HSC production of materials. Bestnotes

7/24/2019 HSC production of materials. Bestnotes

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Hey, My Name’s Nathanael and I hope you find these notes useful. Work hardand do your best this year – my biggest tip is just to be organised and workhard all year. I hope you do well !eel free to "onta"t me if you ha#e any$uestions

%salm &'.

Nat.

%rodu"tion of Materials Notes

Revision:

Hydrocarbon Formula UseMethane CH4 Natural Gas

Ethane C2H6 PetrochemicalsPropane C3H !PG"utane C4H#$ !PGPentane C%H#2 PetrolHe&ane C6H#4 PetrolHeptane C'H#6 Petrol(ctane CH# Petrol

)ane * sin+le bond ,Formula- CnH2n.2/

)ene * double bond ,Formula CnH2n)yne * triple bond ,Formula- CnH2n)2/

Ethene * Ethylene0

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the crackingof some of the fractions from the rening of petroleum

( Crac1in+ inoles brea1in+ lar+er molecules into smaller ones0

( n Petroleum there are many types o5 hydrocarbons thebi++er ones can be bro1en into smaller ones0( Catalytic crac1in+ inoles splittin+ lar+er hydrocarbons into

smaller ones in hi+h temperatures ith a catalyst0 7he smallermolecules hae a much loer boilin+ point due to ea1erdispersion 5orces0

( 8eolites are used as catalysts0 7hey are inor+anic compounds0( 9urin+ Catalytic crac1in+ :l1anes ith #%)2% Carbons are split

into an al1ane and an al1ene0( 7he al1ene can be split into other al1enes until propene or

ethene ,or both/ are 5ormed0( Ethene is one o5 the main biproducts o5 crac1in+ and is ery

use5ul0



E0+ C#%H32 C#$H22 . C%H#$0C%H#$ C2H4 . C3H6

( ;team 7hermal crac1in+ is the other method here ethane

+as or lar+er hydrocarbons are mi&ed ith steam and passedthrou+h hot metal coils to produce ethene0

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of itsdouble bond, is readily transformed into many usefulproducts

( 7he double bond in an :l1ene ma1es it5ar more reactie then it<s respectie

al1ane0( 7he double bond is relatiely easy tobrea1 into to sin+le bonds creatin+ anaddition reaction here otheratoms=molecules can be added to thehydrocarbon0

( Ethene is used to ma1e a lar+e number o5 materials such asinyl chloride polyethene polystyrene toothpaste andshampoo0 7his is because the double bond can be bro1en andother substances added ith di>erin+ properties0 ;ee thetable belo 5or some e&amples0

Product Ethanol Ethylene

o&ide

Ethylene

+lycol

?inyl chloride

Reactan

ts

Ethylene and

ater

Ethylene

and

o&y+en

Ethylene

o&ide and

dilute acid

(&y+en and

chlorine

Conditio

ns

) Hi+h

pressure) :bout

3$$@C

) Phosphoric

acid catalyst

:bout

2%$@Cith siler

as a

catalyst

7reatment

ith diluteacid solution

) :bout #%$@C

) Copperchloride

catalyst

Uses ) Fuel

) ndustrial

commercial

Fumi+ant ) :nti)5reeAe

liBuid

)

Monomer 5or

producin+

polyinyl



and domestic

solent

) Cleanin+

anddisin5ectin+

uid

Manu5acturin+

o5 polyester

chloride

2

structur

e

diagram

*

!

structur

e

diagram

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from "hichpolymers are made

( Monomer- : relatiely simple molecule 5rom hich polymerscan be made

( Polymer- Many monomers repeated to 5orm a lar+e molecule0( Polymerisation- 7he process o5 turnin+ a lar+e number o5monomers into a polymer0

( Ethylene polymerises to 5orm polyethylene hen the doublebond in ethene brea1s and those bonds Doin to otherethene=ethane molecules to 5orm a lon+ saturated chain0

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and e#plain themeaning of this term

( :n addition polymer is a polymer 5ormed by addin+ the samemonomer to+ether into a lon+ chain ithout the loss o5 anyatoms0

