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H U N G R Y C O A L
P A G E : 2
Indonesia faces serious land use policy conflicts that may
affect the country’s ability to feed its growing population.
This report examines one of those conflicts; coal mining and
the millions of hectares of cultivated and arable land handed
over to coal companies. We provide evidence on how coal
mining is undermining current farm productivity and quantify
coal’s impact on current and future rice production. We
provide laboratory results of water samples taken at sites
affected by operating coal mines and interviews with nearby
farmers who are forced to use mine water for irrigation
due to the draining of surrounding water resources by coal
mines. Using Indonesian Government spatial data, we
map Indonesia’s existing cultivated land affected by coal
concessions, identify land suitable for new rice cultivation
and map the proportion of this land affected by coal
concessions. Finally, we quantify the impact coal mining
has on existing rice production and Indonesia’s future rice
production should all these concessions be mined for coal.
Indonesia cannot afford to lose valuable food producing land.
Nor can it continue to allow its water resources, essential
for crops, to be polluted and choked with sediment. If the
country is to continue to feed itself, the National Government
must radically alter its land use priorities.
KEY FINDINGS
Coal mining and coal exploration is the largest net industrial land use allocation in Indonesia covering almost
17.5 million hectares.
Contrary to Indonesian regulations most coal companies leave mined land and water resources damaged and
useless for food production, which continues long after mining.
Due to the depletion of groundwater and surface water catchment caused by coal mining, villagers surrounding
coal mines are forced to use mine pit water for washing, bathing, irrigation of crops and fish farming. Farmers
using mine pit water report rice yields down 50 percent and fish production down 80 percent.
All but two of the 17 water samples taken from coal mines and surrounding waterways had concentrations of
aluminum, iron, manganese and/or pH likely to have an impact on crop production and fish farming. Indonesia’s
water quality guidelines do not set maximum allowable concentration for these heavy metals in water used for
aquaculture or agriculture.
Coal concessions cover 19 percent of Indonesia’s existing mapped rice land and 23 percent of land identified
as capable of growing rice. Much of the land identified a capable of rice cultivation is occupied by forestry and
oil palm plantations, yet unlike coal mining, these land uses do not exclude its use for future food production.
We estimate that about 1.7 million tonnes of rice per year has been lost due to coal mining and 6 million tonnes
per year of rice production is at risk from existing cultivated land.
If coal concessions within the area of land identified as capable of rice cultivation is mined an additional 11
million tonnes of rice per year will be lost. If Indonesia’s rice systems are improved with irrigation, better seed
varieties and fertilizer, over 50 million tonnes of Indonesia’s potential rice production is at risk to coal mining.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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INDONESIA’S HUNGER CHALLENGE
Indonesia is under significant pressure to increase its food production to reduce malnutrition indicators, the most serious of which is the growing prevalence of stunting in one third of children under five. Indonesia’s national government is committed to self-sufficiency for rice.1 This aim has been achieved in a handful of years over past decades, including, most recently, last year.2 However, Indonesia has been forced to import rice most years.3
Increasingly frequent El Niño events typically lead to delayed rainfall and decreased rice planting, prolonging the hungry season and increasing the annual rice deficit.4 The areas that often recorded some of the highest rice planting delays during El Niño events includes the main rice growing regions of Java, which account for over half of annual rice output.5 Analysis of climate change impacts on rice production suggests that Indonesian rice yields could plummet by between 20.3 to 27.1% by 2050.6
Indonesia’s population has been estimated to grow by almost 30 percent to 366 million people in 2050.7
If Indonesia is to grow enough food for its people, while weathering expected climate change effects and population growth, rice production must continually increase through increasing yields of existing cultivated land and expanding the area of food cultivation. Coal concessions cover 19 percent of existing rice cultivation and 23 percent of land capable of new rice
cultivation. Fifteen percent of land allocated for oil palm is also at risk of being stripped and mined for coal. Land allocated to coal mining covers almost 10 percent of Indonesia, 80 percent of which is under exploration and poses the greatest risk to Indonesia’s future food security. Evidence uncovered in this report indicates that coal mining poses a greater potential risk to Indonesia’s future food production than any other land use. Indonesia’s national government has reined in the expansion of oil palm planting and has promised a similar check of coal’s expansion, but as yet these promised reforms remain outstanding.
COALS IMPACT ON EXISTING RICE PRODUCTION
Operating coal mines occupy almost 4 million hectares in Indonesia and are having a devastating impact. Coal companies are avoiding compliance with Indonesia’s meager land rehabilitation and water protection regulations. Coal mining leaves the land scared and barren, water catchments choked and polluted, and groundwater depressed. Coal mining can confidently be assumed to destroy any potential cultivation on the land that it affects. Coal concessions have been granted in 23 of the 33 Indonesian Provinces, but the largest areas are found in the provinces of South Sumatra, South Kalimantan, and East Kalimantan.8
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In practice, many companies do not fulfill their regulatory obligations in regards to post-mining activities.9 The current condition of mined land causes acid mine drainage that currently kills fish in aquaculture operations and reduces rice yields.10
Farmers interviewed for this report indicated that mine pit water is causing rice yields to drop by 50 percent and fish production by 80 percent. All but two of the 17 water samples taken at coal mine sites in East Kalimantan and surrounding waterways had concentrations of aluminum, iron, manganese and/or pH that would be expected to lower crop production and fish farming yields. Indonesian water quality regulations do not set a maximum allowable concentration for these heavy metals in water used for aquaculture or agriculture, a serious omission. Indeed, the Indonesian Government does not regulate a maximum allowable concentration of soluble aluminum in any of the four classes. Literature reviewed for this report indicates that high levels of soluble aluminum are consistent with declining yields and are harmful to rice production.11
AREA OF LAND AFFECTED
Coal concessions cover 19 percent of Indonesia’s total 44 million hectares of mapped rice land.12 Of this area of rice land affected by coal concessions, 1.6 million hectares are within operating mine concessions and 6.5 million hectares are within coal exploration concessions.We estimate that about 1.7 million tons of rice a year has been lost due to coal mining and 6 million tons a year of rice production is at risk, if the exploration concessions are mined for coal. We further estimate that there are about 18.75 million hectares of additional land capable of cultivation outside of
Java after removing existing cultivated land, primary forest, peatlands and protected areas. The largest areas of land capable of new cultivation is in the coal producing Provinces of East Kalimantan, South Sumatra. Operating coal mine concessions occupy 26 percent or 1.1 million hectares of this land capable of new cultivation. Half of these operating mine concessions are in East Kalimantan.
COAL’S IMPACT ON FUTURE RICE PRODUCTION
With costly rehabilitation expenses and a high risk of environmental damage, the land occupied by operating mine concessions is unlikely to ever be useful for cultivation. If this area was available for cultivation, even dry land rice production and using a conservative yield of 2.5 tons a hectare, an additional 3 million tons of rice could have been added to Indonesia’s annual rice harvest. The mining within exploration concessions over land capable of cultivation risks an additional 7.8 million tons of rice a year. Given the severely abject and destructive conditions of mines, if we take for example the exploration concessions for coal in land capable of cultivation, almost 11 million tons of annual rice production potential could be lost. Indeed, if these areas were provided with irrigation and improved seed varieties and fertilizer, the land occupied by coal concessions could produce over 17 million tons of rice a year. Our calculation suggest that coal’s potential impact on Indonesia’s rice production based on current yields and dry land rice on land suitable for new cultivation is almost 13 million tons a year. If these lands were cultivated with improved rice systems – shifting cultivation to dryland and dryland to irrigated, the potential impact Indonesia’s future rice crop could be as much as 50 million tons a year.
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CONTENTSIntroduction 2
Indonesia’s hunger challenge 3
•Foodsecurity 4
-Rice 4
Coal mining 7
•Poorminesiterehabilitation 10
•Coaldepletesgroundwaterandsurfacewater 11
•Coal’stoxiclegacy 13
-Heavymetalcontamination 14
-‘Toxic’lawinMinisterialRegulationonReclamation 18
Indonesia’sstruggletoproduceitsownfood 19
•Riceharvestarea 20
•Riceyield 21
•ExpandingIndonesia’sfoodcultivationarea 23
Coal’simpactonfoodproductionland 25
•Coal’sconflictwithexistingriceproductionland 25
•Coal’sthreattoIndonesia’spotentialriceproduction 26
•Coal’scumulativeimpactonIndonesia’sfuturericeproduction 28
Conclusion 29
Referencesandbibliography 31
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INTRODUCTION
Indonesia faces serious land use policy conflicts that may affect the
country’s ability to feed its growing population. This report examines
one of those conflicts; coal mining and the millions of hectares
of cultivated and arable land handed over to coal companies. We
provide evidence on how coal mining is undermining current farm
productivity and quantify coal’s impact on current and future rice
production.
