CHAPTER

THE MEDIA X

All public officials

have a love-hate

relationship with

newspapers,

television, and the

other media of mass

communications.

“I fear the newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets.” -Napoleon Bonaparte

Press Freedom Index (Annual Ranking of Countries compiled by Reporters without Borders)

(The bottom three countries were Eritrea, North Korea & Turkmenistan)

F I N L A N D

I C E L A N D

N E T H E R L A N D S

N O R W A Y

S W E D E N

S W I T Z E R L A N D

A U S T R I A

N E W Z E A L A N D

E S T O N I A

I R E L A N D

U S A

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

20.

COMPARING THE UNITED STATES TO THE REST OF THE WORLD

Nowhere is media 100% free from gov’t

influence

USA is among the freest in the world (#20)

Some EUR nations place more restrictions

o Ex: Libel laws in England are so strict

that English lawmakers often sue

newspapers

o Ex: England has a Official Secrets Act to

punish anyone who divulges private

government business

Freedom of Information Act

o Opposite of Official Secrets Act

o Allows for government dispersal of

information by request

American TV & Radio stations are privately

owned

o (Require Gov’t licenses)

o FR: Broadcasting is operated by a gov’t

agency

o FR fined a broadcaster for speaking ill of

the President

“I

disapprove

of what

you say,

but I will

defend to

the death

your right

to say it.” -Voltaire

Structure of the Media The relationship between journalism and politics is a two-way street: though politicians take advantage as best they can of the communications media available to them, these media in turn attempt to use politics and politicians as a way of both entertaining and informing their audiences. The mass media, whatever their disclaimers, are not simply a mirror held up to reality or a messenger that carries the news. There is inevitably a process of selection, of editing, and of emphasis and this process reflects, to some degree, the way in which the media are organized, the kinds of audiences they seek to serve, and the preferences and opinions of the members of the media.

Newspapers

o Huge decline in the # of newspapers in the United States

o 1900: 60% of US Cities had competing Newspapers

o 1972: 4% of US Cities had competing Newspapers

o Large cities still do (most cities do not)

Radio & Television

o Huge amount of competition

1,000s of channels; 11,000 cable systems; 10,000 radio stations

American=Local Ownership

o Most media sources are locally owned and operated

New York Times covers New York

Washington Post covers Washington DC

o Example: ENGLAND

The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, etc. cover the entire nation

C O M P E T I T I O N

T H E N A T I O N A L M E D I A

Not all media is local o Associated Press and United Press International provide the local news with most

of their non-local information

Magazines o Time, Newsweek, U.S. News & World Report

Evening News (ABC, CBS, NBC, MSNBC, FOXNEWS, CNN, etc.)

Newspapers o 3 TRULY national papers: USA Today, Wall Street Journal, & Christian-Science

Monitor (NY Times & Wash Post are also national)

National Press is important because…

o 1. Gov’t officials pay great attn. to what is said in the Nat’l media

o 2. Nat’l reporters are different than local (better paid, educated, etc.)

NATIONAL PRESS PLAYS THREE ROLES IN REGARDS TO THE FEDERAL GOV’T

Katie Couric hosts the National news on

CBS’s Evening News

GATEKEEPER SCOREKEEPER WATCHDOG

It can influence what subjects

become NATIONAL ISSUES

Media attention can affect policy

Keep track/help make

reputations

Note who is “mentioned” as a

Presidential candidate

Who is winning/losing in

National Politics

Can lead to coverage appearing

like a horse race

EX: New Hampshire Primary &

Iowa Caucus

Delve into

politicians/newsmakers’

backgrounds

Closely scrutinize newsmakers

Tolerant on underdogs

Tough on front runners\

Woodward & Bernstein

Broadcast Media More Regulated by the Government

o No one may operate a radio or TV station without a license

from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

o Your license will almost always get renewed

Unless it is formally opposed by the FCC

Radio has been EXTREMELY deregulated

Results:

o A few large companies own most of the big market radio

stations

o Looser editorial restrictions that accompany deregulation

mean that there is a greater variety of opinion on the radio

OTHER REGULATIONS

Print Media

Least Regulated by Government

o Need no license

o No prior restraint

o Liable for what they do publish only

in very specific circumstances

OTHER RULES Your name & picture can be used

without your consent if you are part of

the news story

If you are attacked by a newspaper/mag

they do not have to give you space to

respond

You cannot advocate the violent

overthrow of gov’t if by your advocacy

you incite others to action

Rules Governing the Media

ONCE PUBLISHED, A NEWSPAPER

OR MAGAZINE CAN BE SUED IF:

LIBEL MUST BE

PROVEN TO

BE FALSE BUT

ALSO SHOW

CLEAR AND

CONVINCING

EVIDENCE

THAT IT WAS

PRINTED

MALICIOUSLY

OBSCENE USUALLY LIMITED TO CONTENT THAT

DIRECTLY REFERS TO

SEXUAL ACTS THAT

ARE PUBLICLY

ACCESSIBLE, THOUGH

IT HAS AT TIMES

COVERED OTHER

SUBJECTS LIKE

WRITTEN LANGUAGE

THAT CAN BE PUBLICLY

TRANSMITTED AND

RECEIVED BY THE GENERAL PUBLIC

“INCITEFUL”

ONE WHO

REACHES OUT

AND SEEKS TO INFLUENCE

THE MIND OF

ANOTHER TO COMMIT A

CRIME

CONFIDENTIALITY No one set rule on Confidentiality

o Differs from State to

State/Federal

SC has upheld the right of the gov’t

to compel reporters to divulge

information as part of a properly

conducted criminal investigation (if

it bears on the commission of the

crime) 36 States currently have Shield Laws

o There is no Federal Shield Law

o VA does not have a Shield Law

EX: Marion Farber

Myron Farber is a newspaper

reporter for the New York Times.

whose investigations into the deaths of

several patients at an Oradell, New

Jersey hospital led to the murder trial of

Dr. Mario Jascalevich, a physician at the

hospital who was alleged to have used a

powerful muscle relaxant in what

became known as the "Dr. X" case.

After refusing to turn over

notes from his investigation in response

to a subpoena from the defense attorney

in the case, Farber was jailed for

contempt and the newspaper fined,

ending up spending 40 days in jail with

fines of $285,000 assessed. Appealed to

the Supreme Court of the United States,

the case set a precedent for the

limitations of shield laws in the United

States.

X

ALL OF THESE ARE VERY HARD TO PROVE

1996 Telecommunications Act (n)- an updated law pertaining

to the telecommunications with such provisions as multiple ownership of

media outlets, V-chip & cable technologies, and obscenity (scrambling)

Clear Channel Radio owns 1200+ radio

Stations around the nation. The next largest

Company owns just over 200 stations.

EQUAL TIME RULE

If a station sells

time to one

candidate for

office, it must be

willing to sell equal

time to opposing candidates.

RIGHT OF REPLY RULE

If a person is attacked on

a broadcast (other than

in a regular news

program), that person

has the right to reply

over that same station

POLITICAL

EDITORIALIZING RULE

If a broadcaster endorses a

candidate, the opposing

candidate has a right to reply

HOW TO READ A

NEWSPAPER COVERAGE Every newspaper

covers the big stories (9/11, elections, etc.)

More selective about the “smaller” stories

Different papers cover different smaller stories

SOURCES Anonymous= the

source does not want his/her name revealed

WHY???????????? o Trial Balloon- it

could be a test from the gov’t to see how the public reacts

o They may oppose what the gov’t is doing

o Source may be pushing blame

LANGUAGE Loaded Language-

using words to persuade people without actually making an argument

Senator Smith Respected Senator

Smith Embattles Senator

Smith Liberal Senator Smith

The EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON

POLITICS Everyone believes that the media have a profound

effect, for better or for worse, on politics.

Research indicates that what appears in print,

online, or on TV, probably does have an effect on

how citizens think. What is unclear is the extent

to which if affects citizens.

Efforts to study people who see candidates

on TV vs. those who do not have proved

ineffectual

Media may reinforce existing beliefs, but it

unclear if it changes them

Ex: Newspapers have endorsed the

Republican for president every year except

1964

Selective Attention (n)- the citizen

sees and hears only what he or she wants

Mental Tune-out (n)- the citizen

simply ignores or gets irritated by messages

that are not in accord with existing beliefs

Some elections have little media coverage

o Local primaries, small offices

o People may rely heavily on local media

for information on these races

Media has less to do with voting and more to do

with perception of a candidate

o Quayle, Dean, Dukakis

Many use the media to gain notoriety/coverage

o If you are on a key committee or appear

in the media often

o Many attempt to build a national

constituency

STUDY: People of NC thought the issues most

often covered in the local press were the most

important issues (Correlation?)