( Polyethylene is the only product in the polymerisation o5ethene0

$utline the steps in the production of polyethylene as ane#ample of a commercially and industrially importantpolymer

( 7here are to 5orms o5 Polyethylene hi+h density and lodensity0



%orm !o density

polyethylene ,!9PE/

Hi+h density

polyethylene ,H9PE/

&ame of

process

) 8ie+ler)Natta process

Re'uirements Hi+h pressure ,#$$$ to

3$$$ atmospheres/

hi+h temperature

,3$$C/ and an initiator

,usually an or+anic

pero&ide/

Pressure o5 a 5e

atmospheres

temperatures o5 about

6$C and a catalyst

Polymerisatio

n process

7he pero&ide initiator

splits to 5orm 5ree

radicals hich allo the

initiation o5 the Doinin+

o5 ethylene monomers

,the initiator is not a

catalyst as it +ets

incorporated into thepolymer/

7he polymerisation

occurs on the sur5ace o5

the catalyst

(ranching of

polymer

formed

;i+nicant chain

branchin+ meanin+

that polymer chains

cannot pac1 closely

to+ether or in an orderly

ay

Unbranched

polyethylene molecules

that are able to pac1

closely to+ether in an

orderly 5ashion

)olecular

"eight of

molecules

formed

Up to # $$$ $$$ +=mol Up to 3 $$$ $$$ +=mol



Recycling sy

mbol

( Polyethylene is used in mil1 cartons pipes cuttin+ boardsbottles clin+ rap and 5or other purposes0<

( Hi+h)density Polyethylene is more crystalline0 t has stron+erdispersion 5orces and a hi+her meltin+ and boilin+ point0

Identify vinyl chloride and styrene as commerciallysignicant monomers by both their systematic and commonnames

( Ethene monomers can be modied to hae di>erent atoms or5unctional +roups instead o5 hydro+en0 7o common ones arechlorine and benAene rin+s0

( Chlorine creates inyl chloride a benAene rin+ ,made o5 6carbons/ ma1es styrene0

( 7he 5ormer can be turned into polyinyl chloride and the latterinto polystyrene0

%unctional

group

)onomer

common

name

)onomer

systemic name

Polymer

common

name

Polymer syst

name

Chlorine ,Cl/ ?inyl chloride Chloroethene Polyinyl

chloride

Polychloroethe

Phenyl ,C6H%/ ;tyrene EthenylbenAene Polystyrene Polyethenylben

escribe the uses of the polymers made from the abovemonomers in terms of their properties



Polymer Properties Uses *y

!o density

polyethylene

,!9PE/

o !o density

o

!o meltin+ point

o Fle&ible

o ;o5t

o rappin+ materials

o

Carry ba+s

o Mil1 bottles

o ;BueeAe bottles

Hi+h density

polyethylene

,H9PE/

o Hi+h density

o Hi+h meltin+ point

o Hard

o Iitchen utensils

o 7oys

o Grocery carry ba+s

o "uildin+ materials

Polyinyl chloride

,P?C/

o ater resistant

o Flame resistant

o Electrical insulation

o :ppliance leads

o ;eera+e and drain

pipes

o Garden hoses

Polystyrene

o 7ransparent

hen e&panded ,+as

added/-

o !o density

o Good insulator

o 7ool handles

o C9 Cases

o Foam cups

o Foam pac1in+

o Containers

o insulation

Identify data, plan and perform a rst+hand investigation tocompare the reactivities of appropriate alkenes "ith the

corresponding alkanes in bromine "ater



( : saturated hydrocarbon is one here there are only sin+lebonds and all bonds are lled0

( :n unsaturated hydrocarbon is one here there is at least onedouble bond beteen carbons0

( :l1enes react Buic1ly ith bromine ater because they are

unsaturated0 7he reaction inoles splittin+ these doublebonds and insertin+ bromine into them0

( hen an al1ene is in contact ith "romine ater the bromineater turns 5rom bron to clear0

( n contrast :l1anes do not react Buic1ly ith bromine atersince they are already saturated0 "romine is non)polar so itdoes sloly Doin to the al1ane and replace hydro+en atomsbut the reaction is much sloer0 Under ultra)iolet li+ht thissubstitution reaction occurs0

