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Introduction 1
Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South DakotaBy Daniel G. Driscoll, Janet M. Carter, Joyce E. Williamson, and Larry D. Putnam
ABSTRACT
The Black Hills Hydrology Study was initi-ated in 1990 to assess the quantity, quality, and distribution of surface water and ground water in the Black Hills area of South Dakota. This report summarizes the hydrology of the Black Hills area and the results of this long-term study.
The Black Hills area of South Dakota and Wyoming is an important recharge area for several regional, bedrock aquifer systems and various local aquifers; thus, the study focused on describ-ing the hydrologic significance of selected bed-rock aquifers. The major aquifers in the Black Hills area are the Deadwood, Madison, Minnelusa, Minnekahta, and Inyan Kara aquifers. The highest priority was placed on the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, which are used extensively and heavily influence the surface-water resources of the area.
Within this report, the hydrogeologic frame-work of the area, including climate, geology, ground water, and surface water, is discussed. Hydrologic processes and characteristics for ground water and surface water are presented. For ground water, water-level trends and comparisons and water-quality characteristics are presented. For surface water, streamflow characteristics, responses to precipitation, annual yields and yield efficiencies, and water-quality characteristics are presented. Hydrologic budgets are presented for ground water, surface water, and the combined ground-water/surface-water system. A summary of study findings regarding the complex flow
systems within the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers also is presented.
INTRODUCTION
The Black Hills area is an important resource center that provides an economic base for western South Dakota through tourism, agriculture, the timber industry, and mineral resources. In addition, water orig-inating from the area is used for municipal, industrial, agricultural, and recreational purposes throughout much of western South Dakota. The Black Hills area also is an important recharge area for aquifers in the northern Great Plains.
Population growth, resource development, and periodic droughts have the potential to affect the quan-tity, quality, and availability of water within the Black Hills area. Because of this concern, the Black Hills Hydrology Study was initiated in 1990 to assess the quantity, quality, and distribution of surface water and ground water in the Black Hills area of South Dakota (Driscoll, 1992). This long-term study has been a coop-erative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the West Dakota Water Development District, which represents various local and county cooperators.
The specific objectives of the Black Hills Hydrology Study included:1. Inventorying and describing precipitation amounts,
streamflow rates, ground-water levels of selected aquifer units, and selected water-quality charac-teristics for the Black Hills area.
2 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
2. Developing hydrologic budgets to define relations among precipitation, streamflow, and aquifer response for selected Black Hills watersheds.
3. Describing the significance of the bedrock aquifers in the Black Hills area hydrologic system, with an emphasis on the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers, through determination of:a. aquifer properties (depth, thickness, structure,
storage coefficient, hydraulic conductivity, etc.);
b. the hydraulic connection between the aquifers;c. the source aquifer(s) of springs;d. recharge and discharge rates, and gross volu-
metric budgets; ande. regional flow paths.
4. Developing conceptual models of the hydrogeo-logic system for the Black Hills area.
Purpose and Scope
The purpose of this report is to summarize the hydrology of the Black Hills area and present major findings pertinent to the objectives of the Black Hills Hydrology Study. The information summarized in this report has been presented in more detail in previous reports prepared as part of the study. Because the Black Hills area of South Dakota and Wyoming is an impor-tant recharge area for several regional, bedrock aquifers and various local aquifers, the study concentrated on describing the hydrogeology and hydrologic signifi-cance of selected bedrock aquifers. The highest priority was placed on the Madison and Minnelusa aquifers because: (1) these aquifers are heavily used and could be developed further; (2) these aquifers are connected to surface-water resources through streamflow loss zones and large springs; and (3) hydraulic connection between these aquifers is extremely variable. The Deadwood and Minnekahta aquifers had a lower pri-ority because they are used less and have less influence on the hydrologic system. The fractured Precambrian rocks, Inyan Kara Group, and various local aquifers, including minor bedrock aquifers and unconsolidated aquifers, had the lowest priorities because: (1) the Pre-cambrian and local aquifers are not regional aquifers with regional flowpaths; and (2) the Inyan Kara Group is not used as extensively in the Black Hills area as the other priority units.
Hydrologic analyses within this report generally are by water year, which represents the period from
October 1 through September 30. Discussions of time-frames refer to water years, rather than calendar years, unless specifically noted otherwise.
Description of Study Area
The study area for the Black Hills Hydrology Study consists of the topographically defined Black Hills and adjacent areas located in western South Dakota (fig. 1). Outcrops of the Madison Limestone and Minnelusa Formation, as well as the generalized outer extent of the Inyan Kara Group, which approxi-mates the outer extent of the Black Hills area, also are shown in figure 1. The Black Hills are situated between the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche Rivers. The Belle Fourche River is the largest tributary to the Cheyenne River. The study area includes most of the larger com-munities in western South Dakota and contains about one-fifth of the State’s population.
The Black Hills uplift formed as an elongated dome about 60 to 65 million years ago during the Lara-mide orogeny (Darton and Paige, 1925). The dome trends north-northwest and is about 120 mi long and 60 mi wide. Land-surface altitudes range from 7,242 ft above sea level at Harney Peak to about 3,000 ft in the adjacent plains. Most of the higher altitudes are heavily forested with ponderosa pine, which is the primary product of an active timber industry. White spruce, quaking aspen, paper birch, and other native trees and shrubs are found in cooler, wetter areas (Orr, 1959). The lower altitude areas surrounding the Black Hills primarily are urban, suburban, and agricultural. Numerous deciduous species such as cottonwood, ash, elm, oak, and willow are common along streams in the lower altitudes. Rangeland, hayland, and winter wheat farming are the principal agricultural uses for dryland areas. Alfalfa, corn, and vegetables are produced in bottom lands and in irrigated areas. Various other crops, primarily for cattle fodder, are produced in both dryland areas and in bottom lands.
Beginning in the 1870’s, the Black Hills have been explored and mined for many commodities including gold, silver, tin, tungsten, mica, feldspar, bentonite, beryl, lead, zinc, uranium, lithium, sand, gravel, and oil (U.S. Department of Interior, 1967). Mines within the study area have used various tech-niques including placer mining, underground mining, and open-pit mining.
Introduction 3
Figure 1. Area of investigation for the Black Hills Hydrology Study.
