakenear Yellowknife for lead/zinc/copper con-centrates (Arctic Council, 2009). These opera-tions will require shipping for bulk exports, aswell as logistics and fuel imports. Plans todiversify international commodity shipmentsat Churchill and proposals to develop deep-

water ports at locations such as Iqaluit mayfurther increase shipping traffic in the region(Stewart and Howland, 2009). The federalgovernment has also announced plans andallocated resources to promote social and eco-nomic development through the NorthernStrategy (Government of Canada, 2010). Thegrowing popularity of arctic marine tourismand the cruise industry’s plans to expand and

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2 di versify the arctic market may bring in creasesin ship traffic (Arctic Council, 2009). Withincreased ship traffic in the Canadian Arcticcomes greater risk of ship-mediated ANS

invasions.Climate change can also increase the

CANADA

GREENLAND

Bathymetry (metres)

200 m

500 m

2500m

4000 m

5000 m

Arctic communities

ARCTIC OCEAN

Shipping routes, 2004

Figure 4Network of shipping routes serving major CanadianArctic communities. Courtesy Susie Harder, TransportCanada.

Figure 5The Northeast and theNorthwest Passages appearnavigable and free of pack icein the 2010 shipping season.Image modified fromUniversity of IllinoisDepartment of AtmosphericSciences, The CryosphereToday [available at http://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu/cryosphere].

site, their growth and competitive ability maybe enhanced by warmer climates and othereffects of climate change, promoting theirspread and amplifying their environmentalimpacts.

U N C E R T A I N T I E SA N D C U R R E N T

R E S E A R C H

The increased potential for ship-mediatedANS invasions highlights the need for adap-tive management of ANS in the Arctic. Intra-coastal shipping can disperse species within aregion at much higher rates than would oc-cur naturally and can also transport them toareas they would not reach through natural

10C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

Northwest Passage

Northeast Passage

rate and extent of ANS invasions by influenc-ing the dispersal and survival of both nativeand non-indigenous species (Figure 1; Wass-mann et al., 2010). Changes in temperatureregimes, ocean currents, sea level, and otherkey physical processes associated with cli-mate change can directly affect the invasionprocess by altering natural dispersal. Forexample, a Pacific diatom (Neodenticula sem-inae) was found in the north Atlantic Oceanfor the first time in 1998. It likely migratedfrom the north Pacific Ocean via the ArcticArchipelago when receding coastal ice sheetsboosted the inflow of water (Reid et al.,2007).Melting sea ice continues to open up water-

ways and shipping channels in the ArcticOcean and extend the length of the shippingseason (Figure 5; Arctic Council, 2009). In thesummer of 2007, the Northwest Passage wasfree of pack ice and fully navigable (Cressey,2007). In 2009 two commercial vessels, un -aided by icebreakers, used the Northeast Pas-sage and the Northern Sea Route to dramati-cally reduce the time and cost of shippinggoods from northern Europe to northeast Asiaand northwest North America (Smith, 2009).

Furthermore, warming temperaturesmay enhance survival of introduced ANS byallowing them to reproduce in areas wherethey previously could not (Hellmann et al.,2008). Once established at the introduction

mechanisms. Since intra-coastal voyages areoften short, high survival in ballast tanks isexpected, and a large number of ANS individ-uals could therefore be released. In addition,ships can directly transport ballast waterfrom Canadian temperate waters to the Cana-dian Arctic without any form of manage-ment, although some vessels do voluntarilyconduct ballast water exchange. The directtransfer of domestic ballast water may allowspecies native to Canadian temperate ports –or ANS that have been previously introducedto temperate Canadian ports – to gain a foot -hold in the Arctic. What is more, Canada hasno management regulations on anti-foulingtreatment of hull surfaces.

The importance of hull fouling as atransport vector for ANS in the Arctic is poorlyunderstood. Some research has shown thatsea ice can scrape hulls, removing or damag-ing fouling species (Lee and Chown, 2009).This may decrease the risk of ANS introduc-

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Figure 6Below: Collecting zooplankton

from the ballast water tank of acargo ship at the Port of Churchill

with a plankton net tow. Right:surveying the hull of a harbourtug at the same port for foulingorganisms. Photo: below, Krista

Hanis; right, Farrah Chan.

tion by killing fouling organisms; or, it mayin crease the risk by releasing them into thewater. Some hull fouling species can survivelong voyages through a wide variety of ma -rine environments with major changes in sa -linity and temperature (Davidson et al.,2008).More research on domestic ballast water andhull fouling is needed to fully evaluate theinvasion potential of shipping.

