Heather Barry Kappes

Department of Management, London School of Economics and Political Science

Symposium on motivational psychology in educational settings

20 July, 2013

How imagining a positive future shapes motivation and behaviour

“…desirable outcomes such as health, wealth, and happiness can be attracted simply by changing

one’s thoughts and feelings”

: A testimonial

I began visualizing and seeing myself hanging up my diploma. Everyday I told myself “I have my high

School diploma”… 

The day of my test I didn't really understand the mathematics…

I passed! …I see this as a doorway to success and life is easy. 

Fantasies

• Free thoughts and mental images (Oettingen & Wadden 1991)

• Akin to mental simulations (Taylor, Pham,

Rivkin, & Armor 1998) or daydreams (Klinger 1971, 1990)

• Distinct from beliefs, attitudes, and values (Oettingen & Mayer 2002)

Positive fantasies

• Positively experienced images of future desired events

• Depict the smooth attainment and unrestricted enjoyment of the desired future

Fantasies and academic achievement in

vocational students

September

January

Measured baseline academic competence

Measured fantasies, other predictors Recorded GPA

Measured attendance

Ages 17 to 62 (M = 35 years, SD = 11.90)

44% African or African American 18% Hispanic or Latina

21% Caucasian or European American5% Asian or Asian American

12% other minority or did not indicate

Measure fantasies

Measure fantasies

Results

Positivity of fantasies Final GPA

β = -.19, p = .07

β = .25, p = .04

(Kappes, Oettingen, & Mayer, 2011, EJSP, Study 2)

β = -.32, p = .001

β = -.27, p = .02

Days absent

95% CI for indirect effect -.24 to .01 Adjusting for baseline academic

competence, age, expectations of success, self-reported self-discipline

• Replicates previous research finding that positive fantasies predict low achievement

(Oettingen & Mayer 2002; Oettingen & Wadden 1991)

• Extends it to disadvantaged sample

• Suggests low effort as a mechanism

Energization

• Energy is mobilized by physiological factors such as exercise, as well as by the anticipated exertion of effort (e.g., Wright, Brehm & Bushman 1989)

• Positive fantasies allow people to mentally experience the desired future in the present; they conceal the need to invest effort

• Positive fantasies should yield low energization

Manipulate fantasies about upcoming week

Measure feelings of energization

Measure accomplishment in previous week

1 week

Positive fantasy

Imagine that everything you do in the next week will go really well. Please generate and write down some positive thoughts and daydreams about your experiences in this coming week.

Neutral fantasy

Please generate and write down some thoughts and daydreams about your experiences in this coming week.

t(34) = 4.06, p < .001, 2 = .33χ2(1) = 11.64, p < .01, = .57

DV: Energization

How much are you presently feeling“excited” “enthusiastic”“active”

(α = .76)

Energization

t(38) = 2.13, p = .04, 2 = .11(Kappes & Oettingen, 2011, JESP, Study 3)

DV: Accomplishment

One week later…

“How well did the past week go for you?” “How disappointed do you feel about the way that

this past week went for you?” (reversed) “How close was the way the week went to the way

you had imagined it would go?”“How often did you feel in control?”“How often did you feel ‘on top of it’?” “I felt very pressed for time” (reversed)“I managed time easily”

(α = .83)

Accomplishment

t(38) = 2.00, p = .05, 2 = .10(Kappes & Oettingen, 2011, JESP, Study 3)

Mediation

Week accomplishment

β = -.17, p = .29

β = -.41, p = .01 β = .41, p = .01

β = -.31, p = .05

Energization

Adjusting for irritation after the manipulation

Positive fantasy condition

95% CI for indirect effect .03 to .65

• Positive fantasies about an idealized future resulted in low energization

• One mechanism by which positive fantasies produce poor achievement

…Always?

• Sometimes positive mental images enhance attainment, (e.g., Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter 1982)

• These are tasks that demand relatively few resources

• Amount of resources demanded may moderate effect of positive fantasies

• Sometimes positive mental images enhance attainment (e.g., Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter 1982)

• These are tasks that demand relatively few resources

• Amount of resources demanded may moderate effect of positive fantasies

Manipulate amount of money demanded to help resolve crisis

Measure relevant behavior: decision to help

Manipulate fantasies about the resolution of a crisis:

positive fantasies versus factual description

Positive fantasies about crisis being

resolved

Factual descriptions of crisis being

resolved

Resources demanded

$1 / $25

DV: Agreement to donate versus not

Agreement to donate

χ2(1) = 8.30, p = .004 Kappes, Sharma, & Oettingen, 2013, JCP, Study 1

• Amount of resources demanded moderated effect of positive fantasies

• Positive fantasies – decreased relevant behavior that demanded

relatively many resources; – (sometimes) increased relevant behavior that

demanded few resources

Reconciling with other research

• Positive illusions benefit mental health (Taylor & Brown 1988)

– Different form of positive thinking

• Interventions use positive visualizations to boost happiness (Sheldon & Lyubomirsky 2006)

– Examine short-term outcome

• Athletes prescribed positive imagery to increase confidence (Moritz, Hall, Martin, & Vadocz 1996)

– Actually rather “negative” imagery

Implications and suggestions

• Positive imagery as a starting point; distinction between what’s helpful for goal setting and what’s helpful for goal striving

• Incorporate obstacles, negative aspects into idealized descriptions of possible futures

Thank you

My collaborator on these projects:Gabriele OettingenNew York University

For copies of any of these papers, please contact H.Kappes@lse.ac.uk