N. F
orkR
apidC
r
Belle FourcheReservoir
FOURCHE
VictoriaSpring
Rhoa
dsFork
Coolidge
Highland
AngosturaReservoir
Castl eC
r
N. Fork Castle Cr
Hel
l
Canyo
n Can
yon
Red
Bea
rG
ulch
Creek
Crow
SheridanLake
Hot Brook Canyon
CoxLake
DeerfieldReservoir
PactolaReservoir
IndianCr
Horse
Creek
OwlCreek
BELLE
RIVER
REDWATER R I VE
R
Cre
ek
Cr
Lit
tle
Spea
rfis
h
Spea
rfish
Cre
ekSp
earf
ish
Whi
tewoo
d
Cre
ek
Creek
Bear
Butte
Elk
Elk
Creek
Creek
Creek
Boxelder
Rapid
Rapid
Cold
Creek
CreekCreek
Spri
ng
Creek
French
Creek
Creek
CreekG
race
Creek
CreekC
reek
S. Fork
Red
bird
Gillette
S. Fork Rapid Cr
Battle
French
Beaver
Beaver
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
FallR
Hat
Cre
ek
Creek
Horsehead
CHEYENNE
RIVER
Cot
tonwoo
d
CreekHay
Bot
tom
False
Creek
Spokane
Lame
Johnny
Hig
gins
Bea
ver
Cr
Whi
teta
il
Cr
Cr
Cr
Cr
Gulch
Annie
Squaw
Dea
dwood
Creek
AlkaliIron Cr
Elk
Little
Creek
Castle
Cas
tleCreek
C reek
Bear Gulch
CrStrawberry
Bol
esC
anyo
n
Beaver
SpringsCreekCreek
Can
yon
Canyon
Whitewood
Spearfish
SaintOnge
DEADWOOD
Lead
BELLE FOURCHE
Newell
STURGIS
Blackhawk
Piedmont
Tilford
Box Elder
Hill City
Hermosa
CUSTER
HOT SPRINGS
Edgemont
Minnekahta
Tinton CentralCity
Roubaix
Nemo
Vale
Nisland
Hayward
Keystone
Rochford
Pringle
Fairburn
Buffalo Gap
Dewey
CascadeSprings
IglooProvo
Oral
Rockerville
RAPID CITY
LIM
ES
TO
NE
PL
AT
EA
U
Wind CaveNational Park
Jewel CaveNational
Monument
Mt. RushmoreNationalMemorial
CUSTER
STATE
PARK
WindCave
HarneyPeak
x
EllsworthAir ForceBase
BUTTE CO
LAWRENCE CO MEADE CO
PENNINGTON CO
CUSTER CO
FALL RIVER CO
WY
OM
ING
SO
UT
H
DA
KO
TA
0 10 20
0 10 20 MILES
KILOMETERS
APPROXIMATE EXTENT OF THE BLACK HILLS AREA, REPRESENTED BY GENERALIZED OUTER EXTENT OF INYAN KARA GROUP (modified from Strobel and others, 1999)
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIMESTONE (from Strobel and others, 1999)
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION (from Strobel and others, 1999)
SOUTH DAKOTA
Areashown
BlackHills
EXPLANATION104o 45' 103o30'
15' 103o
30'
44o45'
15'
44o
45'
30'
43o15'
Missouri
River
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13
4 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the efforts of the West Dakota Water Development District for helping to develop and support the Black Hills Hydrology Study. West Dakota’s coordination of various local and county cooperators has been a key element in making this study possible. The authors also recognize the numerous local and county cooperators represented by West Dakota, as well as the numerous private citizens who have helped provide guidance and support for the Black Hills Hydrology Study. The South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources has provided support and extensive technical assistance to the study. In addition, the authors acknowledge the input and technical assistance from many faculty and students at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology.
HYDROGEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK
The Black Hills are located within the Great Plains physiographic province in western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming (fig. 2). The Black Hills strongly influence the hydrology of western South Dakota and northeastern Wyoming. Many streams in western South Dakota originate in the Black Hills, and major bedrock aquifers are recharged along outcrop areas in the Black Hills. Ground and surface water interact extensively in the Black Hills, and both streamflow and aquifer recharge are influenced by climatic conditions. Overviews of the climate, geology, ground water, and surface water are provided in the following sections.
Figure 2. Present-day structural and physiographic features in the northern Great Plains area (modified from Peterson, 1981, and Busby and others, 1995).
SALT LAKECITY
HELENA
CHEYENNE LINCOLN
PIERRE
BISMARCK
MONTANA
IDAHO
UTAH
COLORADO
NEBRASKA
SOUTH DAKOTA
NORTH DAKOTA
WYOMING
UNITED
CANADA
STATES
MONTANA
IDAHO
UTAH
COLORADO
NEBRASKA
SOUTH DAKOTA
NORTH DAKOTA
WYOMING
UNITED
CANADA
STATES
Approximate
boundary of
Williston Basin
Area ofSioux Uplift
WILLISTON BASIN
BOW
DOIN
DOM
E
CE
DA
R C
RE
EK
AN
TICLIN
E
NE
SS
ON
AN
TIC
LIN
EHINSDALE FAULT
CAT CREEK FAULT
LAKE BASIN FAULT
WILLOW CREEKFAULT
WHEATLANDSYNCLINE
CA
SP
ER
AR
CH
CH
ADR
ON
ARC
H
NYE-BOWLERFAULT
POPLAR FAULT
WELDON BROCKTON FAULT
SUMATRA
SY
NC
LINE
SW
EE
TG
RA
SS
AR
C
H
BLOOD CREEKSYNCLINE
BULLMOUNTAIN
BASIN
CRAZYMOUNTAINS
BASIN
POWDERRIVERBASIN
CRAZYMOUNTAINS
BASIN
GREENRIVERBASIN
OVERTHRUST
BELT
REDDESERTBASIN
POWDERRIVERBASIN
HANNABASIN LARAMIE
BASIN ALLIANCE BASIN
WASHAKIEBASIN
CASPERFA
ULT
MTN
MILESCITY
AR
CH
GR
EAT
CE
NT
RA
LP
LAIN
SLO
WLA
ND
SPH
YS
IOG
RA
PH
ICP
HY
SIO
GR
AP
HIC
PR
OV
INC
EP
RO
VIN
CE
Platte
Whi
te
Platte
Platte
North
River
River
River
River
Rive
r
RiverRiver
River
River
North
Souris
Red
River
River
River
Cheye
nne
Belle
Yellowstone
Pow
der
Littl
eM
isso
uri
Missouri
Missouri
Four
che
River
S.
ofthe
POPLARDOME
PORCUPINEPORCUPINEDOMEDOME
PORCUPINEDOME
BEARPAWUPLIFT
SWEETWATERUPLIFT
HAR
TVIL
LEU
PLIF
T
Judith Mts
BigSnowy
Mts
Little RockyMts
Little
Beartooth Mts
Beartooth Mts
Absaroka Mts
Wind River M
ts Laramie M
ts
Bighorn M
ts
Owl Creek Mts
BeltMts
PryorMts
ROCKSPRINGSUPLIFT
MedicineBow Mts
Sierra
Uinta Mts
Madre
Mts
BLACKHILLS
UPLIFT
42o
44o
46o
48o
49o 112o110o
108o 106o 104o 102o 100o 98o
0 100 200 MILES
0 100 200 KILOMETERS
Climatic Framework 5
Climatic Framework
The overall climate of the Black Hills area is continental, with generally low precipitation amounts, hot summers, cold winters, and extreme variations in both precipitation and temperatures (Johnson, 1933). Local climatic conditions are affected by topography, with generally lower temperatures and higher precipi-tation at the higher altitudes. The average annual tem-perature is 43.9°F (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1999) and ranges from 48.7°F at Hot Springs to approximately 37°F near Deerfield Reservoir.