( Cyclohe&ene and cyclohe&ane can be used to test this0

(iomass Research

iscuss the need for alternative sources of the compoundspresently obtained from the petrochemical industry

( Petroleum ,and there5ore ethene 5rom it/ is a non)reneableresource0 Eentually it ill be entirely used up0

( 7he orld is heaily dependant on products 5rom petroleum5rom car 5uel to plastics 5rom propylene and ethylene0

( :n alternatie product ould preent us 5rom usin+ all thesereseres and runnin+ out o5 needed materials0 7hey may alsocause less carbon dio&ide and there5ore help preent climatechan+e0

#plain "hat is meant by a condensation polymer

( : condensation polymer is a polymer hich is 5ormed by acondensation reaction resultin+ in a bi)product hen the tomonomers Doin0 ,Usually ater/0

escribe the reaction involved "hen a condensation polymeris formed

( n a condensation polymerisation reaction a polymer and a bi)product are created0

( 7hese reactions do not inole double bonds0( (ne e&ample o5 a condensation polymer reaction is that o5

cellulose

( n,H(C6H#$(4(H/ J H,(C6H#$(4/n(H . ,n #/ . H2(



( n this reaction a number o5 +lucose monomers combine intoa cellulose chain and a number o5 ater molecules arecreated as bi)products0 7he process repeats to 5orm a chain0

escribe the structure of cellulose and identify it as ane#ample of a condensation polymer found as a ma-orcomponent of biomass

( Cellulose is a polymer made o5 many +lucose monomers Doined0 ,;eeral hundred or thousand o5 them/

( 7he (H ,Hydro&y/ +roups on the chain create polar bonds ithadDacent chains creatin+ stron+ intermolecular 5orces0 7hisresults in +reat stren+th and len+th o5 chains0

( t is insoluble and relatiely resistant to other chemicalsbecause those hydo&y +roups are inoled in hydro+enbondin+ already0

( : biopolymer is a polymer made o5 liin+ or+anisms celluloseis a biopolymer and is the main part o5 the cell all o5 plantcells0

( "iomass is material produced by liin+ or+anisms0 Normal dryplant matter is about %$K cellulose ith about %$$ billion

tonnes bein+ produced per year0

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon+chainstructures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss itspotential as a ra" material

o Cellulose can be decomposed ,bro1en don/ into +lucose by

certain enAymes in certain bacteria0 7here is currently no

economical lar+e)scale method to do this thou+h0 t can bedone chemically ith seere chemical treatment heat and

pressure0 7he main problems ith most enAymes is they brea1

it to ater and C(2 instead o5 Glucose0 (ne 5amily the

Cellulase enAymes can be used- ndoglucanase- "rea1s lon+

polymer chains in hal50 #oglucanase- "rea1s cellobiose

molecules 5rom the ends o5 polymer chains0 (eta+

.lucosidase- Conerts cellobiose to +lucose0



( Fermentation is the process o5 turnin+ or+anic compounds intosimpler substances by usin+ yeast and bacteria0 7he mainproblem ith 5ermentation is that Least can only surie in#%K ethanol0 7he product must be distilled to +et pureethanol0

( e0+ turnin+ +lucose into ethanol ) C6H#2(6 ,aB/ 2C2H%(H ,l/ .2C(2 ,+/

( Ethanol can be conerted to ethene by dehydration09ehydration and=or hydration o5 ethane=ethanol both reBuiresulphuric acid as a catalyst ,9ehydration * concentratedhydration * dilute/0 n Hydration the acid brea1s the doublebonds do Hydro+en can be added0 n 9ehydration the oppositeoccurs0 7his is e&pensie0 C2H%(H ,+/ C2H4 ,+/ . H2( ,+/

( 7here5ore cellulose can be turned into ethene hich is one o5the most common petrochemicals ,Products o5 petroleum/0Cellulose is a maDor component o5 biomass hich is areneable resource unli1e petroleum0