Few studies have examined the magni-tude of ship-mediated ANS invasions in arcticwaters, and only one qualitative study hasbeen done for northern Canada (Niimi, 2007).We are therefore conducting a comprehen-sive study of the potential for ship-borne ANS

invasions in Canadian arctic waters. We haveconducted a transit analysis to examine ship-ping patterns in the Canadian Arctic and toidentify high traffic ports. As a result, the ports

at Churchill, Manitoba, Deception Bay, Que-bec, and Iqaluit, Nunavut have been selectedfor biological sampling with the assumptionthat ports receiving greater ship traffic and/orballast water discharge are more vulnerableto ANS introductions. We are collecting bio-logical samples from the hulls and ballastwater of ships arriving at high traffic ports todetermine the identity and abundance of anypotential ANS (Figure 6). We will compare theenvironmental conditions of the native habi-tat of all identified ANS with those at the intro-duced port in order to determine whether theANS can survive in, and potentially invade,the introduced environment. Finally, we candetermine the potential impact of invadersbased on known impacts in invaded habitats.The results of this research can be used toinform long-term monitoring and early de -tection strategies in the Canadian Arctic – toreduce the risk of non-indigenous speciesinvading and disrupting our Arctic marineecosystems.

Farrah T. Chan is a doctoral student in biologyat the Great Lakes Institute for EnvironmentalResearch, University of Windsor. Sarah A. Bai-ley is a research scientist with the Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans. Hugh J. MacIsaac isProfessor and Department of Fisheries andOceans Invasive Species Research Chair at theGreat Lakes Institute for Environmental Re -search, University of Windsor.

ReferencesArctic Council, 2009. Arctic Marine Shipping

Assessment 2009 Report. Arctic Council,Tromsø. p. 187.

Canada Shipping Act, 2006. Ballast WaterControl and Management Regulations(SOR/2006-129). Available from www.gazette.gc.ca/archives/p2/2006/2006-06-28/ html/sor-dors129-eng.html [accessedAugust 10, 2009].

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Cressey, D., 2007. “Arctic melt opens North-west Passage”, Nature, 449 (7160): 267.

Davidson, I.C., L.D. McCann, P.W. Fofonoff,M.D. Sytsma and G.M. Ruiz, 2008. “Thepotential for hull-mediated species trans-fers by obsolete ships on their final voy-ages”, Diversity and Distributions,14 (3):518–529.

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2011. AquaticInvasive Species. Available from www. dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/enviro/ANS- eae/index-eng. htm [accessed August 26, 2011].

Government of Canada, 2010. Canada’sNorthern Strategy. Available from www.northernstrategy.ca/index-eng.asp [accessedAugust 10, 2011].

Gray, D.K., T.H. Johengen, D.F. Reid and H.J.MacIsaac, 2007. “Efficacy of open-oceanballast water exchange as a means of pre-venting invertebrate invasions betweenfreshwater ports”, Limnology and Ocea -nography, 52 (6): 2386–2397.

Hellmann, J.J., J.E. Byers, B.G. Bierwagen andJ.S. Dukes, 2008. “Five potential con-squences of climate change for invasivespecies”, Conservation Biology, 22 (3):534–543.

Lee, J.E., and S.L. Chown, 2009. “Temporaldevelopment of hull-fouling assemblagesassociated with an Antarctic supply ves-sel”, Marine Ecology Progress Series, 386:97–105.

Molnar, J.L., R.L. Gamboa, C. Revenga andM.D. Spalding, 2008. “Assessing the globalthreat of invasive species to marine biodi-versity”, Frontiers in Ecology and the Envi-ronmen, 6 (9): 485–492.

Niimi, A.J., 2007.“Current and future prospectfor vessel related introductions of exoticspecies to the Arctic region”, CanadianTechnical Report of Fisheries and Aquat-ic Sciences, 2720. Fisheries and OceansCanada.

Reid, P.C., D.G. Johns, M. Edwards, M. Starr,M. Poulins and P. Snoeijs, 2007. “A biologi-cal consequences of reducing Arctic icecover: arrival of the Pacific diatom Neo-denticula seminae in the North Atlanticfor the first time in 800 000 years”, GlobalChange Biology, 13 (9): 1910–1921.

Ruiz, G.M., and D.F. Reid, 2007. “Current stateof understanding about the effectivenessof ballast water exchange (BWE) in reduc-ing aquatic nonindigenous species (ANS)introductions to the Great Lakes Basin andChesapeake Bay, USA: Synthesis and anal -ysis of exiting information”, NOAA Techni-cal Memorandum, GLERL-142. NationalOcean and Atmospheric Administration,Ann Arbor, MI.

Ruiz, G.M., and C.L. Hewitt, 2009. “Latitudinalpatterns of biological invasions in marineecosystems: a polar perspective.” In:Smithsonian at the Poles: contributions toInternational Polar Year Science. Editedby I. Krupnik, M.A. Lang and S.E. Miller.Washington, DC.

Simkanin, C., I. Davidson, M. Falkner, M.Systsma and G. Ruiz, 2009. “Intra-coastalballast water flux and the potential for sec-ondary spread of non-native species onthe US West Coast”, Marine Pollution Bul-letin 58 (3): 366–374.

Smith, A., 2009. Global Warming Reopensthe Northeast Passage. Available fromwww.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1924410,00.html [Accessed August10, 2011].