Precipitation data sets used for this study gener-ally were taken from Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner (2000), who summarized available precipitation data (1931-98) for the Black Hills area. These investigators compiled monthly precipitation records for 52 long-term precipitation gages operated by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1998) and 42 short-term precipitation gages operated by the USGS. These data sets are available on the World Wide Web at http://sd.water.usgs.gov/projects/bhhs/precip/ home.htm. A geographic information system (GIS) was used by Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner (2000) to generate spatial distributions of monthly precipitation data for 1,000-by-1,000-meter grid cells for the study area; an example is shown in figure 3. Monthly distri-butions were composited to produce annual distribu-tions for counties within the study area and for drainage areas of selected streamflow-gaging stations; these data sets were presented by Driscoll and Carter (2001). The precipitation distributions were used extensively for various applications including evaluating responses of ground-water levels and streamflow to precipitation, estimating precipitation recharge for bedrock aquifers, and developing long-term hydrologic budgets.
Spatial precipitation patterns in the Black Hills area are highly influenced by orography, as shown by an isohyetal map (fig. 4) for 1950-98, which is the period commonly used for hydrologic budgets pre-sented in this report. Areas of relatively low precipita-tion occur in the low altitudes around the periphery of the Black Hills. Most areas with altitudes exceeding 6,000 ft above sea level have average annual precipita-tion in excess of 19 inches, with the largest amounts occurring in the northern Black Hills near Lead, where the average annual precipitation (1950-98) exceeds 28 inches. Orographic effects also are apparent in the high-altitude areas near Harney Peak.
Local conditions also are affected by regional climatic patterns, with the northern Black Hills influ-enced primarily by moist air currents from the north-west, and the southern Black Hills influenced primarily by drier air currents from the south-southeast. As a result, annual precipitation averages about 16 to 17 inches for most of Fall River County (fig. 4) and is much less than parts of Lawrence and Meade Counties that have comparable altitudes. Boxplots showing the distribution of annual precipitation for the study area and for counties within the study area during 1931-98 are presented in figure 5. For the study area, the long-term average of 18.61 inches is slightly larger than the median (50th percentile) of 17.96 inches. The 90th per-centile indicates that annual precipitation over the study area is less than about 23.70 inches 90 percent of the time. Annual precipitation for both Butte and Fall River Counties is less than the long-term average for the study area about 75 percent of the time.
The largest precipitation amounts typically occur during May and June, and the smallest amounts typi-cally occur during November through February (fig. 6). The most variable month is May, during which precip-itation has ranged from a minimum of about 0.4 inch to a maximum of 8.5 inches. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is fairly uniform throughout the study area; however, Lawrence County receives slightly larger proportions of its annual precipitation during winter months than the other counties (fig. 7).
Long-term (1931-98) trends in precipitation (fig. 8) are an important consideration for hydrologic analysis for the Black Hills area. Figure 8A shows that annual precipitation for the study area averages 18.61 inches and has ranged from 10.22 inches in 1936 to 27.39 inches in 1995. Figure 8B shows that the asso-ciated departures (from the average) have ranged from a deficit (-) of 8.39 inches to a surplus (+) of 8.78 inches, respectively. The cumulative trends are readily apparent from figure 8C, with the most pro-nounced trends identified by the longest and steepest line segments. Sustained periods of generally deficit precipitation occurred during 1931-40 and 1948-61. Sustained periods of generally surplus precipitation occurred during 1941-47, 1962-68, and 1993-98. The middle to late 1990’s stand out as the wettest period since 1931.
6 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Figure 3. Monthly precipitation distribution for October 1995 (from Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner, 2000).
N. F
orkR
apidC
r
Belle FourcheReservoir
FOURCHE
VictoriaSpring
Rhoa
dsFork
Coolidge
Highland
AngosturaReservoir
Castl eC
r
N. Fork Castle Cr
Hel
l
Canyo
n Can
yon
Red
Bea
rG
ulch
Creek
Crow
SheridanLake
Hot Brook Canyon
CoxLake
DeerfieldReservoir
PactolaReservoir
IndianCr
Horse
Creek
OwlCreek
BELLE
RIVER
REDWATER R I VE
R
Cre
ek
Cr
Lit
tle
Spea
rfis
h
Spea
rfish
Cre
ekSp
earf
ish
Whi
tewoo
d
Cre
ek
Creek
Bear
Butte
Elk
Elk
Creek
Creek
Creek
Boxelder
Rapid
Rapid
Creek
CreekCreek
Spri
ng
Creek
French
Creek
Creek
CreekG
race
Creek
Creek
Cre
ek
S. Fork
Red
bird
Gillette
S. Fork Rapid Cr
Battle
French
Beaver
Beaver
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
FallR
Hat
Cre
ek
Creek
Horsehead
CHEYENNE
RIVER
Cot
tonw
ood
CreekHay
Bot
tom
False
Creek
Spokane
Lame
Johnny
Hig
gins
Bea
ver
Cr
Whi
teta
il
Cr
Cr
Cr
Cr
Gulch
Annie
Squaw
Dea
dwood
Creek
AlkaliIron Cr
Elk
Little
Creek
Castle
Cas
tleCreek
C reek
Bear Gulch
CrStrawberry
Bol
esC
anyo
n
Can
yon
Canyon
Cold
Beaver
SpringsCreek
Creek
Whitewood
Spearfish
SaintOnge
DEADWOOD
Lead
BELLE FOURCHE
Newell
STURGIS
Blackhawk
Piedmont
Tilford
Box Elder
Hill City
Hermosa
CUSTER
HOT SPRINGS
Edgemont
Minnekahta
Tinton CentralCity
Roubaix
Nemo
Vale
Nisland
Hayward
Keystone
Rochford
Pringle
Fairburn
Buffalo Gap
Dewey
CascadeSprings
IglooProvo
Oral
Rockerville
RAPID CITY
LIM
ES
TO
NE
PL
AT
EA
U
Wind CaveNational Park
Jewel CaveNational
Monument
Mt. RushmoreNationalMemorial
CUSTER
STATE
PARK
WindCave
HarneyPeak
x
EllsworthAir ForceBase
BUTTE CO
LAWRENCE CO MEADE CO
PENNINGTON CO
CUSTER CO
FALL RIVER CO
WY
OM
ING
SO
UT
H
DA
KO
TA
0 10 20
0 10 20 MILES
KILOMETERS
PRECIPITATION, IN INCHESLess than 2
EXPLANATION
2 to 3
3 to 4
4 to 5
5 to 6
Greater than 6
104o 45' 103o30'
15' 103o
30'
44o45'
15'
44o
45'
30'
43o15'
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13
Climatic Framework 7
Figure 4. Isohyetal map showing distribution of average annual precipitation for Black Hills area, water years 1950-98 (from Carter, Driscoll, and Hamade, 2001).