( 7he process- Cellulose Glucose ia enAymes=bacteria0Glucose Ethanol ia 5ermentation ,ith yeast/0 Ethanol Ethene ia dehydration0

Use available evidence to gather and present data fromsecondary sources and analyse progress in the recentdevelopment and use of a named biopolymer/ 0his analysisshould name the specic en1ymes3 used or organism used

to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use orpotential use of the polymer produced related to itsproperties

( (ne recent biopolymer hich has been deeloped is PH"0 tcomes 5rom the Polyhydro&ylal1anoates ,PH:s/ hich arebiopolymers produced by micropr+anisms and re ery similarto polyproylene0 PH" is the simplest 5orm o5 PH:s0

( t is produced hen a culture o5 micro)or+anisms ,in this case:lcalin+enes eutrophus/0 t is 5ed certain nutrients until theculture is a suitable siAe0

( 7he diet is chan+ed restictin+ it 5rom a particular nutrient,e0+0 Nitro+en/ so they stop reproducin+ and instead create acertain polymer0

( 7his certain or+anism can produce 3$K)$K o5 its on dryei+ht then the product can be separated out0

( PH" is stable in air and moisture but is attac1ed in anaerobicconditions by bacteria hich lies there0

( 7hey are biode+radable and there5ore hae a lot o5 potentialincludin+ in pac1a+in+ nappies ba+s bottles and rappin+lm0



Rene"able thanol/

escribe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identifythe need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used

( 9ehydration is the process o5 remoin+ ater molecules 5roma substance0

( Ethanol can be 9ehydrated to produce Ethene and aterhen heated in concentrated sulphuric acid or Phosphoricacid0

escribe the addition of "ater to ethylene resulting in theproduction of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst inthis process and the catalyst used

( Hydration is the process o5 addin+ ater to a substance( Ethylene can be made into ethanol hen it is heated ith

dilute sulphic acid as a catalyst0 t is an addition reaction0

escribe and account for the many uses of ethanol as asolvent for polar and non+polar substances

( Ethanol is both a polar and non)polar molecule0 7he hydro&y+roup ,(H/ ma1es it polar and allos Hydro+en bondin+ ithother molecules and also attracts ionic molecules0

( 7he Ethyl ,C2H4/ is non)polar and there5ore attracts non)polarsubstances0

( "ecause o5 these thin+s it can dissole both polar and non)polar substances ma1in+ it e&tremely use5ul bein+ the secondmost important solent ,a5ter ater/ 5or both commercial andindustrial purposes0

( t is the least to&ic o5 the alcohols ma1in+ it een more

suitable 5or these purposes and is common in cosmetics 5ood



colourin+s cleanin+ a+ents antiseptics and other medicinalpreparations0

$utline the use of ethanol as a fuel and e#plain "hy it canbe called a rene"able resource

( Ethanol can combust in the presence o5 (&y+en to produceC(2 and ater

( ;ince there is (&y+en in themolecule completecombustion is much more

common lessenin+ theproduction o5 carbon andcarbon mono&ide0

( t is easy to combust andeasily transported ma1in+it a potential 5uel 5orehicles0

( t can be created 5rom plant material ,i0e0 +lucose/ and isthere5ore reneable0 Glucose is created in photosynthesis0hen the +lucose is 5ermented Ethanol is produced and theCarbon dio&ide and ater produced 5rom burnin+ it are 1ey to

photosynthesis and so it is a cycle0( Much ener+y is reBuired in the 5ermentation and distillation

processes and 5or it to be truly reneable this ener+y ouldhae to come 5rom reneable resources also0

escribe conditions under "hich fermentation of sugars ispromoted

Fermentation reBuires 5our main conditions-

( 7he su+ar bein+ dissoled in ater0( Least ,hich contains certain enAymes hich 5erment thesubstance/

( : temperature o5 about 3' de+rees celcius0( :naerobic ,no o&y+en/

7he yeast dies hen the solution is about #%K ethanol0

*ummarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

( Under the aboe mentioned conditions a starch or sucrose illbe conerted to +lucose or 5ructose0