Stewart, D.B., and K.L. Howland, 2009. “Anecological and oceanographical assess-ment of the alternate ballast water ex -change zone in the Hudson Strait Region”,Canadian Science Advisory SecretariatResearch Document, 2009/008. Fisheriesand Oceans Canada.

Wassmann, P., C.M. Duarte, S. Agusti and K.Sejr, 2010. “Footprints of climate change inthe Arctic marine ecosystem”, GlobalChange Biology, 17 (2): 1235–1249.

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A housing crisis in Nunavut is causing nega-tive consequences for communities alreadystressed by several decades of rapid change.Many new homes are needed quickly, butthey must be designed with care so that theymeet the needs of Inuit in the short and longterm.

Public housing in the Canadian Arctichas a history of poor adaptation to the socialand cultural realities of Inuit communitiesand the northern climate. In this article welook at how a user-led, flexible approach canhelp tailor the design of new public homes tothe needs of the local housing authority andoccupants. Flexibility, incorporated into thepre-occupancy, post-occupancy and refur-bishment stages of the unit’s life-cycle, meansthat the dwelling can adapt as the needs of itsinhabitants change over time. Housing au -thor ities and residents are offered a choice ofinterior and exterior design components. Theredevelopment of Widow’s Row, in Iqaluit,Nunavut, demonstrates how appropriatedesign can play a pivotal role in addressingthe housing crisis.

B A C K G R O U N D

Following World War II permanent settle-ments began taking shape across Canada’sEastern Arctic. Attracted to the communitiesby services such as health care and schooling,and opportunities for wage employment,Inuit left behind their semi-nomadic existencein growing numbers. To improve the livingconditions in the settlements the Govern- ment of Canada initiated mass public hous- ing programs.

The first housing prototype, intro-duced in 1959, was called the “matchbox”because it of its small size – 3.66 by 7.32 meters(12 by 24 feet). According to Peter Collings(2005), the matchbox “was poorly designedfor the arctic environment, and residents typ-ically fell behind on their payments or ceasedusing them altogether because of the highcosts of heating and maintaining the housesduring the long winter.” Throughout the en -su ing decades, the designs of housing proto-types were repeatedly revamped in an at -tempt to address issues of affordability, ac -com modate large Inuit families, and improvethe quality of the prefabricated homes im -ported from the South.

F L E X I B L E D E S I G N F O R P U B L I C H O U S I N G I N I Q A L U I T , N U N A V U T

Avi Friedman and Elizabeth Debicka

Units delivered across the Arctic em -bodied Euro-Canadian notions of the house-hold and introduced partitioning betweenrooms, a foreign concept for Inuit, who wereused to dwellings with one communal livingspace. The kitchens were ill-equipped forpreparing country foods and the interiorspaces did not accommodate land-basedactivities (Figure 1). As described by RobertRobson,

The houses were inferior, expensive,small, often not provided with servicesand above all else, clearly not constructedwith a view to meet the housing needs of thelocal population. In this regard, the livingspace was compartmentalized, there wasno workspace within the unit to clean orprepare meat or fix snow machines,[and] little thought was given to storageareas […].

Despite efforts to improve the quality ofpublic housing over the ensuing decades, theabsence of users from the design process hasmeant that public housing is often ill-suited toInuit.

To this day, public housing in Iqaluitfails to adequately meet the needs of Inuit

Figure 1The Ukiivik, (“winter home”) typical of

the units built under the Eskimo Housing Rental Program 1965–1969. Source: Dept. of Indian

Affairs and Northern Development, 1969.

Figure 2An aerial view and images of the Widow’s Row site.

households: overcrowding remains a seriousissue and houses remain ill-adapted to thecultural requirements of families.

Although community consultation hasrecently been incorporated into the approvalstage of public housing in Iqaluit, commu-nity input can and should play a greater rolethroughout the process. Users need to partici-pate in design if current and future housingneeds are to be met with practical dwellingswell suited to the Inuit way of life and the arc-tic environment.

F L E X I B L E D E S I G N

Flexible housing can reduce costs over thelong term by extending the lifecycle of publichousing. Schneider and Till (2005a) encour-age the public sector to recognize the long-term economic advantages of flexible design:“[If] technological systems, service strategiesand spatial principles are employed thatenable the flexible use of a building, thesebuildings will in turn last longer.” Flexibledesign projects need not be expensive andcomplex, requiring expertise unavailablelocally, as some have been in the past. Stan-

resource-intensive nature of building in theArctic. The emphasis on planning in flexiblehousing presents an important opportunity tomake environmentally conscious decisionsduring design. Where flexible design can re -duce the use of materials through standard-ization, it can also facilitate future alterations.

W I D O W ’ S R O W : A C A S E S T U D Y F O RF L E X I B L E H O U S I N G

I N I Q A L U I T

In fall, 2007 planning officials from the City ofIqaluit invited us to design public housing toreplace existing dwellings on Widow’s Row, anarrow plot of land of about a hectare adja-cent to Iqaluit’s downtown and near Inuk-shuk High School (Figure 2).