Indonesia’s population is estimated to grow by almost 29 percent,
from 260 to 366 million people by 2050.1 Feeding its people
enough food for a healthy and productive life is, therefore, a policy
priority. However, the Indonesian national government faces
significant hurdles to ensure consistent food and water security
for its population.
The Indonesian land mass is about 180 million hectares with most
available land either within conservation and moratorium areas or
allocated to oil palm, forestry and mining. Government-initiated
mega-agricultural projects to alleviate food deficits have therefore
been forced into marginal peat lands, causing irreparable social and
environmental harm and condemning the projects to failure.
As a consequence of economic and population growth, demands
for water and land have increased significantly. The lack of
accessible clean water, in both rural and urban areas and the growth
of industry, oil palm and mining limits the immediate potential for
increasing food production. Environmental issues, such as erosion,
land subsidence and the depletion of ground and surface water
resources considerably magnify the challenge of growing more
food on available arable land.2
Compounding the challenge of Indonesia’s food security is climate
change. In 2015, the World Food Programme warned that, As a
highly disaster-prone country, Indonesia faces escalating climate
change risks with potential to cause substantial transient, and
possibly also chronic, food and nutrition insecurity.3 As the climate
becomes increasingly erratic, altered rainfall patterns, increased
frequency and intensity of climate-related events, and increased
pest and crop disease will have a mounting impact on food
production.4 Indonesia will be forced to feed an additional 100
million people in 2050, at a time when significant reductions in
crop yields are anticipated due to climate change impacts.
If Indonesia is to grow enough food for its people, while
experiencing the expected climate change impacts and population
growth, production must continually increase or many Indonesians
must do without rice. This will require either a significant cultural
transformation, one that appears to be unpalatable for many
Indonesians, or an increase in the productivity of existing cultivated
land and an expansion of the area of food cultivation.
A major impediment to expanding the area of food cultivation is
Indonesia’s current land use planning, which is skewed towards
industrial export driven agriculture and mining. Coal mining, oil
palm and other export orientated commodities dominate potential
domestic food growing land in many areas and eat into existing
food production.
This report examines how coal mining undermines food and water
security in Indonesia by impeding the expansion of food cultivation,
destroying cultivated land, depleting and contaminating water
resources, and leaving land unusable for growing food, as well as
being a major contributor to climate change. Where coal mining
proliferates, mine site rehabilitation is largely nonexistent, when
rehabilitation does occur, it is poor and unmanaged. In addition,
coal mining reduces available groundwater and surface water and
contaminates these vital resources with acid mine drainage and
heavy metals. Laboratory results of heavy metal contaminated
water samples taken at eight coal mine sites in East Kalimantan and
surrounding waterways are presented and its impacts identified.
INDONESIA’S HUNGER CHALLENGE
Despite growth in the Indonesian economy of about 6 percent
since 2010, malnutrition persists and continues to confound the
country’s potential.5 According to the World Bank Development
Indicators database6 the rate of undernourishment in Indonesia has
more than halved in the past decade from 18.6 percent in 2004
to 7.6 percent in 2015. However, data from the National Socio-
Economic Survey (SUSENAS) reveals that in 2013, 52 percent of
the population failed to meet the daily international threshold of
2,000 kcal per person.7
Most troubling is malnourishment in Indonesian children. The
World Bank database8 shows that the proportion of children
under five who suffered from wasting in 2013 was 13.5 percent,
a mere 0.9 percent improvement since 2004. The incidence of
severe wasting in children actually increased from 5 to 7 percent
over the same period.9The incidence of underweight children also
increased slightly, with 20 percent of children under 5 underweight
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in 2013, up from 19.7 percent in 2004.10 The troubling statistic that
has received the most attention is the 36.4 percent of Indonesian
children under five years of age that were stunted in 2013 - too
short for their age - up from 28.4 percent in 2004.11
Failure to grow and develop optimally in early life has considerable
human and economic costs.12Stunting increases the risk of child
deaths, adversely affects cognitive and motor development, lowers
performance at school, increases the risk of obesity and non-
communicable diseases, and reduces productivity in adulthood.13
Brain development is most affected by childhood stunting14 and
children that experience stunting in their early development are
less likely to graduate high school and are expected to earn at
least ten per cent less during their lifetime than their food-secure
peers.15 Such high rates of childhood stunting are likely to have
considerable impacts upon the Indonesian economy. For example,
these ccumulative effects have been estimated to cost African and
Asian countries up to 11 percent of their gross national product.16
FOOD SECURITY Food security is defined as “a condition when all people at all
times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference for
an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996). Indonesia’s
national government has restated its commitment to achieving
self-sufficiency in five key staples - rice, maize, soybeans, sugar
and beef - and has committed to a revised timeframe for achieving
self-sufficiency by the end of 2017 for rice, maize and soybeans
and the end of 2019 for beef and sugar.17 In the 2016 calendar year,
Indonesian achieved self-sufficiency in rice for the first time since
2009, producing 79.2 million tons of unmilled rice (between 54 and
57 million tons of white rice when milled), up from 74 million tons
in 2015.18 However, in May 2016 the FAO tentatively forecast the
2017 aggregate Indonesian rice production at 71.9 million tons, 2
percent below last yea’s level and further forecast that Indonesia
will require total cereal imports of 13 million tons in the 2017
financial year.19
The Indonesian Government’s National Mid-Term Development
Plan (RPJMN) 2015-2019 seeks to strengthen food sovereignty
through five major strategies:
1.Increase food availability by enhancing domestic production of
key crops including rice, maize, soybean, meat, sugar, chili and
onion.
2.Improve the quality of food distribution and the accessibility
of food.
3. Improve the overall quality and nutritional value of the Indonesian diet.
4. Protect food security through preparedness for natural disasters,
mitigating the impact of climate change, and preventing pest
infections and the spread of diseases in animals.
5. Improve the livelihoods and welfare of famers, fishermen and
other food producers.20
RICE
While many local forms of food staples such as sago and tubers
are relied on in areas of Indonesia, the vast majority of Indonesians
rely on rice as a primary food source.
In 2009, each Indonesian on average consumed 127 kilograms
of milled rice.21 This is the highest per capita rice consumption
in the world. In 2009, rice provided 47.6 percent (1,259 kcal per
day) of per capita caloric intake and 39.6 percent of per capita
daily protein requirement.22 The country is the world’s third-largest
rice consumer and despite being the third largest producer, is
said to be the largest rice importer in the world.23 Indonesia has
only produced enough rice for its own needs in the mid-1980s,
2008-2009 and 2016.24 The Indonesian Government attempted to
reduce rice consumption through its One Day No Rice campaign.25
The campaign failed due to Indonesian’s strong cultural connection
and preference for rice.26
In 2015, the domestic price of medium quality rice in Indonesia
hit a record high of over IDR 10 million per ton (USD 750).27 As the
international rice supply originates from just three rice-exporting
countries: Thailand, India and Vietnam, and global trade accounts
for just 5 percent of consumption, countries that are not self-
sufficient face increased price volatility in times of production
shortfalls.28
Low-income families in Indonesia spend an estimated 27
percent of their salaries each month buying rice subsidized by
the government.29 Under the RASKIN program, the government
sells rice of a lower quality at IDR 1,600 per kilogram (USD 0.12),
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allowing each family to purchase up to 15 kilograms a month.30
In 2013, about 3.7 million tons of rice was distributed to about
16 million families.31 However, the program has been criticized for
not targeting the poor,32 for being marred by corruption,33 and for
pushing up the price for rice, which is estimated at 60 percent
above international prices.34
The weather also plays a factor. El Niño events typically lead to
delayed rainfall and decreased rice planting, prolonging the hungry
season and increasing the annual rice deficit.35 The FAO reports
that the mostly irrigated, main season paddy crop for 2016 was
delayed by up to eight weeks in several areas due to the late onset
of the rainy season and erratic precipitation through January, under
the influence of an ElNiño event.36 The areas that recorded the
highest delays include parts of West and East Java, West Nusa
Tenggara and South Sulawesi, which together account for the bulk
of main season rice output.37
With the increasing number of climate-change-linked harvest
deficits, and fluctuating availability of rice on global markets, the
rice issue provokes national anxiety.38 Suharto’s resignation in 1998
and the uprising that preceded it, has been blamed, in part, on
a tripling of the rice price which forced 89 million Indonesians to
subsist on just one meal a day.39 Suharto’s successor, B.J. Habibie,
was compelled to import 5.1 million tons of rice, a quarter of the
world͛s trade at the time, to quell the unrest.40
Indonesia͛s long history of annual rice deficits is predicted to
worsen. Analysis of climate change impacts on rice production
suggests that in 2025 rice production in Java is likely to be 1.8
million tons lower than current levels and in 2050 3.6 million tons
lower.41 Other predictions of the impact of climate change suggests
that Indonesian rice yields could plummet by an average of 11.1
and 14.4 percent for every degree (C) of temperature increase, for
irrigated and rain fed rice respectively.42 A further study predicts
Indonesian rice production will decline by between 20.3 to 27.1
percent by 2050.43
Nevertheless, a steady annual increase of 3.2 percent in rice
production and 6.1 percent in maize production has been achieved
over the last ten years.44 Most rice production, however, is
concentrated in Java, where 100,000 hectares of rice lands is said
to be converted to other uses each year.45
While concentrated high yield irrigated rice paddy production in
Java has enabled increased overall food production in Indonesia
given the limited availability of agricultural land, continuing to rely
on Java for the bulk of the country’s rice production risks future
food security. Data from the Ministry of Agriculture shows Java
Island to be the most affected by the drought influencing El Niño,
and suffers the most prevalent and intense droughts in the country,
which are being experienced with increasing frequency.46
Such concentrated rice production also results in problems with
distributing rice to rural areas outside Java. Local food production
to meet local demand is an important food security safeguard,
but has not been achieved. Indeed the number of rural districts
experiencing food production deficits has increased. For example,
22.6 percent of rural districts studied for the 2015 Food Security
and Vulnerability Atlas of Indonesia experienced deficits in the
production of cereals and tubers, a 2 percent increase since
2009.47 Provincial level deficits are also experienced. In a recent
study of East and West Kalimantan between 2013 and 2014
significant numbers of households identified as facing temporary
food insecurity during an annual hunger season (paceklik).48 In
2013, total rice production of East Kalimantan was 573,381 tons,49
just 87 percent of provincial demand.50
However, expanding Indonesia’s cultivated land has its challenges.