( 7hese products are then conerted to Ethanol and Carbon9io&ide by certain enAymes in yeast0

ene the molar heat of combustion of a compound andcalculate the value for ethanol from rst+hand data

( Molar Heat o5 combustion is the amount o5 heat created henone mole o5 a substance under+oes complete combustion at#$$ Ipa and at 2% de+rees Celsius0

( 7he Heat o5 combustion is a positie number hile enthalpychan+e ,H/ is recoded in ne+atie numbers since thereaction is alays e&othermic0

( 7ypically they are recorded in IiloDoules per mole0 For ethanolit is #36$ I=Mol

7o Calculate an e&perimental alue-

( Measure the mass o5 a burner ith ethanol( Measure #$$ml o5 ater in a bea1er and measure the

temperature( !i+ht the burner under the bea1er leae it 5or one minute( Measure and record the chan+e o5 heat and chan+e in mass o5

burner0

( ;ubstitute results into H * )mC7 ,H is the chan+e in Doules m is the mass o5 ater C is the thermal capacity o5ater ,40# & #$O,3// and 7 is the chan+e o5 temperature inde+rees celsius0/

( or1 out the amount o5 moles used ,mass=molecular ei+ht/and diide H in 1iloDoules ith this number0

( Problems- Heat loss into surroundin+s thermometer bea1eretc0

4ssess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel anddiscuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use

4dvantages isadvantages



o Unli1e petroleum ethanol is a reneable resource

o Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum

producin+ less carbon ,soot/ and carbon mono&ide

o 7he use o5 ethanol as opposed to petroleum could

reduce carbon dio&ide emissions proided that a

reneable ener+y resource as used to produce

crops reBuired to obtain ethanol and to distil

5ermented ethanol

o Ethanol has a lo

per unit o5 olume

petroleum

o !ar+e amounts o5

produce the crops

leadin+ to proble

de5orestation 5ert

o MaDor enironmen

the disposal o5 a

o 7ypical current ento use hi+h conce

o 7he 5ood used 5or

those in starin+

o Ethanol is miscibl

potentially cheat

Identify the IUP4C nomenclature for straight+chainedalkanols from 5 to C6

Pre# Met

h

Et

h

Pro

p

"u

t

Pe

nt

He

&

He

pt

(c

t

Carbon

atoms

# 2 3 4 % 6 '

( ane< means sin+le bond( ol< means hydro&y ,(H/ +roup0( hen the hydro&y +roup can be on more then one position a

number shos hich carbon it is on0 E0+0 propan)2)ol0

Process information from secondary sources such asmolecular model kits, digital technologies or computersimulations to model:



o the addition of "ater to ethylene

o the dehydration of ethanol

( Hydration- 7he su5uric acid brea1s open the double bond( (ne H molecule and the H;(4 molecule attatch to each o5 the

ne bonds0( 7he H;(4 is then replaced by the (H +roup and the e&tra H

5rom the ater is added to ma1e H2;(4 once a+ain0( 9ehydration- Qeerse0

Process information from secondary sources to summarise

the processes involved in the industrial production ofethanol from sugar cane

( 7he process inoles 5ermentin+ the su+ar cane and thendistillin+ the ethanol 5rom the ater to create a pure product0

( 7his reBuires hal5 the ener+y hich is released in burnin+ theethanol0

Process information from secondary sources to summarisethe use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating thesuccess of current usage

( Usin+ ethanol as a 5uel has both adanta+es and9isadanta+es0

( t can be used to e&tend the li5e o5 the petrol to concentrationso5 about 24K ithout en+ine modication0

( "raAil in the '$s adopted ethanol as a car 5uel and had tochan+e their car en+ines entirely

( n :ustralia 5uel usually has #$K enthanol0

*olve problems, plan and perform a rst+hand investigationto carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor masschanges

( Place %$ +rams o5 +lucose in a as1 ith #%$ml o5 ater a5e crystals o5 citric acid and %+ o5 yeast

( Measure the mass o5 the as1( Ieep it airti+ht and 3' de+rees Celsius 5or three days0( C(2 ill be produced measure and record the ei+ht o5 the

as1 there should be a loss o5 mass as C(2 is released0

( 5 one ishes they can bubble the C(2 throu+h lime ater toproduce a hite precipitate0