The site consisted of fourteen singlefamily, public housing units constructed inthe 1970s. Today, these units are dilapidatedand require extensive repairs. Not only are thebuildings themselves in poor condition –insufficient insulation, poor quality of con-

14C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

dardization of building measurements andmaterials, for example, is a simple and cost-effective way to ensure that future housingcan be economically retrofitted and adaptedto the needs of changing households.

Furthermore, if flexible design trulyresponds to the social and cultural needs of itsinhabitants, their satisfaction will translateinto increased housing longevity. Schneiderand Till (2005a) indicate that flexibility in -cludes long-term economic savings “such as ahigher appreciation of the dwelling on thepart of the user, less occupant fluctuation, andthe ability to react quickly to changing needsor wants of the existing or potential inhabi-tants and the market”. Where flexible designmeets the economic requirements of a publichousing strategy, it also supports environ-mentally responsible initiatives in publichousing development.

Reducing the environmental impact ofhousing is integral to the concept of flexibledesign. Longer-lasting units mean less newconstruction, retrofitting, and rehabilita-tion – and fewer condemned houses sent tothe local dump. This is significant given the

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Figure 3The proposed site (9,400 sq. m) has 50 new dwellings, adensity of 54 units/hectare and 47 parking stalls.Source: Shuang Chen.

struction materials and lack of general main-tenance are some of the problems – they werealso inadequately designed for their inhabi-tants and did not adapt well to the shiftingneeds of the community. Given the site’s cen-tral location and the scarcity of buildable landin Iqaluit, such low density is unsustainable.Consequently, the City encouraged the rede-velopment of the Widow’s Row site.

We were asked to create a plan anddesign public housing units adapted to thearctic environment, the site and, most impor-tantly, to the social and cultural requirementsof the inhabitants. A flexible design approachrequired that we study and incorporate theintersecting factors that affect public housingdesign in Nunavut. We carefully studied thelocal climate and developed a typology ofunit-level and planning responses; we sur-veyed available information on Inuit dwellingculture and lifestyles; and we developed anoverview of the socio-demographic profile ofthe community.

Site plans were conceived according tothe need for a medium density developmentthat safely accommodates pedestrians andsnow machines alike. We identified commu-nal spaces for children’s play, soapstone carv-ing, and socializing, and included commonparking, reduced setbacks, and multi-unitbuildings with private entrances. The planalso suggested individual storage units forhunting and fishing equipment. Lastly, cli-matic considerations affected site design:buildings were oriented to take into consider-ation wind direction and solar exposure, andlocated so as to shelter each other; houseswere aligned parallel to prevailing winds andraised above grade to prevent permafrostthaw and allow snow-bearing winds to passunderneath without forming drifts; the struc-ture’s silhouette was streamlined, with shal-low roof slopes; and entrances included windlocks to prevent drafts when the door is open -ed (Figure 3).

U N I T D E S I G N

A dwelling’s lifecycle consists of three phases:pre-occupancy, occupancy, and post-occu-pancy. Our approach applied flexibility to allthree.

For the pre-occupancy phase we in -cor porated principles of flexibility into com-munity consultation and the design process,so that public housing would meet the needsof future occupants and the community. Sec-ondly, flexibility played an important roleduring occupancy: housing must be adapt-able to family lifestyles and changing familycomposition. Lastly, flexibility is an importantfactor in the rehabilitation of units, ensuringthat dwellings will meet the needs of new ten-ants or that they can easily and economicallybe refurbished over time.

F l e x i b i l i t y P r i o r t o O c c u p a n c y

To meet the needs of the eventual residents wecreated a choice of design options to be select-

ed by the future occupant or an agency repre-senting them. Floor plans include a list of fea-tures that can be incorporated into the unitdesign according to budget and householdrequirements. A “menu” made available by abuilder could include a range of componentsto assist occupants with limited mobility andadapt the house for elders and small children.

Depending on household compositionand lifestyle, a choice of floor plans is avail-able. The size and layout of the kitchen, bath-room, and multipurpose room can be adaptedaccording to need, and there are differentoptions for interior and exterior components(Figures 4 and 5). Although residents of pub-lic housing change over time, in Iqaluit peopleoften remain in a dwelling for long periods.

Figure 5Menu of Exterior Components. Source: Shuang Chen.

Figure 4Menu of Interior Components. Source: Shuang Chen.

Ensuring that they are satisfied with theirhomes is an important step towards improv-ing the sustainability of public housing.

The local housing authority consultsthe future occupants on their choice of floorplan and interior menu components. Futureoccupants also have a say in where to locatethese items during conception of each dwell -ing’s layout, according to their need. Whenthese are decided the housing authority pass-es the information on to the unit developer(Figure 6).

Given the growing number of skilledtradespeople in Nunavut, prefabrication ofmaterials can and should take place in Iqaluit.Rather than imposing one standard designand expecting families to conform, this flexi-ble system of design supports the needs ofoccupants in a cost-effective manner.