Plans to increase rice harvest area have continually been stymied
by the over-allocation of land to export commodities such as palm
oil and coal.51 Poorly-conceived attempts at mega rice projects of
the past have, as a result, been squeezed into marginal land and
reaped dismal results. Indonesia’s first mega rice project aimed at
converting one million hectares of unproductive low land Central
Kalimantan peatland into rice paddy ended in environmental and
social ruin.52 With 75 percent of arable land already under cereal
production53 increasing food production means increasing crop
productivity and/or cultivating food on land set aside for oil palm
and coal.
COAL MINING
More than a decade and a half of growth in Indonesia’s coal-mining
sector has positioned the country as the world’s fourth-largest coal
producer and the largest exporter of thermal coal. Indonesia now
accounts for 8 percent of the world’s thermal coal production and
despite a 9.8 percent decline from 2014, still accounts for over 36
percent of global thermal coal exports.54 Indonesia, therefore, has
a major role in greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power
plants.
In 2015, Indonesia produced almost 469.3 million tons (Mt) of
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coal, 99.4 percent of which was steaming coal, the fourth highest
production after China, USA and India. Indonesia exported 78.5
percent of its total coal production, making it the world’s largest
exporter of steaming coal.
Domestic coal consumption is also planned to increase. To cope
with electricity shortages and to reduce the country’s dependence
on fossil fuels, the President of Indonesia launched a program in
2015 to provide an additional 35 Gigawatts (GW) of domestic power
capacity by 2019.55 The program included the construction of 20
GW of coal-fired power capacity that would increasing domestic
coal consumption by 80-90 Mt a year, 40% of which was expected
to be supplied domestically.56 At the time, Indonesians electricity
demand was expected to grow by 8.7 percent a year, on the back
of an expected economic growth rate of 7 percent. In late 2016,
the National Energy Board (DEN) announced on that only 56.28
percent of the targeted 19.7GW of electricity, would be added
into the grid by 2019.57 Lower-than-expected economic growth of
just 5.1 percent now raises questions about the feasibility of the
program.58 To date only 232 MW of the total 35,000 MW target are
in commercial operation.59
Map 1 below has been developed from Indonesian Government
spatial data60 and shows that coal reserves are found in all the five
major islands with coal concessions having been granted in 23 of
the 33 Indonesian Provinces, but the largest reserves are found
in the provinces of South Sumatra, South Kalimantan, and East
Kalimantan (see table 1).
Coal mining and coal exploration is the largest net industrial land
use allocation in Indonesia. Indonesian Government spatial data61
shows that coal mining concessions cover almost 10 percent
of the country or just under 17.5 million hectares; 9.8 million
hectares in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo); 4.3 million hectares
in Sumatra; and 3.1 million hectares in Papua/West Papua.
While only about 20 percent of these concessions are currently
mined (3.4 million hectares) or under construction (0.24 million
hectares), another 78 percent (13.6 million hectares) is under
exploration. While oil palm concessions cover a net area of 19.1
million hectares, included in this is 2.8 million hectares of coal
concessions. Indonesia will eventually exhaust its coal reserves,
and unless mine site rehabilitation dramatically improves large
tracks of potentially productive farmland will be left unusable for
growing food, waterways polluted and groundwater depleted. In
2014, Indonesian coal reserves were estimated at 32.3 billion tons.
However, declining strip-ratios and profitability have led to a drop in
economically retrievable coal reserves. PricewaterhouseCoopers
now suggests that if current production is maintained and if
domestic consumption increases as predicted, Indonesia’s
economically retrievable coal reserves could be depleted by 2033
to 2036.62
A moratorium on new coal mine concession areas was to be
implemented after the announcement of a similar five-year ban on
new palm oil plantations, announced in April 2016. A moratorium
would not, however, halt new mine expansions or developments
Map 1: Coal concession in Indonesia (2013)
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by companies that already hold mining concessions.
The Indonesian Government is trying to grapple with the vast
areas of land handed over to coal companies during previous
regimes. Local governments (kabupaten) in coal-rich areas have
issued many thousands of Mining Business Permits (Izin Usaha
Pertambangan, or IUPs) often corruptly, without maintaining
administrative oversight.63 As a consequence many mining
companies now lack the mandatory Clean and Clear certification
(CnC). Clean and Clear certification was introduced in 2014 to
identify miners that have outstanding royalty obligations and other
tax debts, unfulfilled exploration and environmental commitments
and property delineation issues. As a result of the CnC process
the Director General for Coal and Minerals at the Energy Ministry,
had identified 4,023 of the 10,388 IUP-holders, which should be
revoked.64 It remains to be seen how many coal concessions will
eventually be overturned. It is essential for Indonesia’s food security
objectives that the vast area of existing coal concessions are not
allowed to be mined. To do so would leave waterways silted up,
contaminate with heavy metals, depleted groundwater and make
millions of hectares of productive land barren and unsuitable for
food production.
POOR MINE SITE REHABILITATION
Over 99 percent of coal mining in Indonesia is open cut or strip
mining.65 To allow for strip mining, concession areas are stripped of
Table 1: Indonesian coal mining concessions – all number in hectares
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vegetation and soil is removed and piled to allow access to the coal
seam. The process has a significant impact on agricultural production,
as well as local communities, soil stabilization, hydrological cycling,
carbon sequestration, and habitat for biodiversity. Downstream
communities are also impacted through landslides, sedimentation,
depleted groundwater and the discharge of acid mine drainage and
toxic heavy metals.
In practice, many companies do not fulfill their regulatory obligations
on post-mining activities leaving land and water resources damaged.
Companies lack the technical capacity to conduct rehabilitation on
heavily-degraded, and sometimes toxic sites. The limited technical
capacity and often unwillingness of government regulators to impose
and monitor rehabilitation obligations means that the impacts of
coal mining in Indonesia is severe and does not stop when mining
ceases.66
Recent reports of thousands of coal mines closing in Indonesia’s
coal belt with very few companies having paid their share of billions
of dollars owed to repair the badly scarred landscape they have left
behind,67 underline the rehabilitation challenge Indonesia faces.
Indonesia’s Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK) estimates that
90 percent of the more than 10,000 mining license holders have not
paid the reclamation funds they owe by law. One-third are for coal.68
COAL DEPLETES GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER
Almost all Indonesian coal is mined by open cut or strip mining.69
Such mining has a significant impact on surface and groundwater,
essential for successful food production.