Present information from secondary sources by "riting abalanced e'uation for the fermentation of glucose toethanol

Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a rst+hand investigation to determine and compare heats ofcombustion of at least three li'uid alkanols per gram andper mole

( Measure the mass o5 a burner ith an al1anol( Measure #$$ml o5 ater in a bea1er and measure the

temperature( !i+ht the burner under the bea1er leae it 5or one minute( Measure and record the chan+e o5 heat and chan+e in mass o5

burner0( ;ubstitute results into H * )mC7 ,H is the chan+e in

Doules m is the mass o5 ater C is the thermal capacity o5ater ,40# & #$O3/ and 7 is the chan+e o5 temperature inde+rees celsius0/

( or1 out the amount o5 moles used ,mass=molecular ei+ht/and diide H in 1iloDoules ith this number0( Problems- Heat loss into surroundin+s thermometer bea1er

accuracy o5 implements etc0

lectrochemical )ethods

#plain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons

( (&idation- !oss o5 electrons0 ,(!/( Qeduction- Gain o5 electrons0 ,QG/( Qedo& reaction- hen both o&idation and reduction occur0( 9isplacement reaction- hen a more reactie metal conerts

the ion o5 a less reactie metal into a solid0( 9isplacement reaction * redo& reaction0 More reactie *

o&idised0 !ess reactie * reduced0( n a displacement reaction the electrons are trans5erred 5rom

a more reactie metal to a less reactie metal0



Identify the relationship bet"een displacement of metal ionsin solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals

( 7he more reactie metal ,displaces the less reactie metal/turns into ions hile the less reactie metal is turned solid0

( 7here5ore displacement reactions can ran1 metals in theiractiity series0( t also means the reactiity series can be used to sho hich

metal ill displace ions 5rom another metal0

4ccount for changes in the o#idation state of species interms of their loss or gain of electrons

( (&idation state * a metal<s de+ree o5 o&idation0 9escribes theelectron trans5er0

( (&idation * increase in (&idation state0( Qeduction * decrease in (&idation state0( Uncombined elements * $0( ;imple ion * char+e o5 the ion ,alency/0( 9urin+ redo& reactions the metal element ill increase is

o&idation state as it loses electrons and the metal ion illdecrease its o&idation state as it +ains electrons0

( 7he sum o5 o&idation states 5or elements ithin a molecule is$0

( Usually in molecules the (&idation state 5or Hydro+en * #

(&y+en * )20 From there it is usually possible to or1 out thenumbers o5 the other atoms0

escribe and e#plain galvanic cells in terms ofo#idation7reduction reactions

( Galanic Cell- a cell hich produces an electric current ia aredo& reaction0

( n normal Qedo& reactions the electrons are trans5erreddirectly

( 7his is done by hain+ to hales ith the di>erent reactionsoccurrin+ in opposite hales and Doinin+ them ith a irearound a circuit ith a conductor and salt brid+e0

( Electrons o 5rom the o&idisin+ metal pass throu+h theconductor producin+ electricity then into the metal bein+reduced0 7his is conertin+ chemical ener+y into electricalener+y0

$utline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the

direction of electron 8o"



( 7he salt brid+e allos the to solutions to 1eep the samechar+e so that electrons continue to o0 t maintains abalance o5 char+e across the cell0

ene the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyteto describe galvanic cells

( Electrode- : conductor alloin+ electrons to pass 5rom thee&ternal circuit to a hal5)cell ,or isa ersa/

( :node- 7he ne+atie electrode here o&idation occurs0( Cathode- 7he positie electrode here reduction occurs( Electrolyte- :n aBueous or molten substance that conducts

electricity0( :ll solutions in a +alanic cell are electrolytes0

Perform a rst+hand investigation to identify the conditionsunder "hich a galvanic cell is produced

: Galanic cell needs-

( 7o electrodes o5 di>erent Metals( 7o separate solutions each ith the ions o5 the metals used

as electrodes0( 7he electrodes in contact ith their respectie ions insolutions0

( : salt "rid+e beteen the solutions0( : conductin+ path beteen electrodes=a circuit0