P o s t - O c c u p a n c y F l e x i b i l i t y

Public housing that can adapt to the evolvingthe needs of its occupants will last longer andhave less impact on the environment. North-ern housing needs to adapt to families that dif-fer in composition and change over time.Inuit families tend to be large, and there isinsufficient housing for growing families. Inaddition, multiple generations of one family –a grandmother, a young mother and herchild, for example – may live under a single

16C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

roof, and it is common for extended familymembers to join a household for various reasons.

Designing for flexibility while thedwell ing is occupied is an important strategy

to accommodate changing household reali-ties. If, for example, the multipurpose roomdesigned as a laundry and workroom has a

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Figure 6Examples of floor plan scenarios selected according tothe needs of housing occupants. Source: Shuang Chen.

window, it can be converted into a bedroom ifnecessary. Likewise, a home office can alsofunction as a sewing room and, if designed

with a window, can be converted into a smallbedroom should the need arise. Includingadditional windows, and not labelling rooms,are simple and affordable ways to design adwelling that adapts to changing families.

Unit designs also included a range ofoptions to create a highly adaptable floor

plan. Appropriate housing design for Inuitcommunities supports the lifestyle of resi-dents, providing the storage and workspaceneeded by families who hunt and fish. Coldporches are incorporated into the design of allunits. These are unheated vestibules for stor-ing outdoor clothing and equipment (cari-

Figure 7A block of dwellings made up of units and exteriorsselected by occupants in a simulation exercise. Source:Shuang Chen.]

bou-skin winter clothing must be kept cool)that provide a transition zone between theinterior and exterior where people can accli-matize to major changes in temperature.

According to Peter Dawson (2003),“the [highly compartmentalized] spatial con-figuration of Euro-Canadian houses oftenmakes Inuit household activities difficult toorganize, execute and complete.” In our de -sign an open floor plan for the kitchen and liv-ing area creates communal space that is high-ly integrated. Open-concept kitchens, a com-mon practice in modern housing design, arewell-suited to the needs of Inuit households.They transform the kitchen from its tradition-al service purpose into a practical, adaptable,and efficient utility space that not only ac -commodates food preparation, but alsoenables clear supervision of children playingand allows large families to gather togetherfor meals. An expanded living room becomesa more flexible all-purpose space that can alsobe used as a study, a sewing room, diningroom, sitting room, and play area. By maxi-mizing the general communal living space,the open concept floor plan facilitates the vis-iting and social interaction that Inuit value.

Extensive community consultation isessential. Consultation allows the creation ofhomes that support the cultural activities in -

tegral to the lives of residents, and are welladapted to their specific needs (Figure 7).

C O N C L U S I O N

Given the existing shortage of quality housingand the rapid population growth expected forIqaluit, developing a robust and culturallyappropriate framework for the design of pub-lic housing in the Arctic is urgent. To date,public housing in Iqaluit has not addressedthe housing needs of Inuit residents to the fullextent possible. Furthermore, the impositionof southern Canadian design standards andnorms has produced houses poorly suited tothe needs of the Inuit population and the arc-tic climate. Although the quality and cultural-specificity of public housing built in Iqaluithave dramatically improved in recent years,we recognize that architects can play a piv-otal role in improving the design of publichousing there.

By adhering to a philosophy of flexibledesign, architects have the opportunity todesign according to the needs of Inuit house-holds. When undertaken in good faith, a flex-ible approach integrates the contributions ofresidents and public housing authorities,allowing them to shape the thrust of housingdesign from its very outset. Flexibility alonewill not solve the housing crisis in the Canadi-

an Arctic; however, research demonstratesthat user-led, flexible design has the potentialto improve the environmental, economic andcultural suitability of public housing in Iqaluit.

AcknowledgementsWe would like to acknowledge the participa-tion and contribution of Shuang Chen, BassemEid, Reza Assasi, Scott Mack, Nima Razaviand Huang Qian in the design of the project.

Avi Friedman is a Professor with the Afford -able Homes Program at McGill UniversitySchool of Architecture. Elizabeth Debickais a researcher there.

ReferencesBeisi, Jia, 1995. “Adaptable Housing or Adapt-

able People?”, Architecture et Comporte-ment/Architecture and Behaviour,vol. 11,no. 2, pp. 139–162. Lausanne, Switzerland.

Collings, Peter, 2005. “Housing Policy, Aging,and Life Course Construction in a Canadi-an Inuit Community”, Arctic Anthropolo-gy,Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 50–65. Wisconsin UP,Wisconsin, United States.

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2 Dawson, Peter, 2003. “Examining the Impactof Euro-Canadian Architecture on InuitFamilies Living in Arctic Canada”, Chapter21 in: Proceedings, Fourth InternationalSpace Syntax Symposium, London, Eng-land, June 17–19, 2003. London, UnitedKingdom.

Nielsen, Christian Woetmann, and Ivor Am -brose, 1994. “Lifetime Adaptable Housing

Standard”, Technology and Disability,vol. 10, pp. 11–19. IOS Press, Amsterdam,The Netherlands.

Robson, Robert, 1995. “Housing in the North-west Territories: The Post-War Vision”,Urban History Review, vol. 24, no. 1, pp.3–20. Becker Associates Toronto, Canada.