N. F
orkR
apidC
r
Belle FourcheReservoir
FOURCHE
VictoriaSpring
Rhoa
dsFork
Coolidge
Highland
AngosturaReservoir
Castl eC
r
N. Fork Castle Cr
Hel
l
Canyo
n Can
yon
Red
Bea
rG
ulch
Creek
Crow
SheridanLake
Hot Brook Canyon
CoxLake
DeerfieldReservoir
PactolaReservoir
IndianCr
Horse
Creek
OwlCreek
BELLE
RIVER
REDWATER R I VE
R
Cre
ek
Cr
Lit
tle
Spea
rfis
h
Spea
rfish
Cre
ekSp
earf
ish
Whi
tewoo
d
Cre
ek
Creek
Bear
Butte
Elk
Elk
Creek
Creek
Creek
Boxelder
Rapid
Rapid
Creek
CreekCreek
Spri
ng
Creek
French
Creek
Creek
CreekG
race
Creek
Creek
Cre
ek
S. Fork
Red
bird
Gillette
S. Fork Rapid Cr
Battle
French
Beaver
Beaver
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
FallR
Hat
Cre
ek
Creek
Horsehead
CHEYENNE
RIVER
Cot
tonw
ood
CreekHay
Bot
tom
False
Creek
Spokane
Lame
Johnny
Hig
gins
Bea
ver
Cr
Whi
teta
il
Cr
Cr
Cr
Cr
Gulch
Annie
Squaw
Dea
dwood
Creek
AlkaliIron Cr
Elk
Little
Creek
Castle
Cas
tleCreek
C reek
Bear Gulch
CrStrawberry
Bol
esC
anyo
n
Can
yon
Canyon
Cold
Beaver
SpringsCreek
Creek
Whitewood
Spearfish
SaintOnge
DEADWOOD
Lead
BELLE FOURCHE
Newell
STURGIS
Blackhawk
Piedmont
Tilford
Box Elder
Hill City
Hermosa
CUSTER
HOT SPRINGS
Edgemont
Minnekahta
Tinton
CheyenneCrossing
CentralCity
Roubaix
Nemo
Vale
Nisland
Hayward
Keystone
Rochford
Pringle
Fairburn
Buffalo Gap
Dewey
CascadeSprings
IglooProvo
Oral
Rockerville
RAPID CITY
LIM
ES
TO
NE
PL
AT
EA
U
Wind CaveNational Park
Jewel CaveNational
Monument
Mt. RushmoreNationalMemorial
CUSTER
STATE
PARK
WindCave
HarneyPeak
x
CalamityPeakx
IronMountainx
OnyxCave
BearButtex
EllsworthAir ForceBase
BUTTE CO
LAWRENCE CO MEADE CO
PENNINGTON CO
CUSTER CO
FALL RIVER CO
WY
OM
ING
SO
UT
H
DA
KO
TA
3,000
4,000
4,000
3,000
3,0005,
000
5,000
3,000
6,000
3,000
7,000
3,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
7,000
7,000
7,000
7,000
5,000
6,0006,000
4,00
0
6,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
4,000
4,000
3,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
20
18
15
16
18
2826
20
17
17
19
1920
21
21
22
22
23
23
24
24
27
25
25
20
18
18
19
19
20
17
17
16
0 10 20
0 10 20 MILES
KILOMETERS
LINE OF EQUAL PRECIPITA- TION--Number is average annual precipitation. Interval 1 inch
LAND-SURFACE CONTOUR-- Number is altitude above mean sea level. Contour interval 1,000 feet
OUTCROP OF MADISON LIME STONE (from Strobel and others, 1999)
OUTCROP OF MINNELUSA FORMATION (from Strobel and others, 1999)
EXPLANATION104o 45' 103o30'
15' 103o
30'
44o45'
15'
44o
45'
30'
43o15'
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13
8 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Figure 5. Distribution of annual precipitation for the study area and counties within the study area, water years 1931-98 (modified from Driscoll and Carter, 2001).
AN
NU
AL
PR
EC
IPIT
AT
ION
, IN
INC
HE
S
EXPLANATION
0
40
10
20
30
10th percentile
25th percentile
Median
75th percentile
90th percentileMaximum
Minimum
Study
are
aBut
te
Lawre
nce
Mea
de
Pennin
gton
Custe
r
Fall R
iver
Long-term average for study area (18.61 inches)
Figure 6. Distribution of monthly precipitation for the study area, water years 1931-98 (from Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner, 2000).
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP0.01
100
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1
2
5
10
20
50
PR
EC
IPIT
ATIO
N, I
N IN
CH
ES EXPLANATION
10th percentile
Minimum
25th percentile
Median
75th percentile
90th percentileMaximum
Climatic Framework 9
Figure 7. Mean monthly precipitation for study area and selected counties, water years 1931-98 (from Driscoll and Carter, 2001).
10
0.1
0.2
0.5
1
2
5M
EA
N M
ON
TH
LY P
RE
CIP
ITAT
ION
, IN
INC
HE
S
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
Lawrence CountyFall River County
Study area
Figure 8. Long-term trends in precipitation for the Black Hills area, water years 1931-98 (from Driscoll, Hamade, and Kenner, 2000).
0
30
10
20
AN
NU
AL
PR
EC
IPIT
ATIO
N,
IN IN
CH
ES
Annual precipitationLong-term average (18.61 inches)
-10
10
-5
0
5
AN
NU
AL
DE
PAR
TU
RE
,IN
INC
HE
S
1930 20001940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
YEAR
-50
0
-40
-30
-20
-10
CU
MU
LAT
IVE
DE
PAR
TU
RE
,IN
INC
HE
S
A Annual precipitation for the entire study area
B Annual departure from long-term average
C Cumulative departure from long-term average
10 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
The long-term precipitation trends are especially important because of potential for bias in analysis and interpretation of available hydrologic data sets, which are much more abundant for the recent wet years. Water-level records are available for 71 observation wells in the Black Hills area for 1998, compared with five wells for 1965 (Driscoll, Bradford, and Moran, 2000). Miller and Driscoll (1998) reported streamflow records for 65 gages for 1993, compared with 30 gages for 1960. Thus, the potential for bias is an important consideration in analysis of hydrologic data sets for the Black Hills area.
Average annual potential evaporation generally exceeds average annual precipitation throughout the study area. Thus, evapotranspiration generally is limited by precipitation amounts and availability of soil moisture. Average pan evaporation for April through October is about 30 inches at Pactola Reservoir and about 50 inches at Oral (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1999).
Geologic Framework
The stratigraphic and structural features in the Black Hills area are complex. Many of the geologic formations, such as the Deadwood Formation, Madison Limestone, Minnelusa Formation, Minnekahta Lime-stone, and Inyan Kara Group, in the Black Hills (fig. 9) are regionally extensive. Several formations thin or pinch out in southern and eastern South Dakota. To better understand the stratigraphic and structural set-tings in the Black Hills, an overview of the regional geologic setting is provided first and is followed by an overview of the local geologic setting.
Regional Geologic Setting
Parts of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming are included in the Northern Great Plains area. The present-day structural features (fig. 2) of the Northern Great Plains are directly related to the geo-logic history of the Cordilleran platform, which is a part of the stable interior of the North American Conti-nent (Downey, 1986). The present-day structure prob-ably was controlled by the pre-existing structural grain
in the Precambrian basement and modified during the Laramide orogeny (Downey, 1984).
During Paleozoic time, the area generally was broad, flat, and covered by shallow, warm seas (Downey, 1984). Numerous disconformities during Paleozoic time indicate intermittent transgressions and regressions when seas advanced from west to east in response to tectonic activity of the Antler orogeny to the west (Sandberg and Poole, 1977). Deposits gener-ally were beach, shallow marine, carbonate, sabkha, and evaporite units (Redden and Lisenbee, 1996).