Qemoe one o5 these conditions at a time to proe their necessity0

Perform a rst+hand investigation and gather rst+handinformation to measure the di9erence in potential of

di9erent combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution



( ;elect to metals and create a cell ith them as belo0

( (bsere and record the readin+ +ien on the ?oltmetre0( 5 the ?oltmetre reads $ reerse the terminals( 5 the oltmeter +ae a positie readin+ on the rst try Metal

" is more li1ely to be o&idised0 5 the oltmeter didn<t then the

opposite is true0( 7he olta+e readin+ is the di>erence beteen the potential o5

the di>erent metals( Put in other metals instead o5 Metal "( Use metal : as i5 it is $ to or1 out the potentials o5 the other

metals0

7he true standard is a Hydro+en electrode since it has a potential o5 $0

( t is created by- platinum 5oil coated in platinum poderdippin+ into a solution ith # Mol=! o5 Hydro+en ions andHydro+en +as bubblin+ oer the electrode0

( 7he oltmeter readin+ is the potential o5 the metal used0

.ather and present information on the structure andchemistry of a dry cell and evaluate it in comparison to alithium cell in terms of:

o chemistry

o cost and practicality

o impact on society

o environmental impacts



ry Cell ithiumChemistry Carbon Cathode

8inc :node8n,s/ J 8n2

.,aB/ . 2 e)

NH4 reduced at cathode2NH.

4 . 2e) 2NH3 ,aB/ . H2,+/

Mn(2 absorbs H2 +as0

2Mn(2 ,s/ . H2 ,+/ Mn2(3 ,s/ . H2( ,l/

#0% ? produced

!ithium :node!i,s/ !i. . e)

Mn(2 cathode

Mn(2 . e) Mn(2)

9ry electrolytre ,!ithiumsalt and dimethyl ether/

3? produced

Cost andpracticalit

y

Cheap small and easilymoed0 ?olta+e drops as

the battery runs out

uses up char+e

More e&pensie li+hter andsmall more poer0

Impact on*ociety

;horter li5e char+edecreases as the batteryis used0 Common andproides ener+y 5ormany deices0

Much lon+er li5e morepoer more dan+erous0Qelatiely common anduse5ul 5or many deices

nvironmentalImpact

;mall aste butcorrosie materials can be harm5ul i5 notdisposed o5 properly0

;mall aste but corrosiematerials hich need to bedisposed o5 care5ully0

*olve problems and analyse information to calculate thepotential ;3 re'uirement of named electrochemicalprocesses using tables of standard potentials and half+e'uations

( 7able o5 standard potentials- all relatie to hydro+en electrodeall in reduction potentials0

( (&idation potentials are eBual but opposite in si+n0( Potential o5 a cell or1ed out by addin+ the reduction

potentian and o&idation potential0( 7he metal hi+her on the list is the anode and is o&idised0( 5 the potential is positie the reaction is a +alanic cell

,;pontaneous/( 5 the potential is ne+atie then more olta+e must be put

into the cell ,Electrolytic cell/0( Note- e +et the table o5 standard potentials in the e&am0

&uclear )ethods



istinguish bet"een stable and radioactive isotopes anddescribe the conditions under "hich a nucleus is unstable

( sotope- atoms ith the same number o5 protons but di>erentnumbers o5 neutrons0

( 7hey hae the same atomic number but di>erent mass( 7hey are names by their mass numbers0 E0+0 rubidium)%0

( sotopes are o5ten represented usin+ the symbol-

here-

o M is the chemical symbol 5or the element0

o : is the mass number0

o 8 is the atomic number0

( ;table sotopes do not emit radiation and hae a stableNuclei0

( Qadioisotopes- hae an unstable nuclei and emit radiation0( n some elements all isotopes are radioactie ,e0+0 uranium/

and in others only some isotopes are radioactie0( :n isotope may be radioactie because-