Strip mining requires groundwater to be pumped from the mine
pit to allow mining to proceed. This draws down the level of
groundwater surrounding the mine pit. Depending on the depth
of the mine, this groundwater “depressio” may extend for several
kilometers.70
Unless mine pits are filled with earth when mining ceases and
dewatering of the mine pit stops, mine pits fill with groundwater,
rainfall and runoff. This creates a permanent lake to form in the
abandoned mine pit. The relationship between groundwater and
pit lakes is two-way. Pit lakes influence and are influenced by
groundwater.71 In other words, not only can abandoned pits be a
source of acid mine drainage and heavy metals into groundwater,
pit lakes can also draw down groundwater after mining ceases due
Ibu Dewi lives within 100 meters of the
PT Cahaya Energi Mandiri coal mine in Mugirejo near
Samarinda, East Kalimantan. Her well water has been
unusable since the mine started in 2009 and mudslides
regularly cover her rice paddies. Before the mine was
developed there were 83 families growing rice in the
area. Since the mine started and the mud slides began,
rice growing families moved away and the number of
rice growing families in Mugirejo fell to just 20. Ibu Dewi
complains that there are so many mud slides now that
families can’t produce as much rice as they once did. Mud
slides cover the rice plants with increasing frequency and
need to be replanted.
Flooding events are reported as being more common and
widespread since coal mining arrived in East Kalimantan,
with the city of Samarinda experiencing floods on
150 occasions between 2009 and 2014. Coal mines
denude topsoil on hills. Rapid runoff of torrential rains
into waterways leads to mudslides that now routinely
decimate rice fields and wash out neighbourhoods.
The soil characteristics of East Kalimantan and the hilly
topography with relatively steep slopes favour soil
erosion as soon as the vegetative cover is broken. Poor
water quality is a consequence of vegetation removal
which causes river siltation, suspended solids, as well as
mineral and metal contamination of surface water. This is
in addition to reduced soil fertility. Damage to natural soil
conditions occurs very fast and is sometimes irreversible.
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to evaporation.
Indonesia regularly faces periods of no rain in the dry season and
droughts are becoming increasingly common.72 During these dry
periods, groundwater has long been relied upon for the water
needs of communities and farms. When mine pits are abandoned,
evaporation of the mine lake causes groundwater to be drawn into
the pit, depleting groundwater and depressing the water table. As
such, many wells in areas of production and abandoned coal mines
face dry periods with water tables significantly depressed.
Greenpeace reported in March 2016 that the groundwater of the
village of Kertabuana near Samarinda, East Kalimantan, has been
affected by the Banpu mine. Since the mine started the community
has experienced dry wells and some are now forced to dig up to 20
meters before they find groundwater to pump.73
Interviews undertaken with farming families for this report revealed
similar experiences. Villagers surrounding the KPC mine in East
Kalimantan, as well as several farming communities surrounding
production and abandoned coal mine sites near the East Kalimantan
capital of Samarinda have been forced in some cases to utilize the
water in the mine pits for washing, bathing, irrigation of crops and
fish farming due to the depletion of groundwater by coal mining
(see laboratory results from water testing carried out on these
farmers mine pit water below).
Indeed, in the heaviest mining Province of East Kalimantan the
number of open cut coal mines has led to open pits butting up
against villages, cutting into community land and depleting water
resources essential for crops.
The expansion in coal mining has not seen a proportional increase
in the government resources allocated to manage the industry.
It has been reported that Samarinda has only five government
mining inspectors responsible for ensuring adherence to regulatory
obligations by mine companies.74 Indeed little or no consideration
or planning has preceded the rush to mine coal in East Kalimantan.
“Poor governance, control of resources by powerful elites, a permit
process that doesn’t adequately consider the environmental or
social impacts of mining, and lack of monitoring, oversight, and
clear requirements for post-mining clean-up has allowed coal
mining to operate largely unchecked with a high environmental,
social, and economic cost to local communities”75
The recent downturn in coal’s fortunes brought on by China’s
reduced demand, has hit the meagre benefits from coal mining,
with many of the coal companies now insolvent or divested of
assets with little recourse for governments to demand rehabilitation
obligations be fulfilled.76
In 2015, around 200 coal mining companies ceased operations in
East Kalimantan. Some of these were temporary, as miners waited
for coal prices to rise, others were permanent and bankrupt. This
saw around 5,000 people lose their jobs as Indonesian coal exports
fell 18 percent.77
Abandoned mine pits dot the bare, treeless hillsides in Samarinda,
the capital of East Kalimantan. Indonesia has tried, mostly in vain,
to get mining companies to keep their promises to clean up the
ravaged landscape.
Samarinda is scarred by a growing number of abandoned open
cut coal pits and piles of topsoil and mine overburden leaving
vast areas prone to flooding and contamination of surrounding
waterways with toxic cocktails of heavy metals and sediment.78
The increasing number of abandoned mine pits pose a significant
risk to the environment and human health and safety.
The devastating human toll that abandoned mine pits have had
increases with each passing year. In the last five years 24 local
children have drowned in the deep aqua water of the coal pits, a
legacy of the high heavy metal concentrations.79
In addition to the human tragedy that abandoned coal pits have
caused, the local population must suffer the ongoing loss of
surface and groundwater through evaporation from the abandoned
pits. Operating open-cut coal mines drain water tables to access
the coal and use large amounts of water in the mining process,
but unless rehabilitated and backfilled with the mine spoil and
overburden, these pits fill with groundwater and continue the
increased water loss through evaporation. Thus an ongoing
impact is foisted onto the local populations with lost surface water
harvesting and groundwater leading to dry wells and empty dams.
Backfilling of mine pits can mitigate their social and environmental
risks, and presents the opportunity to return land to a form that
supports food production and conservation.80 In the United States,
filling in coal mine pits has been required by law since the 1970s.81
COAL’S TOXIC LEGACY
A major impact of coal mining is its pollution of available freshwater
with acid mine drainage (AMD).
Contamination of waterways by coal mining is well documented
and metal release leading to the formation of AMD has been
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Ibu Rahma at the mine pit that killed her son, Samarinda East Kailimantan (JATAM).
Ibu Rahma di tambang yang membunuh anaknya, Sempaja Samarinda (JATAM).
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extensively reported,82 as has the development of AMD from coal
mining.83 Acid mine drainage is one of the most serious localized
environmental problems that the coal mining industry faces.84
AMD causes acidification and metal contamination of surface and
ground water bodies and requires high-cost, long-term remediation
and treatment measures to mitigate its impact.
When mine materials and overburden-containing metal sulfides
are exposed to air and water, the sulfide bearing rocks oxidize to
produce sulfates and acid. Under such acidic conditions a wide
range of metals become more soluble. In coal mining operations,
AMD is predominantly caused when sulfide minerals that are
present in coal beds or in strata overlying and underlying the coal
are exposed to oxidation.85
Some of the effects of AMD include fish kills and the loss of
other aquatic species, and impacts on vegetation such as killing
crops or reduced or impaired yields.86 The formation of AMD can
be a long-term source of water contamination. Once a mining
operation has ceased, poor water quality may continue to impact
on the environment, human health and livelihood for decades or
even centuries. A well-known mine site in the Iberian Pyrite Belt in
Spain, for example, has been generating AMD for well over 2000
years.87
A 2014 Greenpeace study analyzed collected surface and
wastewater samples in and near mine sites in the Province of
South Kalimantan and reported levels of iron and manganese
consistently above Indonesia’s legal limit. The report noted that 7
of 29 samples had pH readings below 3 — a level of acidity found
in vinegar.88
Acid mine drainage across Kalimantan has killed fish in aquaculture
operations and reduced rice yields.89Laboratory results from water
samples we took from mine sites and surrounding waterways in East
Kalimantan revealed heavy metal concentrations and acidity above
acceptable limits for food production systems. Indeed, farmers
interviewed complain that wastewater from coal mining activities
entering rice paddies damage their harvests and devastating food
production. Since using mine pit water these farmers stated that
rice yields were down 50 percent and fish production was down 80
percent from what it was before mine pit water was used. Heavy
metal contamination Heavy metals are significant environmental
pollutants, and their toxicity is a problem of increasing significance
for ecological, nutritional and environmental reasons.90 Because
of their high solubility in aquatic environments, heavy metals can
be absorbed by living organisms. Once they enter the food chain,
concentrations of heavy metals can magnify as they accumulate
in organisms and ecosystems. If the metals are ingested beyond
the permitted concentration, they can cause serious health
disorders.91 Heavy metal toxicity is also one of the major non-
biological stresses affecting plants.92 Due to acid mine drainage,
accumulated overburden and wastewater created by coal mining,
a range of heavy metals are released. Significant concentrations of
aluminum, iron and manganese are commonly discharged. These
heavy metals can have a negative impacts on living organisms,
particularly aquatic life and crops. The impacts of heavy metals on
crops increase in acid soils. Heavy tropical rainfall decreases the
soil pH (increasing acidity) 93 Acid soils cover 661,153km2 or about
35 percent of Indonesia. The pH of these soils ranges from 4 to 5.94
Rice paddy farming also has a tendency towards acidity. Studies of
rice paddy soils occupying Indonesian hills and lowlands revealed
soil pH between 4.3 and 6.75.95
HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION Heavy metals are significant environmental pollutants, and their
toxicity is a problem of increasing significance for ecological,
nutritional and environmental reasons.90 Because of their high
solubility in aquatic environments, heavy metals can be absorbed
by living organisms. Once they enter the food chain, concentrations
of heavy metals can magnify as they accumulate in organisms
and ecosystems. If the metals are ingested beyond the permitted
concentration, they can cause serious health disorders.91 Heavy
metal toxicity is also one of the major non-biological stresses
affecting plants.92
Due to acid mine drainage, accumulated overburden and
wastewater created by coal mining, a range of heavy metals
are released. Significant concentrations of aluminum, iron and
manganese are commonly discharged. These heavy metals can
have a negative impacts on living organisms, particularly aquatic
life and crops.