Source of information matters as well

o Newspaper vs. TV vs. Internet

o 1976: Newspaper readers saw more

differences in the candidates than TV

Government AND The Media

View from the podium of the White House Briefing Room

West Wing Layout- Note the

proximity of the Press Briefing room

to the Oval Office

TR & THE PRESS 1

st President to use the

Media to his full advantage

Gave stories only to

friendly reporters

Tried to do something

newsworthy everyday

Built the West Wing

o With Press Briefing

Room near his office

o Invited the Press to

family outings

MODERN PRESS SECRETARY TODAY: ROBERT GIBBS (PICTURED)

JOB DESCRIPTION: o Meets with Reporters o Briefs President on questions he might

be asked by the Press Corps. o Attempts to control the flow of news

from Cabinet Depts to the Press

Large Staff

ALL OF THIS IS DONE FOR THE WHITE HOUSE PRESS CORPS

White House Press Corps (n)- group of men

and women who have a lounge at the White House itself

where they wait for a story to break, attend the daily

press briefing or take advantage of a photo-op

NO OTHER NATION IN THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD HAS

BROUGHT THE PRESS THIS CLOSE TO THE GOVERNMENT

C O V E R A G E OF C O N G R E S S HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Members of the House attract little media attn. (1/435)

Restrictive of TV coverage

o 1952-1970= No cameras allowed (until CSPAN)

C-SPAN (n)- Cable-Satellite Public Affairs

Network airs nonstop coverage of government affairs

beginning in 1979. Today there are 3 CSPANs.

SENATE

More fully embraced TV coverage

o Saw the power of “Face-time”

o Adds to their advantage in the public eye

o CSPAN 2 airs round the clock live coverage

of the Senate

INTERPRETING POLITICAL NEWS

BIAS (n)- allowing one’s personal political beliefs to

influence the stories that they choose to run and the way in

which they choose to cover them

Reporters tend to be more liberal than the public as a

whole

** Your book was written well before the impact of

the 24-hour cable news cycle was felt. People often

get their news today from sources that are catered to

their beliefs (Ex. Conservatives watch Fox; Liberals

watch MSNBC)

JOURNALIST OPINION PUBLIC OPINION

Self Describe Ideology

Liberal

Conservative

Favor Gov’t Regulation of Business

Allow Women to have abortions

Allow prayer in public schools

Favor death penalty for murder

Want stricter controls on handguns

Favor hiring homosexuals

Journalists

55%

17%

49%

82%

25%

47%

78%

89%

The Public

23%

29%

22%

49%

74%

75%

50%

55%

Are News Stories Slanted? Just because media is liberal doesn’t necessarily mean that the

stories will have a liberal bias…

THREE TYPES OF NEWS STORIES

ROUTINE FEATURE INSIDER

ROUTINE FEATURE INSIDER Public events regularly

covered by reporters

Involves simple, easily

described facts

LEAST BIAS

Public events knowable to any

reporter who is willing to

inquire about them

Reporter must take initiative

and show interest

Info not usually made public

because someone with inside

knowledge tells a reporter

What is the motive of the

informant?

MUST BE SELECTED; THERFORE SOMEONE MUST CHOOSE

WHAT BELIEFS OR OPINIONS LED THE EDITORS TO RUN THIS? WHAT ADJECTIVES ARE BEING USED? HOW DO THEY SLANT THE STORY?

WHY SO MANY

LEAKS? People in government regularly leak stories favorable to their interests

Q: WHY? A: CONSTITUTION o With so many branches/agencies/etc. competing for power...

o Use leaks to gain power/leverage/prestige

o Fewer leaks in other democracies because power is centralized in one

prime minister

o No OFFICIAL SECRETS ACT (UK)

IT IS NOT AGAINST THE LAW TO

RECEIVE OR PRINT SECRETS (except in specific situations)

Press and politicians have become weary of one another

Led to an era of attack journalism

Attacking public officials has become the norm

Adversarial Press (n)- one that is suspicious of government and is eager to break

an embarrassing story

Ford falling down stairs The Clinton “Hug” Wrong Door Bush

SENSATIONALISM 1930s Press knew of FDR’s Mistress NO REPORTING

1960sPress knew of JFK’s Mistresses NO REPORTING

1960sPress knew of MLK’s Mistresses NO REPORTING

1980s THEY REPORT EVERYTHING!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

FDR’s Mistress

JFK with Marilyn

Martin Luther King

The Clinton “Hug”

WHAT CHANGED? A: Economics of Journalism and the Ideas of the Reporters

o Until 1970s, Americans got their news from the 3 Networks (CBS, NBC, ABC)

o Each had a 30 minute news show

o TODAY24 HOUR CABLE NEWS CYCLE

CNN, MSNBC, FOX NEWS, CNBC, BLOOMBERG

More shows are trying to reach a shrinking audience

Must rely on SENSATIONAL news stories

o EXAMPLE: Monica Lewinsky

When this story broke, it took up 1/3 of ALL news broadcasts for a month

o 1970s Most journalists relied on the rule “At least two sources” for a story

Today, one (whoever it is) is enough

N E X T U N I T:

CONGRESS