During Cretaceous time, the area was covered by a north-south trending sea, which extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean (Downey, 1986). During Late Cretaceous time, the sea was at its widest extent, but marine deposition was interrupted by fre-quent east-west regressions (Anna, 1986).
Paleostructure
The Northern Great Plains area was part of the Cordilleran platform throughout most of Paleozoic time. The Williston Basin, which covers parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, southern Saskatchewan, south-western Manitoba, and eastern Montana (fig. 10), began to take shape during Ordovician time (Carlson and Anderson, 1965). Other major Jurassic and Creta-ceous (pre-Laramide) paleostructural elements (fig. 10) include the Powder River Basin, the Central Montana trough and uplift, the Cedar Creek anticline, and the Alberta shelf (Anna, 1986).
The Laramide orogeny, which affected the eastern Rocky Mountains of the United States, began during late Cretaceous time and continued in the Eocene period (Redden and Lisenbee, 1996). The Laramide orogeny was characterized by large-scale warping, deep erosion of uplifts, and deposition of oro-genic sediments into basins (Tweto, 1975). Most, if not all, pre-Laramide structural features (fig. 10) were reactivated and became more prominent during the Laramide orogeny (Anna, 1986). During the Laramide orogeny, the Bighorn and Laramie Mountains, the Black Hills, and the Central Montana uplift formed, and the Williston and Powder River Basins (fig. 2) were downwarped into essentially their present config-uration (Anna, 1986).
Geologic Framework 11
Fig
ure
9.
Str
atig
raph
ic s
ectio
n fo
r th
e B
lack
Hill
s.ST
RA
TIG
RA
PH
IC U
NIT
DE
SC
RIP
TIO
NT
HIC
KN
ES
SIN
FE
ET
AB
BR
EV
IAT
ION
FO
RS
TR
AT
IGR
AP
HIC
INT
ER
VA
L
SY
ST
EM
ER
AT
HE
M
QU
AT
ER
NA
RY
& T
ER
TIA
RY
(?)
UN
DIF
FE
RE
NT
IAT
ED
ALL
UV
IUM
AN
D C
OLL
UV
IUM
0-50
San
d, g
rave
l, bo
ulde
r, a
nd c
lay.
1,20
0-2,
700
Ligh
t col
ored
cla
ys w
ith s
ands
tone
cha
nnel
filli
ngs
and
loca
l lim
esto
ne le
nses
.
WH
ITE
RIV
ER
GR
OU
PT
w
TE
RT
IAR
Y
QT
ac
Prin
cipa
l hor
izon
of l
imes
tone
lens
es g
ivin
g te
epee
but
tes.
Dar
k-gr
ay s
hale
con
tain
ing
scat
tere
d co
ncre
tions
.
Wid
ely
scat
tere
d lim
esto
ne m
asse
s, g
ivin
g sm
all t
eepe
e bu
ttes.
Bla
ck fi
ssile
sha
le w
ith c
oncr
etio
ns.
PIE
RR
E S
HA
LE
NIO
BR
AR
A F
OR
MA
TIO
N1 8
0-30
0Im
pure
cha
lk a
nd c
alca
reou
s sh
ale.
CA
RLI
LE S
HA
LET
urne
r S
andy
Mem
ber
Wal
l Cre
ek M
embe
r
1 350
-750
Ligh
t-gr
ay s
hale
with
num
erou
s la
rge
conc
retio
ns a
nd s
andy
laye
rs.
Dar
k-gr
ay s
hale
GRANEROS GROUP
GR
EE
NH
OR
N F
OR
MA
TIO
N
Kps
225-
380
Impu
re s
labb
y lim
esto
ne.
Wea
ther
s bu
ff.
Dar
k-gr
ay c
alca
reou
s sh
ale,
with
thin
Orm
an L
ake
limes
tone
at b
ase.
BE
LLE
FO
UR
CH
E S
HA
LE
MO
WR
Y S
HA
LE
MU
DD
YS
AN
DS
TO
NE
NE
WC
AS
TLE
SA
ND
ST
ON
E
SK
ULL
CR
EE
K S
HA
LE
150-
850
Gra
y sh
ale
with
sca
ttere
d lim
esto
ne c
oncr
etio
ns.
Cla
y sp
ur b
ento
nite
at b
ase.
125-
230
0-15
0
Ligh
t-gr
ay s
ilice
ous
shal
e. F
ish
scal
es a
nd th
in la
yers
of b
ento
nite
.
Bro
wn
to li
ght-
yello
w a
nd w
hite
san
dsto
ne.
150-
270
Dar
k-gr
ay to
bla
ck s
ilice
ous
shal
e.
CR
ET
AC
EO
US
FA
LL R
IVE
R F
OR
MA
TIO
N
LAKOTAFM
INYAN KARAGROUP
Fus
on S
hale
Min
new
aste
Lim
esto
neC
hils
on M
embe
r
10-2
00M
assi
ve to
thin
-bed
ded,
bro
wn
to r
eddi
sh-b
row
n sa
ndst
one.
Yel
low
, bro
wn,
and
red
dish
bro
wn
mas
sive
to th
inly
bed
ded
sand
ston
e, p
ebbl
e
con
glom
erat
e, s
iltst
one,
and
cla
ysto
ne. L
ocal
fine
-gra
ined
lim
esto
ne a
nd c
oal.
10-1
90
0-25
25-4
85
0-22
0
0-22
5
Gre
en to
mar
oon
shal
e. T
hin
sand
ston
e.
Mas
sive
fine
-gra
ined
san
dsto
ne.
250-
450
0-45
Gre
enis
h-gr
ay s
hale
, thi
n lim
esto
ne le
nses
.
Gla
ucon
itic
sand
ston
e; r
ed s
ands
tone
nea
r m
iddl
e.
Red
silt
ston
e, g
ypsu
m, a
nd li
mes
tone
.
MO
RR
ISO
N F
OR
MA
TIO
N
UN
KP
AP
A S
SR
edw
ater
Mem
ber
Lak
Mem
ber
Hul
ett M
embe
rS
tock
ade
Bea
ver
Mem
.C
anyo
n S
pr M
embe
r
SU
ND
AN
CE
FO
RM
AT
ION
GY
PS
UM
SP
RIN
G F
OR
MA
TIO
N
Kik Ju
JUR
AS
SIC
Goo
se E
gg E
quiv
alen
tS
PE
AR
FIS
H F
OR
MA
TIO
NT
Ps
RT
RIA
SS
IC
MIN
NE
KA
HT
A L
IME
ST
ON
EO
PE
CH
E S
HA
LEP
oP
mk
375-
800
1 25-
65
Red
silt
y sh
ale,
sof
t red
san
dsto
ne a
nd s
iltst
one
with
gyp
sum
and
thin
lim
esto
ne la
yers
.
Gyp
sum
loca
lly n
ear
the
base
.
Thi
n to
med
ium
-bed
ded,
fine
-gra
ined
, pur
plis
h gr
ay la
min
ated
lim
esto
ne.
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sha
le a
nd s
ands
tone
.1 2
5-15
0
1 375
-1,1
75
1 <20
0-1,
000
30-6
01 0
-235
1 0-1
50
1 0-5
00
Yel
low
to r
ed c
ross
-bed
ded
sand
ston
e, li
mes
tone
, and
anh
ydrit
e lo
cally
at t
op.