The impacts of heavy metals on crops increase in acid soils. Heavy
tropical rainfall decreases the soil pH (increasing acidity) 93 Acid soils
cover 661,153km2 or about 35 percent of Indonesia. The pH of these
soils ranges from 4 to 5.94 Rice paddy farming also has a tendency
towards acidity. Studies of rice paddy soils occupying Indonesian
hills and lowlands revealed soil pH between 4.3 and 6.75.95
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.
HEAVY METALS FOUND IN COAL MINE WATER
In 2015 and 2016, in preparation for this report, 17 water samples
were taken at eight coal mine sites in East Kalimantan and
surrounding waterways. All water samples were taken using US
EPA Method 1669.96 These samples were analyzed by certified
testing laboratories in Indonesia for heavy metals using ICPMS
(Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry).
All but two of the water samples analyzed had concentrations
of aluminum, iron, manganese and/or pH that is likely to have an
impact on crop production and fish farming. Indonesia’s water quality
guidelines set out in Regulation 82 of 2001 does not set a maximum
allowable concentration for aluminum, iron or manganese in water
used for aquaculture or agriculture, a serious omission.
Indeed, the Indonesian Government does not regulate a maximum
allowable concentration of soluble aluminum in any of the four
classes of water use. Aluminum toxicity has been linked to multiple
neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis and Alzheimer disease.97 High concentration of aluminum in
water, particularly in low pH water can lead to accumulation in fish
organs causing nervous system disorders,98 and reduces mucous
cells of the skin and gills leading to the inability to regulate salt.99
Substantial research has been undertaken into the impact of
aluminum, at relatively low concentrations, on agriculture.100
Aluminum is one of the major factors that limit plant growth and
development in acid soils.101 Specifically, aluminum toxicity in
plants reduces root systems, induces a variety of nutrient-deficiency
symptoms and decreases yield.102 Many plant species are sensitive to
very low concentrations of soluble aluminum,and can begin to inhibit
root growth within 60 minutes.103 In soils of pH lower than 5.5, soluble
aluminum is toxic to many plants when the concentration is greater
than 2–3 ppm.104However, aluminum appears to be lethal to young rice
plants atconcentrations as low as 0.5 ppm.105
Although iron is an essential nutrient for plants, its accumulation
within cells can be toxic. Iron toxicity is a major disorder in irrigated
and rain fed rice.106 High soluble iron causes poor growth and
severe yield reductions at concentrations above 10 ppm.107 Average
reported yield losses due to iron toxicity are in the range of 12%–
35%.108 However, toxicity at seedling and early vegetative stages
can strongly affectplant growth and result in a complete crop
failure.109 Iron has also been found to be toxic to some aquatic life
at concentrations as low as 1ppm.110
Similarly, manganese toxicity is nearly always associated with acid
Table 2: Water testing results of samples taken in and around the KPC coal mine in East Kalimantan in May 2016
Parameter results in bold indicate concentrations are above acceptable limits
Table 3: Results of water samples taken at mine sites and irrigation canals fed by mine sites around Samarinda. Parameter
results in bold indicate concentrations above acceptable limits
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soils and waterlogging may induce or exacerbate the toxicity.111
Manganese toxicity in plants is often not a clearly identifiable
disorder with symptoms and the concentration that causes toxicity
varying widely among plant species and varieties within species.112
In potatoes, stem streak necrosis has been linked to manganese
toxicity watered with manganese concentration as low as 2 ppm.113
The plant dies prematurely and tuber yields are seriously reduced.
Lowering the pH of the soil below 5 increased the severity.114 Rice
is known as a manganese tolerant plant species, but has been
found to accumulate manganese in roots and shoots causing
damage to membranes.115
Table 2 shows the results of water samples collected at the Kaltim
Prima Coal mine (KPC). The KPC mine is the largest coal mine in
Indonesia and one of the largest in the world,116 producing around
50 million tons a year.117 The KPC concession areas cover 90,000
hectares in three districts, encompassing several villages.
All the three water samples taken from waterways surrounding
the KPC mine (samples 1, 2 and 14) would breach the US EPA
recommended maximum water quantity criteria for aluminum. Two
(samples 2 and 14) are in breach of the Indonesian water quality
criteria for drinking water for iron and one (sample 1) is in breach
of Indonesian drinking water criteria for manganese. Sample 1 also
breaches all 4 classes of Indonesian water quality criteria for pH.
Water samples were also taken at operating and abandoned coal
mines and irrigation canals fed by mines around Samarinda, East
Kalimantan.
The results set out in table 3 show extreme concentrations of both
aluminum and iron for sample 17, taken from an irrigation canal used
for rice paddy production. Water containing such concentrations of
aluminum would severely reduce rice crops and likely kill young rice
plants. The canal was fed from the PT Kitadin mine north of Samarinda.
Aluminum concentrations in the sampled water were over 21 times
and iron 119 times the respective US EPA maximum and continuous
recommended concentrations for freshwater aquatic life.
The CV Arjuna mine also feeds water through an irrigation canal to
rice paddies and fish farms. Iron concentrations were found to be
1.58ppm and 2.68ppm in water samples taken from the mine pit and
a sediment pond of CV Arjuna mine. Seven of the 17 water samples
taken had iron concentrations above 1ppm and likely to be detrimental
to rice crops and fish farms, and one was found as high as 119ppm.
Sample 15 was taken from an irrigation canal used to water rice
and fish farms. The irrigation canal was fed by an abandoned mine
pit of CV Limbuh. Samples from irrigation canals (sample 15 and
17) were many times over the Indonesian drinking water quality
criteria for iron (7 and 400 times respectively), and manganese
(14 and 13 times respectively). Sample 15 was also in breach of
Indonesian water quality criteria for pH. Manganese can affect
crops at concentrations higher than 2ppm. Five of the 16 water
samples taken shows manganese concentrations higher than
2ppm. One sample showed a concentration of 8.5ppm.
All but two of the water sample results shows concentrations
of heavy metals or pH that would be expected to be detrimental
on food production in agricultural systems. Farmers interviewed
during the water sampling confirmed these fears.
Pak Baharudin, a 58 year old originally from
South Sulawesi, has been farming fish, rice and chilies
near Samarinda in East Kalimantan since 2000. Before
2008, he produced fish worth about 150 million Rupiah
a year. However, after 2008 the CV Arjuna Makroman
coal mine started drying up his dams and groundwater,
and he has since been forced to use mine pit water for
his fish ponds. Now his fish ponds provide him with
only 20 million Rupiah a year. He receives all his water
from the Macroman coal mine operated by CV Arjuna to
grow Gurami, Nilla, Bututu, Emas and Kai in about 50
fish ponds. He said the fish don’t grow well anymore.
Rice production is also down. Pak Baharudin once
produced about 7 tons of rice a year, but since irrigating
with mine water rice production is down to about 4 tons
a year.
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‘TOXIC’ LAW IN MINISTERIAL REGULATION ON RECLAMATION
ATAM (Jaringan Advokasi Tambang or Mining Advocacy Network)
finds that the Indonesian government, specifically in this case the
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, is responsible for the
contamination of soil used for agriculture and fish farming.
Article 12 of Regulation of the Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources
No. 7 of 2014 on the Implementation of Reclamation and Post-Mining
Activities in Mineral and Coal Businesses stipulates that reclamation
programs can be carried out through revegetation or other forms.
In more detail, Article 5 of this regulation provides four options
regarding the use of abandoned mine pits for other activities, namely
for housing, tourism, water, and cultivation. These options are new
and are not stipulated in Regulation of the Minister of Energy and
Mineral Resources No. 18 of 2008 on Reclamation and Mine Closure,
which predates the 2014 Regulation.
JATAM East Kalimantan has recorded that since 2014 there have
been 2,896 mine pits in East Kalimantan, including 232 mine pits in
Samarinda, East Kalimantan’s capital. As many as 197 mine pits have
been declared inactive, measuring at 1,389 hectares. In comparison,
the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport in Jakarta measures 1,740
hectares. Therefore, the combined area of these abanoned mine pits
is almost equivalent to that of the main airport of Indonesia’s capital.