Schneider, Tatjana, and Jeremy Till, 2005a.“Flexible Housing: Opportunities and Lim-

its”, Architectural Research Quarterly,vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 157–66. Cambridge UP,Cambridge, Great Britain.

Schneider, Tatjan, and Jeremy Till, 2005b.“Flexible Housing: The Means to the End”,Architectural Research Quarterly, vol. 9,no. 2, pp. 157–66. Cambridge UP, Cam-bridge, Great Britain.

B O O K R E V I E WJoanne Tompkins

Inuit Education and Schools in theEastern Arctic, by Heather McGregor. UBCPress, 2010. 240 pp., $85.00 hardcover, $32.95paperback. ISBN: 9780774817455.

In Nunavut schools dropout rates among Inuitare high and graduation is low – about 25 to30 percent of Inuit students graduate fromhigh school. To shed light on how this came tobe, Heather McGregor has written a book thatlooks at the way Inuit education and school-ing have developed, and examines their foun-dations. McGregor writes from the perspec-tive of close familiarity with the topic: she is aEuro-Canadian northerner who calls Iqaluithome and whose parents are long-servingnorthern educators.

Inuit Education and Schools in theEastern Arctic represents an important contri -bution to the field of Inuit education. Throughan analysis of the historical context of educa-tion and schooling in the Eastern Arctic thebook sheds light on the challenges Inuit facedas they moved from informal camp-basededucation through formal schooling. Begin-ning when Inuit lived on the land in smallcamps and ran their own affairs, the bookthen discusses the colonial period (1945–1970), the Territorial period (1971– 1981),and the local period (1982–1999), and con-cludes at the creation of Nunavut in 1999. The

role of tradition and the recurrent themes ofcultural negotiation and policymaking arecentral throughout.

The author separates “education” and“schools” in her title, and this is a key notion inthe book. In this context education is theprocess by which one generation prepares thenext to take part in society, equipped with theways of knowing, doing, and being that per-petuate culture. Schools, by contrast, arewestern, southern constructs intended to pre-pare children to take their places as citizens.Education may take place, as it once did forInuit, entirely on the land and in the camps or,sometimes, it may take place in schools; butsome of these, like the residential schoolsmany Aboriginal children attended, werehardly educative places. The challenge forInuit, whose world was disrupted by the movefrom camps to permanent settlements, hasbeen to enact “education as Inuit did [tradi-tionally] within the confines of formal school-ing” (p. 117).

The first chapter acquaints the readerwith the geographic, cultural, social andpolitical landscape and, importantly, situatesthe Inuit experience of education and school-ing alongside that of other Aboriginal Cana-dians. The interconnection of education andculture is raised here. Western, southern mod-els of education and schooling tend to focuson the importance of the individual; Inuit

education emphasizes community and theenvironment.

The book then moves on to examineeducation in the traditional period, whenInuit lived in small camps. Inuit ways ofknowing, being and doing were the founda-tions of the Inuit education that prepared thenext generation to live well in their environ-ment with each other. Inuit education cen-tered on environmental knowledge, experi-ential learning with a focus on demonstra-tion, observation and practice, and informaland learner centered education with thelearner often having a close personal and kin-ship relationship with the person teaching.The “curriculum” focused largely on knowl-edge and skills related to the environment.The quotations from Inuit elders and philoso-phers peppered through this chapter attest tothe fully coherent view of education thatexisted and was practiced in this period:

The Inuit language and culture is de -signed to help the society to survive in aharsh environment, by putting a lot ofemphasis on practical lessons. Whenteaching a child to think and develop theirskill and knowledge base, we should do sowith a lot of love, kindness, understand-ing and patience being continuously pre-sent. Recognizing a child’s character willhelp determine the types and methods ofteaching that will work best for the child,

as each person has a different way of pro-cessing how they generate thought orprocess ideas. – Joe Karetak (p. 37)

The third chapter discusses the periodof accelerating change following the SecondWorld War that saw Inuit leadership displacedby southern administration, with correspond -ing loss of control of their land, communities,and even of raising their children. Parentswere largely excluded from the formal educa-tion process by distance (in the case of resi-dential school), by language (inabil -ity of the school to accommodate Inuktitut-speaking parents) or by practice (lack of for-mal mechanisms to include parents in deci-sion-making). It is debatable how much edu-cation happened in this period but thereclearly was a lot of schooling. Generally thegoals of education were imposed upon Inuitby the government and were assimilationist,as it was believed that for Inuit to succeed theyhad to become employable in the white man’seconomy. Whether this goal was accurategiven the changing hunting and trappingeconomy is debatable; but more to the point isthat Inuit were not part of any discussionabout either the goals or the kind of schoolingthat was developed for their children. Thechapter explores the residential school expe-rience, in which children were most discon-nected from their families and culture, andmoves forward to examine the federal schoolsthat were established in many communities(federal day schools). What stands out in thischapter is the sharp contrast between school-ing and the Inuit education of the traditionalperiod. Experiential education was replacedby largely didactic transmission of knowl-edge; informal teacher-learner relationshipswith kin were replaced by relationships withEuro-Canadian teachers; and Inuit social,cultural, and land skills were replaced byknowledge reflecting the society, culture, andskills of the South.