Red
sha
le w
ith in
terb
edde
d lim
esto
ne a
nd s
ands
tone
at b
ase.
Mas
sive
ligh
t-co
lore
d lim
esto
ne.
Dol
omite
in p
art.
Cav
erno
us in
upp
er p
art.
Pin
k to
buf
f lim
esto
ne.
Sha
le lo
cally
at b
ase.
Buf
f dol
omite
and
lim
esto
ne.
Gre
en s
hale
with
silt
ston
e.M
assi
ve to
thin
-bed
ded
buff
to p
urpl
e sa
ndst
one.
Gre
enis
h gl
auco
nitic
sha
le fl
aggy
d
olom
ite a
nd fl
at-p
ebbl
e lim
esto
ne c
ongl
omer
ate.
San
dsto
ne, w
ith c
ongl
omer
ate
lo
cally
at t
he b
ase.
Sch
ist,
slat
e, q
uart
zite
, and
ark
osic
grit
. In
trud
ed b
y di
orite
, met
amor
phos
ed
to
amph
ibol
ite, a
nd b
y gr
anite
and
peg
mat
ite.
PE
RM
IAN
PE
NN
SY
LVA
NIA
N
MIS
SIS
SIP
PIA
N
P P
mM
INN
ELU
SA
FO
RM
AT
ION
MA
DIS
ON
(P
AH
AS
AP
A)
LIM
ES
TO
NE
EN
GLE
WO
OD
FO
RM
AT
ION
MD
me
Ou
DE
VO
NIA
NW
HIT
EW
OO
D (
RE
D R
IVE
R)
FO
RM
AT
ION
WIN
NIP
EG
FO
RM
AT
ION
DE
AD
WO
OD
FO
RM
AT
ION
UN
DIF
FE
RE
NT
IAT
ED
IGN
EO
US
AN
D M
ET
AM
OR
PH
IC R
OC
KS
OC
d
pCu
OR
DO
VIC
IAN
CA
MB
RIA
N
PR
EC
AM
BR
IAN
PALEOZOICMESOZOICCENOZOIC
Mod
ified
from
inf
orm
atio
n fu
rnis
hed
by th
e D
epar
tmen
t of G
eolo
gy a
nd G
eolo
gica
l Eng
inee
ring,
Sou
th D
akot
a S
choo
l of M
ines
and
Tec
hnol
ogy
(writ
ten
com
mun
., Ja
nuar
y 19
94)
0-30
0In
clud
es r
hyol
ite, l
atite
, tra
chyt
e, a
nd p
hono
lite.
IN
TR
US
IVE
IGN
EO
US
RO
CK
ST
ui--
1M
odifi
ed b
ased
on
drill
-hol
e da
ta
Inte
rbed
ded
sand
ston
e, li
mes
tone
, dol
omite
, sha
le, a
nd a
nhyd
rite.
12 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Figure 10. Regional paleostructure during Jurassic and Cretaceous time in the western interior of the United States (modified from Anna, 1986).
200 300100 400
0
0
200100 300 400 MILES
KILOMETERS
Base from U.S. National Atlas1:17,000,000, 1970
Geologic Framework 13
Stratigraphy
Precambrian rocks form the basement in the northern Great Plains area. Precambrian rocks are exposed in the central core of many of the mountain ranges, but lie greater than 15,000 ft below land surface at the center of the Williston Basin (Downey and Dinwiddie, 1988).
Rocks of Cambrian and Ordovician age consist of sandstone, shale, limestone, and dolomite and repre-sent the shoreward facies of a transgressive sea (Peterson, 1981). The extent of the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks in the northern Great Plains area is shown in figure 11. The principal geologic units of Cambrian and Ordovician age are the Deadwood Formation, Emerson Formation, Winnipeg Formation, Red River Formation (Whitewood Formation), and Stony Mountain Formation (fig. 12). Rocks of Cam-brian and Ordovician age extend into Canada where they are exposed along the Precambrian shield (Downey, 1986). Erosion during Devonian time trun-cated the Ordovician geologic units in South Dakota and Wyoming to the south of a line extending between the central Black Hills and southern Bighorn Moun-tains (Peterson, 1981). Rocks of Silurian age are not present in the Black Hills area.
The extent of Mississippian rocks in the northern Great Plains area is shown in figure 11. These rocks overlying the Bakken Formation (where present) are termed the Madison Limestone, or Madison Group where divided (fig. 12). The Madison Limestone con-sists of a sequence of marine carbonates and evaporites deposited mainly in a warm, shallow-water environ-ment (Downey, 1986). Development of karst (solution) features in the Madison Limestone was common because the carbonate rocks are relatively soluble in water (Downey, 1986). Complex and interconnected solution features developed in the Madison Limestone during tropical conditions when it was exposed at or near land surface (Busby and others, 1995). Large and extensive cave systems have formed in the outcrop areas of the Madison Limestone in the Bighorn Mountains and in the Black Hills.
Rocks of Pennsylvanian age consist primarily of marine sandstone, shale, siltstone, and carbonate. The Pennsylvanian rocks are divided into many different geologic units (fig. 12). Rocks of Pennsylvanian-age have been truncated by pre-Jurassic erosion progres-sively northward across central Montana; these rocks
thin to zero thickness near the axis of the central Montana trough (Downey, 1986; figs. 10 and 11).
A sequence of red shale, siltstone, and evaporite deposits belonging to the upper part of the Goose Egg and Spearfish Formations of Triassic age overlie the Minnelusa Formation (Downey and Dinwiddie, 1988). Jurassic rocks, which include the Nesson, Piper, Rierdon, and Sundance Formations and their equiva-lents (fig. 12) are predominantly carbonate, shale, and calcareous shale (Anna, 1986).
Deposits during Cretaceous time primarily were sandstones, shales, and minor carbonates (Redden and Lisenbee, 1996). A number of formation names have been applied to the various Cretaceous units in the northern Great Plains area; however, in several instances, these formation names are used only in one State or subregion (fig. 13). Lower Cretaceous rocks (fig. 13) range in thickness from zero in eastern North Dakota and South Dakota to more than 1,400 ft in west-central Wyoming (Anna, 1986). The extent of the Lower Cretaceous sandstones, which include the Inyan Kara Group, Muddy Sandstone, and Newcastle or Dakota Sandstone, is shown in figure 11. The sedimen-tary pattern of Upper Cretaceous rocks (fig. 13) is asso-ciated with four main transgressions and regressions of shallow seas.
Tertiary units (fig. 13) generally were deposited in a continental environment (Downey, 1986). Deposits of Quaternary age in the northern Great Plains area consist of alluvium, glacial materials, and other surfi-cial deposits. Alluvial deposits fill major drainages in the area. Glacial deposits are located only in the eastern parts of North Dakota and South Dakota and in the northernmost part of Montana (Downey, 1986).
Local Geologic Setting
The Black Hills uplift is a northwest-trending, asymmetric, elongate dome, or doubly plunging anti-cline. Uplift began about 62 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny and probably continued in the Eocene period (Redden and Lisenbee, 1996). Large anticlines occur on the northern and southern flanks of the Black Hills and plunge away from the uplift into the surrounding plains. Numerous smaller folds, faults, domes, and monoclines also occur in the Black Hills (fig. 14). Igneous intrusions were emplaced on the northern flanks of the uplift during the Tertiary Period.