One often used option is the use of mine pits for fish farming.
There are currently 11 mine pits with a total area of 283.8 hectares
that have been converted into fish farms.
Another option is the use of mine pits for sources of water. Mining
company PT Mahakam Sumber Jaya uses this option, and has
Pak Abba, a 60 year old Samarinda farmer who has been growing rice on his 1.5 hectare plot for 25 years,
produces less than 2 tons of rice a year since the Limbuh mine began operating upstream in 2010, down from about 4 tons
before the mine began. The Limbuh mine pit drains into an irrigation dam built in 1985, during the Suharto regime, to feed
water to rice paddies farmed by about 100 small holders. Pak Abba said all the rice growers in the irrigation system are
experiencing similar rice production deficits. He said that before the mine started, there were 4 families producing fish, now
there was only one, and that farm produced few fish.
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converted the 61.33-hectare Ex-Pit L0 and the 7.4-hectare Ex-Pit
S-7 South as reservoirs for the Regional Drinking Water Company
(PDAM). Data from the Environmental Agency of
INDONESIA’S STRUGGLE TO PRODUCE ITS OWN FOOD
Indonesia’s agricultural industry is divided between a smallholder
sector focused on staple commodity production and an export
oriented agro-industrial sector.
Rice farming is one of the most important commodities in the
agricultural sector, as it produces rice as a staple food for most
Indonesians and is still the main occupation in the rural areas.118
Smallholder farmers account for around 90 percent of Indonesia’s
rice production on an average land area of less than 0.8 hectares.119
Rice is grown by about 26 million Indonesian farmers, which is 77
percent of the country’s farmers, under predominantly subsistence
conditions.120 About 70 percent of the lowland rice area in Indonesia
produces two crops per year. The rainy season crop is planted in
November-December and harvested in January-February. The dry
season crop is planted in February-March and harvested in May
- June. A very good irrigation system may permit a third lowland
(flooded) rice crop to be grown.121
According to Indonesian Government statistics122 between 2005
and 2015 Indonesia’s population grew by 12.25 percent and apart
from declines in 2011 and 2014, rice production steadily increased
by 28 percent or 21,246,744 tons over the same period (see chart
1). The challenge for Indonesia is to maintain rice production
increases to feed a growing population, while at the same time
adapting to the impacts of climate change on rice production.
Chart 1: Indonesian population and rice production between 2005
and 2015.
Pak Derman has been growing rice on his
small plot in Kertabuena, downstream of the PT Kitadin
mine north of Samarinda, East Kalimantan since 1980. PT
Kitadin began developing its coal mine in 1990. In 1995,
when Pak Derman began using irrigation water directly
from the mine’s many pits, rice production began to
drop. In the 1980s, Pak Derman harvested about 8 tons
a year. Now his rice paddies produce about 4 tons. Pak
Derman complained that when it floods and mine pit
water escapes into his rice paddy, he loses his rice crop
altogether and must replant. When Pak Derman began
rice farming in Kertabuena in 1980 there were 20 families
growing rice in his rice group. That number is down to
17, as farm families struggle with coal mining-induced
declining yields that make rice farming unsustainable.
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RICE HARVEST AREA
According to Indonesian Government statistics,123 Indonesia’s
rice harvest area grew by 2.3 million hectares or 19.2 percent from
2005 to 14.1 million hectares in 2015.
In the years 2005-2015, nine provinces collectively lost 145,000
hectares from their already meager 3.3 million hectare rice harvest
area (see table 4).
Table 4: Provinces that lost rice growing area between 2005 and
2015.
According to Indonesian Ministry of Forest 2013 spatial land cover
data,124 the total mapped area of Indonesian rice land is just over
44 million hectares (see map 2). This includes 26.5 million hectares
of “dry rice land mixed with scrub,” where shifting agriculture/crop
rotation is practiced. The mapped area of permanently cultivated
land is 17.5 million hectares, of which only 7.5 million hectares is
high production irrigated rice land, predominantly in Java. These
figures are higher than the official data released by the Indonesian
Government125 which reports 14.1 million hectares of cultivated
rice. The difference is probably due to the maps identifying all
cropped land and wrongly assigning rice land as the sole Indonesian
cultivated crop.
RICE YIELD
The highest yielding rice paddies are concentrated in the main
irrigation rice lands of Java. In areas outside Java, yields are poor.
In one transmigration settlement in Bulungan, East Kalimantan,
yields on marginal peatland were as low as one ton per hectare, with
many achieving even lower yields.126 Many farmers suffer from food
insecurity during a hunger season of up to two months each harvest
season while they waited until the second harvest.127
Rice yields in Java average up to 6.2 tons a hectare. However, in some
Provinces such as West and North Kalimantan yields are as low as 2.5
tons a hectare (see map 3).
Support for irrigation was expected to improve rice production and
productivity by ensuring water availability during cultivation period.128
In reality little irrigation expansion has occurred outside of Java.129
Damaged irrigation networks across the country limit the efficiency
of water usage resulting in crop failure and reduced yields. Fourteen
Map 2: Indonesian mapped rice land in 2013.
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percent of drainage basins in Indonesia are in a critical condition.130
Indonesia’s ground and surface water catchment levels are low, given
the country’s high rainfall. Mining adds considerably to water problems by
causing mass movement of soil and overburden, shortening the life-span
of water catchment reservoirs and choking waterways.
The allocation and management of Indonesia’s water resources
are jointly overseen by the Department of Public Works and the
Department of Mining and Energy.131 Poor co-ordination of water
management between these two departments creates a complex
framework of regulations. The Agriculture Ministry estimates that the
government needs at least US$2.04 billion to fix irrigation systems.132
As of 2013, just 28 percent of that funding had been allocated.133
Improvements in rice yields have therefore been patchy, with two
provinces (North Kalimantan and the Islands of Bangka-Belitung)
experiencing a decrease in rice yields between 2005 and 2015 (see
map 4). Increasing production of rice by improving current rice farm
productivity and incentivizing local farmers to diversify production is
a cost effective and sustainable solution to Indonesia’s food security
challenges. If arable land is lost to competing land use activities such as
coal mining, increasing rice yield to compensate becomes imperative,
if rice production is to be maintained. However, there is a point at
which improving crop yield begins to return diminishing results for
the capital and labor invested. The alternative is to expand the area
of cultivated land.
Map 3: Indonesian 2015 rice yield by Province
Map 4: Percent increase rice yields in Indonesian provinces from 2005 to 2015.
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EXPANDING INDONESIA’S FOOD CULTIVATION AREA
According to the World Bank database,134 in 2013 there was 23.5
million hectares of arable land 135 inIndonesia, a figure that has
remained unchanged since 2006, but represents an increase of
30.5 percent or 5.5 million hectares since 1960. However, the area
of arable land per person fell by 50 percent over the same period,
from 0.2 hectares per person in 1960 to 0.1 hectare per person in
2013 (see chart 2).
Most suitable arable land outside of the cultivated areas in Java-
Bali, Sumatra and Sulawesi has already been exploited for crop
production.136 To maintain food production levels for a growing
population in the face of climate change impacts, Indonesia must
Map 5: Area identified as suitable for new rice cultivation
Chart 2. Indonesian arable land area and arable land per person from 1960 to 2013.
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continue to expand its food cultivated area. The challenge is to
do so without adding to the world’s greenhouse gas burden or
impacting on Indonesia’s unique natural heritage.
Expanding food production supported with irrigation networks,
outside the existing food production centers in Java, is hardly a new
suggestion for Indonesia,137 and has been achieved with variable
success in some areas. However, good productive land is limited
and has mostly been utilized either for existing food production or
set aside for mining, forestry, oil palm and conservation.
Recent estimates put the dryland agricultural area in Indonesia
at 50 million hectares, but of this only 35 to 37 million hectares
are suitable for cultivation of food crops.138 These estimates
do not, however, account for conservation areas and primary
forest and peatland protected under moratorium or existing land
use allocation. In order to expand Indonesia’s food cultivation it
is necessary to cultivate suitable land within oil palm, forestry
plantation and coal concessions. These land use allocations must
therefore be changed to allow for food cultivation or risk increasing
future food production deficits.
Using the land system spatial dataset RePPProT (Regional
Physical Planning Project for Transmigration)139and the Indonesian
Government Land Use spatial dataset,140 existing cultivated rice
land was matched with land system categories for all of Indonesia
except Java. The result was a map of land suitability for rice
production. After removing existing cultivated land, primary forest,
peatlands and protected areas, we estimate that there are about
Table 5: New land capable of rice
cultivation in Indonesia
Map 6: Indonesian rice cultivation within coal concessions
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Table 6: Total area of mapped cultivated land and the area of these lands affected by coal concessions.