The fourth chapter discusses the periodwhen responsibility for education movedfrom the federal government in Ottawa to the

territorial government in Yellowknife. Thiscoincided with the beginning of Inuit politicalmobilization. A territorial survey of educationprovided some acknowledgement of the needfor more attention to local culture in North-west Territories classrooms, inspired by themulticulturalism then being promoted by theTrudeau government. Missing from the sur-vey were the opinions of parents and elders.New policies brought Inuit classroom assis-tants and teachers into the schools. This peri-od saw a great deal of “good intentions” by theTerritorial government to move towards lessassimilationist schooling, and there weresome attempts to provide direction for moreculturally responsive curriculum. Generallyhowever, the goals of education were un -clear, teacher support in communities wasinadequate, and no mechanism existed forInuit parents to influence decisions, made byEuro-Canadian administrators, that affectedtheir children’s schooling. At times, Yellow -knife appeared little closer than Ottawa hadbeen.

Chapter 5 discusses the serious at -tempts at rebalancing Inuit education so thatthose most affected by schooling – Inuit par-

ents and communities – would have some sayin the goals of education and how it was car-ried out. Territorial hearings on education,held in communities, gave voice to Inuit andDene concerns. The report, Learning, Tradi-tion and Change (1982) recommended “localinvolvement in, and responsibility for educa-tion as the basis for the future school system”(p. 119). New divisional boards of educationcreated a political dimension of school gover-nance which gave decision-making authori-ty to parents and other community members.McGregor provides an analysis of the BaffinDivisional Board of Education, which was thefirst divisional board established, modelledafter northern Quebec’s Kativik Board of Education.

The Baffin Divisional Board centeredschooling on Inuit culture. Learning, Tradi-tion and Changealso recommended improvedteacher training and production of materialsto support bilingual education and curricu-lum development. The Baffin DivisionalBoard employed elders in schools, producedseveral hundred children’s books in Inuktitut,expanded community-based teacher educa-tion programs, and established kindergar-ten to grade 12 education in all communities.After extensive community consultation itpro duced a curriculum framework docu-ment, Piniaqtavut (“where we are going”),and a curriculum project Inuuqatigiit (“peo-ple to people”), which represented a holisticapproach to Inuit knowing, being and doing,and reflected a methodology more closely tiedto the Inuit way of education. It was moreexperientially based, student-centered, anddependent on close relationships betweenteacher and student. In spite of these advancesand improving graduation rates, the highschool completion rate for Inuit studentsremained well below national norms. Provid-ing resources to support bilingual educationremained a challenge.

The final chapter deals with the inte-gration of Inuit education and schools in theNunavut period (1999 and beyond). The au -

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2 thor quotes the northern education specialistAnn Vick-Westgate, who states that “one ofthe greatest challenges facing communities,educators and researchers in the Arctic is thatof developing genuinely Inuit, Dene and otherapproaches to education, not just sprinklingcultural materials into approaches designedfor southern systems. Native and other north-ern educators, most of them trained in south-ern systems, will have to think outside theboundaries of those systems” (p 165). There ishuge irony in the fact that just as Inuit weregaining more control of schooling throughthe divisional boards, which arguably helpedkeep priorities focused on Inuit education, thenewly established Nunavut government dis-solved them. The reason given was that be -cause Nunavut is a public government, divi-sional boards were redundant. McGregor’sbook does not venture into the Nunavut yearsbut she finishes her last chapter by concludingthat parental and community involvement ingovernance is necessary if education is toreflect Inuit aspirations. “Until parents, com-munity members, and local educational lead-ers, with access to an appropriate frameworkof support and resources to implement localdecisions and goals, are meaningfully en -gaged and in control of education, the Inuit ofthe Eastern Arctic will be hindered in theirefforts to deliver education that manifests anInuit vision of the past and future” (p. 169).

McGregor’s work has many strengths.She does a thorough job of describing the con-text in which Inuit education was set duringeach period, providing a sense of both themicro and macro politics of each period with-out drowning the reader in historical detail.She writes with freshness and injects passioninto her writing so that it does not feel like apurely academic text, and will appeal both tolay people and educators. Direct quotes fromInuit elders and educators help bring authen-ticity and veracity to her work. Though not aneducator herself, McGregor has created awork that has a great deal of educationalinsight. Having spent 15 years as a northern

educator during the Local period, I recognizedthat the book captures much of the challengeand excitement that I lived through duringthat time.