14 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Fig
ure
11.
A
ppro
xim
ate
exte
nt o
f roc
ks in
the
nort
hern
Gre
at P
lain
s ar
ea fo
r se
lect
ed g
eolo
gic
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o
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o
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o
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ase
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ified
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. Geo
logi
cal
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vey
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tal d
ata,
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ney
and
Din
wid
die,
1988
; Whi
tehe
ad, 1
996
Cre
tace
ous-
age
rock
s
Mod
ified
from
Dow
ney
and
Din
wid
die,
1988
; Whi
tehe
ad, 1
996
Mis
siss
ippi
an-a
ge r
ocks
Mod
ified
from
Dow
ney
and
Din
wid
die,
1988
; Whi
tehe
ad, 1
996
Mod
ified
from
Dow
ney
and
Din
wid
die,
198
8
Geologic Framework 15
Figure 12. Generalized correlation chart for Paleozoic-age rocks in Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming (modified from Downey, 1986).
Series
UPPER PERMIAN
LOWER PERMIAN
UPPERPENNSYLVANIAN
UPPERMISSISSIPPIAN
UPPERDEVONIAN
MIDDLEDEVONIAN
UPPERORDOVICIAN
MIDDLEORDOVICIAN
LOWERORDOVICIAN
UPPERCAMBRIAN
MIDDLECAMBRIAN
LOWERCAMBRIAN
PRECAMBRIAN
LOWER DEVONIAN
UPPER SILURIAN
MIDDLE SILURIAN
LOWER SILURIAN
LOWERMISSISSIPPIAN
MIDDLEPENNSYLVANIAN
LOWERPENNSYLVANIAN
MIDDLE JURASSIC Piper Formation
Goose Egg Formation
Madison Limestone
Three Forks Formation
Jefferson Formation
Interlake Formation
Red River FormationBighornDolomite
Snowy RangeFormation orGallatin andGros VentreFormations
or equivalents
Red River Formationor
Whitewood Dolomite
Bighorn Dolomite
Winnipeg Formation
Deadwood Formation
Deadwood Formation Emerson Formation Emerson Formation
Flathead SandstoneFlathead Sandstone
Winnipeg Formation Winnipeg Formation Winnipeg Formation
Red River Formation
Stony Mountain Formation
Red River Formation Red River Formation
Winnipeg Formation
DeadwoodFormation
Snowy RangeFormation orGallatin andGros VentreFormations
or equivalents
DeadwoodFormation
Stony MountainFormation
FlatheadSandstone
FlatheadSandstone
Interlake Formation
Jefferson Formation
Three Forks Formation Three Forks Formation
Birdbear Formation
Duperow Formation
Souris River Formation
Dawson Bay FormationPrairie Formation
Winnipegosis Formation
Souris River Formation
Duperow Formation
Birdbear Formation
Three Forks Formation
Jefferson Formation
Three Forks Formation
Madison Limestoneor
Pahasapa LimestoneMadison GroupMadison Group
Englewood Formation Bakken Formation Bakken FormationBakken Formation
CharlesFormation
Mission CanyonLimestone
LodgepoleLimestone
CharlesFormation
Mission CanyonLimestone
LodgepoleLimestone
Madison Group
Madison Group
CharlesFormation
Mission CanyonLimestone
LodgepoleLimestone
Mission CanyonLimestone
LodgepoleLimestone
TensleepSandstone
Tensleep SandstoneTensleep Sandstone
AmsdenFormation Amsden Formation
MinnelusaFormation Minnelusa Formation
Minnelusa Formation
Tyler Formation
Amsden Group(upper part)
Amsden Group(upper part)
Tyler Formationof Amsden Group
Heath FormationOtter Formation
Kibbey Formation
Big SnowyGroup
Heath FormationOtter Formation
Kibbey Formation
Big SnowyGroup
Piper Formation
Chugwater Formation Chugwater Formation
Piper Formation Piper Formation Piper FormationGypsum Spring Formation
Spearfish Formation
Minnekahta Limestone
Opeche Shale
Minnekahta Limestone
Opeche Shale
Spearfish Formation
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
SY
ST
EM
PE
RM
IAN
PE
NN
SY
LVA
NIA
NM
ISS
ISS
IPP
IAN
DE
VO
NIA
NS
ILU
RIA
NO
RD
OV
ICIA
NC
AM
BR
IAN
Powder River BasinSouth-Central
MontanaWestern
South DakotaCentral
Montana TroughNorth-Central
MontanaWilliston Basin
16 Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota
Figure 13. Generalized correlation chart for Mesozoic- and Cenozoic-age rocks in Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming (modified from Downey, 1986).
SystemSeries andEuropean
Stage
Black Hills--South Dakota
WesternMontana
CentralMontana
Western PowderRiver Basin--
Wyoming
Eastern Montana--
WesternNorth Dakota
EasternNorth Dakota
--Eastern
South Dakota
PLIOCENE
MIOCENE
OLIGOCENE
EOCENE
PALEOCENE
MAESTRICHTIAN
CAMPANIAN
UP
PE
R C
RE
TAC
EO
US
LOW
ER
CR
ETA
CE
OU
SU
PP
ER
JU
RA
SS
ICM
IDD
LE J
UR
AS
SIC
SANTONIAN
CONIACIAN
TURONIAN
CENOMANIAN
ALBIAN
APTIAN
NECOMIAN
TITHONIAN
KIMMERIDGIAN
OXFORDIAN
CALLOVIAN
BATHONIAN
BAJOCIAN
Ogallala Fm.
Arikaree Fm.
White RiverFm.White River Fm.
Willow CreekFm.
St. Mary RiverFm.
Bearpaw Sh.
Two Medicine Fm.
Telegraph Creek Fm.
Marias RiverShale
Bootlegger Mbr.
Taft Hill Mbr.
Flood Mbr.
Sunburst Mbr.
Morrison Fm. Morrison Fm.Morrison Fm.
Upper part
Lower part
Sun
danc
e F
m.
Sun
danc
e F
m.
Upper part
Lower part
Morrison Fm. Morrison Fm.
Swift Fm.
Rierdon Fm.Rierdon Fm. Rierdon Fm.
Rierdon Fm.
Piper Fm.Piper Fm.
Nesson Fm.Nesson Fm.Gypsum Spring Fm. Gypsum Spring Fm.
Sawtooth Fm. Piper Fm.
Swift Fm. Swift Fm.Swift Fm.
Fuson equivalent
Lakota equivalent
Fuson Mbr.
Lakota Mbr.
Fuson Mbr.
Lakota Mbr.
Fuson Mbr.
Lakota Mbr.
Cutbank Ss.Mbr.
Telegraph Creek Fm.
Niobrara Fm.
Belle Fourche Sh.Frontier Fm.
*Bowdoin ss.
Niobrara Fm.
Carlile Sh.Carlile Sh.
Greenhorn Fm.Greenhorn Fm.
Belle Fourche Sh. Belle Fourche Sh. Belle Fourche Sh.
Mowry Sh.Mowry Sh.Mowry Sh.Mowry Sh.Mowry Sh.