Table 7: Indonesian rice production estimated lost and at risk to coal mining.
Map 7: Land identified as capable of rice cultivation within coal concessions.
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18.75 million hectares of additional land capable of cultivation
outside of Java (see map 5).
The largest areas of land capable of new cultivation is in the
Provinces of East Kalimantan with (2.9 million hectares), South
Sumatra (2.6 million hectares), Riau (1.8 million hectares) and
Central Kalimantan (1.3 million hectares) (see table 5). East
Kalimantan Central Kalimantan and South Sumatra, also have the
largest areas of coal mining concessions and coal production (see table 1).
COAL’S IMPACT ON FOOD PRODUCTION LAND
The impact that coal mining has on food production is extensive
with multiple issues that have yet to be resolved. However, the
greatest impact that mining has on food production in Indonesia is
the loss of productive cultivated land.
COAL’SCONFLICTWITHEXISTING
RICEPRODUCTIONLAND
According to Indonesian Government Coal Concession spatial
data,141 and Ministry of Forest spatial land cover data,142 coal
concessions cover 19 percent of Indonesia’s total 44 million
hectares of existing mapped rice land (see table 6). Of this area
of rice land affected by coal concessions, 1.6 million hectares
(7 percent) are within operating mine concessions (Production,
Exploitation and Mining categories) and 6.5 million hectares (15
percent) within coal exploration concessions (see map 6 and table 6).
Coal concessions cover 4.3 percent (322,821 hectares) of high
yield irrigated rice land, 12 percent (1.2 million hectares) of dry rice
land, and 26 percent (7 million hectares) of shifting agriculture dry
rice land mixed with scrub (see table 6).
Coal concessions affect 8.7 percent of Indonesia’s mapped
permanently productive irrigated and dry rice land: 345,000
hectares by operating mine and construction concessions and
1.18 million hectares by exploration and feasibility concessions.
Using the conservative yield figures of four tons per hectare for
irrigated rice, 2.5 tons per hectare for dryland rice, and 0.5 ton per
hectare for shifting/rotated rice, we estimate that about 1.7 million
tons of ice per year has been lost due to coal mining and 6 million
tons per year of rice production is at risk, if the exploration and
feasibility concessions are mined for coal (see table 7).
COAL’S THREAT TO INDONESIA’S POTENTIAL RICE
PRODUCTION
According to Indonesian Government Coal Concession spatial
data,143 the land system spatial dataset RePPProT 144 and the
Indonesian Government Land Use spatial dataset,145 mapped
coal concessions cover 23 percent (4.3 million hectares)of land
identified as capable of growing rice outside of Java and existing
rice cultivation (see map 7 and table 8).
East Kalimantan and South Sumatra, the Provinces with the largest
areas of identified land capable of new rice cultivation (2.9 and
2.6 million hectares respectively), also have the highest area of
coal concessions affecting this land (54.1 percent and 39 percent
respectively). South Kalimantan, Jambi and Central Kalimantan
have 48, 35 and 22 percent of identified land capable of new rice
cultivation affected by coal concessions (see map 7 and table 8).
Operating coal mine concessions occupy 26 percent or 1.1 million
hectares of the area identified as capable of new rice cultivation.
Half of these operating mine concessions are in East Kalimantan.
With costly rehabilitation expenses and a high risk of environmental
damage, the land occupied by operating mine concessions is
unlikely to ever be useful for cultivation. If this area was available
for cultivation, even dry land rice production using a conservative
yield of 2.5 tons a hectare would produce an additional 3 million
tons of rice annually, enough to feed well over 10 million people.
The area of land capable of cultivation that currently lies within
exploration concessions remains available if Indonesia can chart a
new course and prioritize long-term food security over short-term
economic interest. If it were re-allocated from coal exploration
to rice cultivation, this area of land could conceivably produce an
additional 7.9 million tonnes of rice annually, enough rice to feed
over 30 million Indonesians.
Much of the land set out in table 8 is already occupied by forestry
and oil palm plantations. However, these land uses do not
necessarily exclude its use for future food production. Coal mining,
however, leaves the land useless for such activities.
We estimate the total impact on Indonesia’s future rice production
if all this potentially productive agricultural land was mined for coal
would be the loss of 4.3 million hectares and annual yield of over
10 million tonnes of dryland rice production.
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COAL’S CUMULATIVE IMPACT ON INDONESIA’S
FUTURERICEPRODUCTION
We estimate that coal production concessions cover almost 3 million
hectares of existing and potential rice land and exploration concessions
cover an additional 9.7 million hectares.
The potential impact on future rice production based on existing rice
systems, and applying dryland rice yields to new rice production
areas, is about 18.5 million tonnes per annum (see table 9).
The cumulative total impact on Indonesia’s potential rice production
due to coal mining reaches over 50 million tonnes a year when rice
systems are improved (see table 10). This would require significant
resources to enable irrigated rice in all the land capable of growing
rice we have identified, as well as improving existing rice production
land – dryland rice to irrigated rice and rotating/ shifting rice production
to permanent dryland rice production. We make the assumption that
such improvements would eventually be required in order to maintain
Indonesia’s need to continually improve rice production.
Table 8: Provinces outside of Java capable of new cultivation and affected by
coal concessions.
H U N G R Y C O A L
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Table 9: Coal concessions and Indonesia’s rice land and lost rice production under existing agricultural systems
Table 10: Potential lost rice production within coal
concessions under improved agricultural systems
H U N G R Y C O A L
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KPC Mine, East Kalimantan (JATAM). [ DROPBOX FILE - Melubangi bumi (Bengalon, Kutim) .JPG]
Tambang KPC, Kalimantan Timur (JATAM).
H U N G R Y C O A L
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CONCLUSION
Despite rapid economic growth and a corresponding increase in middle
class wealth, many Indonesians are going hungry.146 This is borne out by
the alarming levels of nutritional deficits that persist across the country,
and felt to a disproportionate degree by Indonesian children. More than a
third of Indonesian children under five suffer from stunting, a statistic that
will continue to haunt the country for generations due to the debilitating
impact stunting has on the future success and productivity of those it
afflicts. The present massive land use allocation for export commodities,
such as coal and oil palm, adds to the burden of finding enough food to
ensure that all Indonesian children can look forward to a full and productive
life and a chance to share in the country’s growing wealth.
While oil palm is also responsible for limiting available land for growing
enough affordable food, it is the land allocated to coal mining that
occupies the greatest net area. Indeed along with 19 percent of existing
rice cultivation and 25 percent of suitable land for new rice cultivation, 15
percent of land allocated for oil palm is also at risk of being stripped and
mined for coal.
Land allocated to coal mining covers almost 10 percent of Indonesia,
80 percent of which is under exploration and poses the greatest risk to
Indonesia’s future food security. Allowing the mining of such an area
would defeat the National Government goal of being able to grow enough
food for its people. From the evidence gathered in this report, it appears
that coal mining has a greater potential impact on Indonesia’s future food
production than any other land use. Indonesia’s national government has
reined in the expansion of oil palm planting and has promised a similar check
of coal’s expansion, but as yet these promised reforms remain outstanding.
Operating coal mines occupy almost 4 million hectares and are having a
devastating immediate impact. Coal companies are currently allowed to
avoid compliance with Indonesia’s meager land rehabilitation and water
protection regulations. Coal mining therefore leaves the land scarred
and barren, water catchments choked and polluted, and groundwater
depleted. Coal mining can therefore confidently be assumed to destroy
any potential cultivation on the land that it occupies.
Investigations for this report reveals rice and fish farmers adjacent to
coal mines suffer 50 percent reductions in rice yields and 80 percent
reductions in fish yields. We believe that the main cause is aluminum,
iron and manganese pollution from coal mining, which is not adequately
regulated by Indonesian governments. Aluminum, a major coal mine
pollutant and one of the major non-biological factors limiting plant growth,
is particularly lethal to young rice plants at concentrations as low as 0.5
part per million. Sixty percent of the water samples taken in and around
Indonesian coal mines for this report were found to contain aluminum
concentrations above this level, and one, from a rice irrigation channel,
was found to be 32 times this level. Indonesia is the world’s largest
exported of steaming coal for coal-fired power station. The contribution
this makes to the world’s greenhouse gas burden alone should be a
factor incorporated in future foodsupply calculations. A rapidly growing
population and a stubborn preference for rice, a limited commodity on
global markets, means that Indonesia must continue to increase rice
production on an ever shrinking area of land. Climate impacts such as
El Niño droughts often affect Indonesia’s rice crop, forcing the country
to import rice, thereby pushing up the price of the country’s food staple.
Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of
these events, as well as increase crop pest and disease. Experts predict
climate change may reduce Indonesia’s rice crop by as much as 27
percent in 2050 when the country’s is also expected to feed 25 percent
more people.
Indonesia therefore must continue to expand its food cultivation. In
order to meet this challenge it will be necessary to cultivate suitable land
within oil palm, forestry plantation and coal concessions. These land use
allocations must therefore be changed to allow for food cultivation or risk
increasing future food production deficits. While oil palm and forestry
plantations restrict immediate food production expansion, it is coal mining
that leaves land unusable for food production.
We estimate that coal mining has already reduced Indonesia’s annual rice
production by 1.7 million tonnes through the mining of cultivated land.
We further estimate that under currently used cultivated systems 6 million
tonnes of annual rice production is at risk, if coal companies are allowed to
mine exploration concessions that cover existing cultivated land.
Coal’s impact on Indonesia’s rice growing potential is of most concern
with respect to future food security objectives. Given the severely abject
and destructive conditions of mines, almost 18.5 million tons of annual
rice production potential could be lost. Indeed, if these areas were
provided with irrigation and improved seed varieties and fertilizer, the land
occupied by coal concessions could produce over 50 million tons of rice
a year, enough to feed all of Indonesia’s expected population increase
to 2050 and beyond, even after climate impacts are taken into account.
Indonesia cannot afford to lose valuable food producing land. Nor
can it continue to allow its water resources, essential for crops, to be
polluted and choked with sediment. If the country is to continue to feed
itself, the National Government must overturn all coal concessions on
cultivated land and land capable of cultivation and force coal companies
to rehabilitate the land that it currently mines.
H U N G R Y C O A L
P A G E : 3 1
1 Gilles Pison, 2015.
2 Food and Agriculture Organization, electronic files and web site,
2016.
3 Food Security Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and World
Food Programme (WFP), 2015.
4 Food Security Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and World
Food Programme (WFP), 2015.
5 Food Security Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and World
Food Programme (WFP), 2015.
6 World Bank, 2017.
7 BPS. 2014.8 World Bank, 2017.9 World Bank, 2017.10 UNICEF, 2013. 11 World Bank, 2017.12 International Food Policy Research Institute. 2014. 13 Black et al. 2013. 14 Mervyn Piesse, 2016. 15 World Bank, 2015. 16 Horton and Steckel, 2013. 17 OECD, 2015b. 18 Tempco, 2016. 19 FAO, 2016. 20 Food Security Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and World
Food Programme (WFP), 2015. 21 GRiSP, 2013. 22 GRiSP, 2013. 23 Widyanti et al, 2014. 24 Indonesia Investments, 2015. 25 Jakarta Globe, 2012. 26 Widyanti et al, 2014.27 Oryza, 2015. 28 Wailes, 2005; Indonesia Investments, 2016.29 Wall Street Journal, 2015. 30 Wall Street Journal, 2015. 31 Reuters, 2014. 32 Reuters, 2014. 33 Reuters, 2014. 34 OECD, 2015. 35 Naylor et al, 2007.
36 FAO, 2016. 37 FAO, 2016. 38 John McCarthy, 2014. 39 The Economist, 1998. 40 The Economist, 1998. 41 Food Security Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and World
Food Programme (WFP), 201542 Yuliawan and Handoko, 2016. 43 Handoko, Sugiarto and Syaukat, 2008.44 Food Security Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and World
Food Programme (WFP), 201545 GRiSP. 2013.; McCarthy and Obidzinski, 2015.46 Disaster Management Center Dompet Dhuafa, 2015. 47 Food Security Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and World
Food Programme (WFP), 201548 McCarthy, J.F and Obidzinski, K,49 Nurni Sulaiman, 2014. 50 Nurni Sulaiman, 2014. 51 See for example Rautner et al, 2002; Faisal Maliki Baskoro,
Jakarta Globe, 2011; McCarthy and Obidzinski, 2015; John
McCarthy, The Jakarta Post, 2014.52 McCarthy, JF, 2013. 53 FAO, 2014. 54 IEA, 2016. 55 Enerdata, 2015. 56 Enerdata, 2015. 57Fedina S. Sundaryani, The Jakarta Post, 2016.58 Fedina S. Sundaryani, The Jakarta Post, 2017.59 Fedina S. Sundaryani, The Jakarta Post, 2016.60 Petromindo, 2009-201361 Petromindo, 2009-201362 Reuters, 2016. 63 Indonesia Investments, 2016. 64 Indonesia Investments, 2016. 65 Takashi Sasaoka et al, 2015.66 ELTI, 2013. 67 Clara Ferreira Marques, 2016. 68 Clara Ferreira Marques, 2016. 69 Sasaoka et al, 2015. 70 See for example Hydrocology Environmental Consulting, 2013.
FOOTNOTES
H U N G R Y C O A L
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71 Geller, et al, 2012.
72 Martini et al, 2007.
73 Greenpeace Southeast Asia, 2016.
74 Tessa Toumbourou, 2014.
75 Tessa Toumbourou, 2014.
76 Fergus Jensen, 2016.
77 Indonesia Investment, 2015a.78 Komnas HAM, 2015. (Republic of Indonesia’s National Commission
For Human Rights (Komnas HAM). Komnas HAM’s recommendation
on cases of children drowning in Samarinda’s abandoned mine pits.
79 http://af.reuters.com/article/idAFL8N18Q0H1?sp=true
80 Puhalovich & Coghill, 2011; Richardson, 2012.
81 U.S. Code, 1977.
82 See for example Jambor and Blowes, 1998; Parker, 1999.
83 See for example Banks, Burke and Gray, 1997: Brady, Smith and
Schueck, 1998.
84 Saria, Shimaoka and Miyawaki, 2006.
85 Jennings et al, 2000; Montero et al, 2005; Lottermoser, 2007.86 Kargbo et al, 1993; Bell et al, 2001; Nordstrom and Alpers 1999.87 Tornos, F., López Pamo, E. Sánchez España, 88 Greenpeace Southeast Asia, 2014.89 Mike Ives, 2015. 90 Nagajyoti et al, 2010.91 Babel & Kurniawan, 2004; Hossain et al, 201292 Hossain et al, 2012. 93 Takashi Ozawa et al, 1999. 94 Takashi Ozawa et al, 1999.95 Tan, 1968.96 US EPA, 1996.97 Milind et al, 2012; ATSDR. 2007. 98 Exley, 1996.99 Rosseland et al, 1990; Berntssen et al, 1997; Exley, 1998100 Mossor-Pietraszewska, 2001.101 Mossor-Pietraszewska, 2001. 102 Mossor-Pietraszewska, 2001. 103 Delhaize and Ryan. 1995. 104 Balsberg Pahlsson, 1990; Carvalho et al, 1980; Foy, 1988; Foy,
1992; Kamprath &Foy, 1985; Roy et al, 1988.105 Thawornwong & Van Diest, 1974.106 Stein et al, 2014.107 Becker and Asch, 2005. 108 Lantin and Neue, 1989.109 Abifarin, 1988; Lantin and Neue, 1989.
110 Brandt, 1948; Doudoroff, and Katz, 1953.111 O’Sullivan et al, 1997.
112 El͛Jaoual & Cox, 1998. 113 Berger & Gerloff, 1947. 114 Berger & Gerloff, 1947. 115 Srivastava & Dubey, 2011. 116 Banktrack, 2016. 117 PT Bumi Resources Tbk, 2017. 118 Karmini, K. 2017. 119 Indonesia Investments, 2016. 120 GRiSP, 2013. 121 FAO, 2005. 122 BPS, 2015. 123 BPS, 2015.124 MoEF, 2015.125 BPS, 2015. 126 McCarthy and Obidzinski, 2015. 127 McCarthy and Obidzinski, 2015. 128 Panuju et al, 2013. 129 Di Nunzio, 2013. 130 Di Nunzio, 2013. 131 Di Nunzio, 2013.132 Di Nunzio, 2013. 133 Di Nunzio, 2013. 134 World Bank, 2016. 135 Arable land includes land defined by the FAO as land under
temporary crops (double-cropped areas are counted once), temporary
meadows for mowing or for pasture, land under market or kitchen
gardens, and land temporarily fallow. Land abandoned as a result of
shifting cultivation is excluded.136 Panuju et al, 2013. 137 Panuju et al, 2013.138 Panuju et al, 2013; Agus et al, 2015. 139 RePPProT. 1990.140 MoEF, 2015. 141 Petromindo, 2009-2013.142 MoEF, 2015.143 Petromindo, 2009-2013.144 RePPProT. 1990.145 MoEF, 2015. 146 Sandra Siagian, 2017.
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