I have only two regrets after readingthe book. I would have loved to have seenmore photos, as the ones included enhancedthe book. Photographs, particularly of theearlier periods, help the reader unfamiliarwith Nunavut to gain a deeper sense of thegeographic and cultural differences of a re -gion so dramatically different to other parts ofCanada. Secondly – though it was clearly out-side the scope of her work – I was disappoint-ed that the text ended with the creation ofNunavut and did not explore more fully thejudgments made that led to dissolving thedivisional boards. Additionally I would haveliked more about the decision by the negotia-tors for Nunavut not to place education as apriority item in the first round of negotiations– which set Nunavut apart from other FirstNations and Inuit groups. I would have beeninterested in information that would help inunderstanding these puzzling decisions andtheir impacts.

In summary, Inuit Education andSchools in the Eastern Arctic is an importantread for anyone wanting to understand theInuit experience of education and schoolingin Nunavut, past and present, and the bookwill resonate with those working in FirstNations, Metis or Inuit education. McGregor’swork provides important historical evidenceto demonstrate that when Inuit have access topolitical power and decision-making, theycan make their voices and aspirations inte-gral to education development – and beginbuilding an education system that meets theirneeds.

Joanne Tompkins is an associate professor inthe Faculty of Education at St. Francis XavierUniversity, Antigonish, Nova Scotia. She was ateacher, principal, board consultant, andteacher educator in Nu navut’s Qikiqtaniregion from 1982 to 1996.

N E W B O O K S

Arctic Naturalist: The Life of J. Dewey

Soper, by Anthony Dalton. Dundurn Press.ISBN: 978-1-55488-746-0.

Dewey Soper was the last of the greatpioneer naturalists in Canada, and was askilled and meticulous explorer. He first trav-elled to the Arctic in 1923. During the nextseven years he had three research postings onBaffin Island, and 1929 discovered the breed-ing grounds of the blue goose in the southwestcorner of Baffin Island. Later in life he workedin the western Arctic.

He was a major contributor to the Na -tional Museum of Canada, as well as to theUniversity of Alberta and other museumsacross the country.

Circumpolar Health Atlas, by T. KueYoung (senior editor). University of TorontoPress. ISBN: 9781442644564.

The Circumpolar Health Atlasoffers abroad, multidisciplinary understanding ofthe health of diverse populations who inhabitthe polar regions of the northern hemisphere.The atlas includes overviews of the physicalenvironment that influences human health;cultures and languages of northern peoples;different diseases and health conditions; andhealth systems, policies, resources, and ser-vices. It concludes with information on howeducation and research can be used to im -prove health in these regions.

Climate, Culture, Change: Inuit and

Western Dialogues with a Warming

North, by Timothy B. Leduc. University ofOttawa Press. ISBN: 978-0-7766-0750-4.

Timothy Leduc steps outside scientificand political debates on climate change toengage with various Inuit understandings ofnorthern climate change. He learns thattoday’s climate changes are not only affectingour environments, but also our cultures. Byfocusing on the changes currently occurringin the North, he highlights the challengesbeing posed to climate re search, Canadianpolitics, and traditional Inuit knowledge.

Climate, Culture, Change sheds lighton the cultural challenges posed by northernwarming and proposes an intercultural res -ponse that is demonstrated by the blending ofInuit and western perspectives.

Herschel Island Qikiqtaryuk: A Natur-

al and Cultural History of Yukon’s

Arctic Island, edited by Christopher R.Burn. University of Calgary Press (distribu-tor). ISBN: 978-0-9880009-0-2.

For centuries Inuvialuit and their an -ces tors lived and hunted on Qikiqtaryuk, asmall island in the Beaufort Sea just off theYukon coast. In the early 19th century Sir JohnFranklin named it after a distinguished Eng-lish scientific family, the Herschels. Later itbecame a centre of American steamship wha -ing. During the fur trade of the early 20th cen-tury, Inuvialuit trappers made considerableprofits from the island’s abundant fox popula-tion. In the 1970s it was used as a base for off-shore oil exploration, and it is now a wilder-ness park. In this book a wide array of expertsbring to life the many-faceted story of Her-schel Island.

H O R I Z O N

First International Conference on Urbanisation in the ArcticNuuk, Greenland28–30 August 2012

www.nordregio.se

Circumpolar Conference on Education for Indigenous PeopleIqaluit, Nunavut, Canada26–30 November 2012

www.uarctic.org

8th ArcticNet Annual Scientific MeetingVancouver, BC11–14 December 2012

www.arcticnetmeetings.ca

For more information on events please see thePolar Events Calendar at www.polarcom.gc.ca.

22C A N A D I A N P O L A R C O M M I S S I O N

is published by the Canadian Polar Commission.

ISSN 1492-6245© 2012 Canadian Polar Commission

Editor: John BennettTranslation: Suzanne Rebetez, Gérard Verreault, JohnBennettDesign: Eiko Emori Inc.

Canadian Polar CommissionSuite 1710, Constitution Square360 Albert StreetOttawa, OntarioK1R 7X7

Tel.: (613) 943-8605Toll-free: 1-888-765-2701Fax: (613) 943-8607E-mail: mail@polarcom.gc.cawww.polarcom.gc.ca

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The opinions expressed in this newsletter do notnecessarily reflect those of the Canadian PolarCommission.

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