Muddy Ss. Muddy Ss. Newcastle Ss. Muddy Ss. Newcastle Ss.
Skull Creek Sh.
Fall River Ss.Fall River Ss.Fall River Ss.Fall River equivalent*First Cat Creek ss.
*Second Cat Creek ss.
*Third Cat Creek ss.
Skull Creek Sh.Skull Creek Sh.Skull Creek Sh.*Basal silt *Basal silt *Basal silt *Basal silt
Skull Creek orThermopolis Sh.
Greenhorn Fm. Greenhorn Fm.
Carlile Sh.
Niobrara Fm. Niobrara Fm.
Niobrara Mbr.
Cod
y S
h.
Inya
n K
ara
Gp.
Bla
ckle
af F
m.
Koo
tena
i Fm
.
Koo
tena
iF
m.
Bearpaw Shale
Judith River Fm.
Pierre Shale Pierre ShalePierre Shale
Lewis Shale
Hell Creek Fm.
Fox Hills Ss.
Claggett Sh.
Mosby Ss. Mbr.
Eagle Ss.
Fox Hills Ss.
Teapot Ss. Mbr.
Carlile equivalent
UnnamedSussex Ss. Mbr.
Shannon Ss. Mbr.
CarlileSh.
VaughnMbr.
*BowIsland ss.
Mitten Black Sh. Mbr. Pembina Mbr. Sharon Springs Mbr.
Fishtooth ss.*
Mes
aV
erde
Fm
.
Cod
y S
h. o
rS
teel
e S
h.
Unnamed
Parkman Ss. Mbr.
Fox Hills Ss. Fox Hills Ss.
Horsethief Ss.
Virgelle Ss.
Hell Creek Fm. Hell Creek Fm.Lance Fm.
Wasatch Fm.
Tongue River Mbr. Tongue River Mbr. Tongue River Mbr.Sentinel Butte Mbr.Tongue River Mbr.
Lebo Shale Mbr. Lebo Shale Mbr. Lebo Shale Mbr.
Dakota
Ss./Fm.
(part)
CannonballMbr.Cannonball Mbr.
Tullock Mbr. Tullock Mbr. Ludlow Mbr. Ludlow Mbr.
Vol
cani
c ro
cks
Fort
Uni
on F
m.
Fort
Uni
on F
m.
Fort
Uni
on F
m.
Fort
Uni
on F
m.
Vol
cani
c ro
cks
White RiverFm. WesternNorth Dakota
Only
Golden ValleyFm. WesternNorth Dakota
Only
TER
TIA
RY
CR
ETA
CE
OU
SJU
RA
SS
IC
?
? ? ? ? ?
* Of informal or subsurface usage
Geologic Framework 17
Figure 14. Distribution of hydrogeologic units in the Black Hills area (modified from Strobel and others, 1999).
Bear Gulch
Beaver
Creek
Red
bird
Gillette
Bol
esC
anyo
n
Can
yon
Canyon
Cold SpringsCreek
Hot Brook Canyon
Creek
Spokane
Victoria Cre
ek
LIM
ES
TO
NE
PL
AT
EA
U
Whitewood
Spearfish
SaintOnge
DEADWOOD
Lead
BELLE FOURCHE
Newell
STURGIS
Blackhawk
Piedmont
Tilford
Box Elder
Hill City
Hermosa
CUSTER
HOT SPRINGS
Edgemont
Minnekahta
Tinton CentralCity
Roubaix
Nemo
Vale
Nisland
Hayward
Keystone
Rochford
Pringle
Fairburn
Buffalo Gap
Dewey
CascadeSprings
IglooProvo
Oral
Rockerville
Belle FourcheReservoir
Horse
Indian
Creek
Creek
Creek
CreekC
reek
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
Alkali
Creek
Antelope
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
Creek
Battle
Creek
Creek
Creek
Canyo
n
Horsehead
Fall River
Cr
Lame
JohnnyRed
Creek
Creek
Hat
Hay
Hel
l
Beaver
Spring
Spring
Creek
Rapid
Rapid
Castle
Creek
Boxelder
Cre
ek
Bear
Elk
Butte
False
Bot
tom
Spea
rfis
h
BELLE
RIVER
Owl
F
OURCHEHay
RedwaterRiver
Can
yon
Can
yon
Cot
tonw
ood
Whi
tew
ood
PactolaReservoir
DeerfieldReservoir
SheridanLake
CoolidgeCr
Grace
French
Creek
AngosturaReservoir
CHEYENNE
RIV
ER
RIVER
CHEYENNE
N. F
orkRapid
Cr
Rhoa
dsFork
Castl eC
r
BearG
ulch
Creek
Crow
CoxLake
Cr
Lit
tle
Spea
rfis
h
S. Fork
S. Fork Rapid Cr
Bea
ver
Cre
ek
Whi
teta
il
Cr
Cr Cr
Annie
Squaw
Meadow Cr
Elk
Little
Creek
EllsworthAir ForceBase
Wind CaveNational Park
Jewel CaveNational
Monument
Mt. RushmoreNationalMemorial
CUSTER
STATE
PARK
WindCave
HarneyPeak x
TerryPeak
CrooksTower
x
x
BUTTE CO
LAWRENCE CO MEADE CO
PENNINGTON CO
CUSTER CO
FALL RIVER CO
WY
OM
ING
SO
UT
H
DA
KO
TA
QTac
Tw
Tui
Kps
Ju
TRPs
MDme
Kik
Pmk
Po
Ou
PPm
OCd
pCu
A
A'
0 10 20
0 10 20 MILES
KILOMETERS
EXPLANATION
Alluvium and colluvium, undifferentiated
Unconsolidatedunits
White River aquifer
Minnekahta aquifer
Minnelusa aquifer
Madison aquifer
Deadwood aquifer
Inyan Kara aquifer
Tertiary intrusiveunits
Spearfish confiningunit
Opeche confiningunit
Cretaceous-sequence
confining unit
Jurassic-sequencesemiconfining unit
Ordovician-sequencesemiconfining unit
Precambrian igneousand
metamorphic units
White River Group
Undifferentiated intrusive igneous rocks
Pierre Shale to Skull Creek Shale, undifferentiated
Inyan Kara Group
Morrison Formation to Sundance Formation, undifferentiated
Spearfish Formation
Minnekahta Limestone
Opeche Shale
Minnelusa Formation
Madison (Pahasapa) Limestone and Englewood Formation
Whitewood Formation and Winnipeg Formation
Deadwood Formation
Undifferentiated igneous and metamorphic rocks
StratigraphicUnits Map Units
HydrogeologicUnits
A A' LINE OF GEOLOGIC SECTION
FAULT--Dashed where approximated. Bar and ball on downthrown side
ANTICLINE--Showing trace of axial plane and direction of plunge. Dashed where approximated
SYNCLINE--Showing trace of axial plane and direction of plunge. Dashed where approximated
MONOCLINE--Showing trace of axial plane. Dashed where approximated
DOME--Symbol size approximately pro- portional to size of dome. Dome asymmetry indicated by arrow length
104o 45' 103o30'
15' 103o
30'
44o45'
15'
44o
45'
30'
43o15'
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,1:100,000, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1:18,000, 1996Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 13