( 7here are too many neutrons 5or the number o5 protons,usually #0%& as many or aboe/0 5 this is the case aneutron chan+es to a proton and electron emittin+ theelectron as a Ne+atie "eta particle0 E0+0 Cobalt)6$0

( 5 there are too many protons 5or the number o5Neutrons0 n this case a proton turns into a neutron and apositron is emitted as a Positie "eta particle0 E0+0 ;odium)220

( 5 there are too many protons and neutrons and thenucleus is too heay to protons and to neutrons areemitted as a helium nucleus or alpha particle0 E0+0 radon0



escribe ho" commercial radioisotopes are produced

( Commercial Qadioisotopes are those used in medicineindustry and=or scientic research0

( 7hese are produced in to main ays-( Usin+ neutrons produced in a nuclear ssion reactor0 E0+0

Cobalt)6$

( Usin+ particle accelerators to re protons deuteriumatoms or alpha particles at a tar+et element0 e0+0 theproduction o5 iodine)#230

Identify instruments and processes that can be used todetect radiation

( :ll three types o5 radiation ionises +asses0( :lpha is stron+ly ionisin+( "eta Qadiation is less ionisin+( Gamma radiation is ea1 at ionisin+0

( 7his can be used to detect radiation0 7here are a number o5instruments that can be used0

Instrument escription

Photo+raphic lm 9ar1ens hen e&posed to radiation

Cloud chamber o Contains a supersaturated apour o5 ater or alc

o Qadiation ionises some o5 the air and the apour

tracin+ a path

Gei+er)MRller Counter o Consists o5 a conductie tube lled ith ar+on +a

connected to the outer casin+ and an electrode

o Qadiation ionises ar+on atoms and the hi+h olta



to accelerate toards the electrode ionisin+ mor

o 7he resultin+ cascade o5 electrons constitutes an

detected by a counter

;cintillation counter o hen certain substances are irradiated ith alph

substances 5or each type o5 ray/ they emit a as

o 7his ash can be collected and amplied in a pho

o 7he electric si+nal thus +enerated can operate an

Identify one use of a named radioisotope:

o in industry

o in medicine

escribe the "ay in "hich the above named industrial and

medical radioisotopes are used and e#plain their use interms of their chemical properties

Radioisotope Cobalt)6$ ;odium)24

%ield Medicine ndustry

ecays to Nic1el)6$ Ma+nesium)2

Radiation

produced

"eta and +amma "eta and +am

Production Neutron bombardment o5 cobalt)%S Neutron bomb



Use 7reatment o5 cancer

o produces +amma rays hich can be

used to treat cancer by irradiatin+ the

a>ected areas o5 the body

o Iills cancer cells alon+ ith other cells

9etection o5 l

o Can be

in a pip

the pipe

o No radia

the pipe

o 5 it lea1

pipe it c

located

*uitability of half+

life

Has a suitable hal5)li5e 5or the process bein+

lon+ enou+h to hae a reasonable li5etime in

the eBuipment ,% years/ but emits a

reasonable intensity o5 radiation

Has a hal5)li5e

the liBuid Buic

and the eniro

decontaminat

Process information from secondary sources to describerecent discoveries of elements

( 7ransuranic elements ,elements hi+her then Uranium/ can beproduced either in nuclear reactors o5 by rin+ particles atelements in an accelerator0

( Hassium)26% atomic number o5 #$ as produced in #S4 byrin+ iron)% nuclei at lead 2$)atoms0

Use available evidence to analyse benets and problemsassociated "ith the use of radioactive isotopes in identiedindustries and medicine

%ield 4pplications and benets Proble



ndustry

o Nuclear poer production ) reduces dependence

on other 5orms o5 poer production such as

coal hich contributes more to climate chan+e

o !ea1 detection tracin+

o ;mo1e alarms

o 7hic1ness +au+es

o "uildin+ entilation tests

o rradiation o5 5ood and ra ool to destroy

micro)or+anisms

o Qe

pr

o Ca

tis

inc

st

o Qa

dis

Medicine

o 9ia+nosis=tracin+ and treatment o5 medical

illnesses

o Medical sterilisation ) preents patient in5ection

o Ca

tis

inc

st

o Qa

dis

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