Hottest of the hotspots: Philippine biodiversity in peril Pithecophaga jeferyii (Philippine Eagle) Endemic to Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Leyte 30 breeding

Hottest of the hotspots:

Philippine biodiversity in peril

Pithecophaga jeferyii (Philippine Eagle) Endemic to Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Leyte30 breeding pairs in the wildPhoto: Oliver Langrad, Conservation International

Hottest of the hotspots:


Workshop on Philippine BiodiversityYouth Ecology Camp, Assumption Antipolo, April 13-17, 2010Facilitator: Mr. Henry G. Calilung, Science Teacher,

Holistic Education and Development Center, Taytay, Rizal

What is biodiversity?

Introduction

biological diversity in an environment as indicated by numbers of different species of plants and animals (Merriam-Webster 2010)

variety of life forms

Are there kinds of biodiversity? (Miller 2001)

Introduction

Genetic diversity

Species diversity

Ecological diversity

Genetic diversity – refers to variety of genomes within a population; different sets of genes produce different characteristics within the same species

Introduction

Seeds of the bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean) reflect the genetic diversity within the species.

Farmers in Swaziland, South Africa, take advantage of this by planting seeds of mixed colors, shapes and sizes. This way, they avoid having their crop wiped out in the event of a pest attack.

Photo: http://www.unep.org/IK/Biodiversity.asp?id=Biodiversity

Species diversity – refers to the variety that exists within a community of plants and animals

Introduction

An artist’s rendition of an African watering hole. Such a gathering is not possible of course.

Photo: http://arbgames.com.au/ravensburger-300-piece-large-format-jigsaw-puzzle-memories.html?js=n

Ecological diversity – refers to the variety of communities that exist in their natural environment

Introduction

Photo: http://raconteurist.bravejournal.com/entry/27108

Mt. Apo, Mindanao

Photo: http://bilogangbuwanniluna.blogspot.com/2008_09_01_archive.html

Lake Balinsasayao, Negros

Photo: http://bilogangbuwanniluna.blogspot.com/2008_09_01_archive.html

Tubbataha Marine National Park, Palawan

Are all forms of life equally important? (Miller 2001)

Introduction

Indicator species

Keystone species

Endemics

Indicator species – serve as early warning devices for an ongoing disturbance that is damaging the natural balance of an ecosystem. They are very sensitive to pollution and are the first to be affected.

Introduction

Frogs are useful indicators since their sensitive skin makes them susceptible to even small amounts of pollutants. In addition, they live on both land and water and so serve as barometers of good environmental health for both ecosystems.

Photo: http://blog.mycology.cornell.edu/?p=97

Keystone species – not necessarily the most abundant in a community, these species perform ecological functions on which the whole ecosystem depends. Without them, everything collapses.

Introduction

With their massive bodies and tusks, elephants can effectively dig the ground in search of water during the dry season. The holes they make then become watering holes for other animals.

Photo: http://www.naturehaven.com/elephantbottom.html

Endemics – these are species that are unique to a locality. The conservation of endemics takes top priority since they are found nowhere else on the planet.

Introduction

Photo: Gernot Vogel in www.gernot-vogel.de

The Gold-ringed Cat Snake (Boiga dendrophila divergens) is one of the largest snakes in the world (6-8 feet in length). They are found only in Luzon and are classified as Vulnerable because their mangrove habitats are being destroyed.

Philippines:

The Galapagos Islands ten times over

Nepenthes sp (Pitcher plants, lapsay), Of the 86 global sp, 8 are Philippine endemics;N. Merilliana can hold 1.5 L of waterPhoto: Phill Mann, International Carnivorous Plant Society

The Philippines as a megadiversity country (Carr and Langhammer 2010)

Philippines: the Galapagos Islands ten times over

Megadiversity countries hold 70% of the world’s plant and animal life forms:

Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, United States, Venezuela

The Philippines as a megadiversity country (Carr and Langhammer 2010)


The world’s megadiversity countries:

Map: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/hotspots/index.html


Total Species

Endemic Species

% Endemic

Land Mammals

174 111 64%

Breeding Land Birds

395 172 44%

Reptiles 258 168 65%

Amphibians 101 78 77%

TOTAL 928 529 57%

Philippine terrestrial vertebrates (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)


Comparative endemism (Ong et al, 2002)

Country Total Species

Endemic Species

% Endemic

Land Area (km2)

Phil. 928 529 57% 300,780

Spain 435 25 6% 451,171

Brazil 3,131 788 25% 8,511,965


Comparative endemism (Ong et al, 2002)

Endemic Group Global Rank

Birds 5th

Mammals 5th

Reptiles 8th

Plants 8th

Non-fish vertebrates 9th

Speciation: Darwin revisited

Phloeomys pallidus (Northern slender-tailed cloud rat, Bu-ot)At 2.5 kilos, these cloud rats are the largest in the world.Endemic to Benguet, Kalinga-Apayao, Bataan/ZambalesLarge and meaty, cloud-rats are heavily huntedPhoto by: WLR Oliver in www.fieldmuseum.org

What is speciation?


There is a grandeur to this view of life.. that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on.. endless forms most beautiful and wonderful have been and are being evolved. (Charles Darwin as quoted in Miller 2001)

What is a species? (Campbell and Reece 2002)


How do species evolve?

Reproductive isolation

Symaptric vs allopatric speciation

Figure: http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2007/03/basic_concepts_allopatry_and_s.php

Speciation begins with isolation. A population may be divided by geographic barriers (allopatric speciation) or by chromosomal mutations (sympatric speciation).

Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity(Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

Gallicolumba luzonica (Luzon Bleeding Heart)Endemic to LuzonNear Threatened (Trapped for food and for the illegal pet trade)Photo: Ken Llio in www.flickr.com

Philippine Islands – from the seafloor via plate tectonics and volcanic activity

Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

Palawan & Mindoro – from the Eurasian mainland

Samar & Leyte – formed 50M yrs ago; where Hawaii is at present

Luzon – 15M yrs ago; rotated in place several times

Mindanao – 5M yrs ago; came from 3 separate islands

View geological history of the Philippine Archipelago(press esc to return to this slide)

Ice Age Islands (20,000 yrs ago)


Sea level was 120m lower.

Islands became connected:

Greater Luzon Greater Negros-Panay Greater Palawan Greater Mindanao

Chart: http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Vanishing_Treasures/Origins_2.htm

Ice Age Islands (20,000 yrs ago)


Deep sea channels kept smaller islands isolated

Mindoro

Sibuyan

Siquijor

Camiguin


The Philippine Archipelago 20,000 years ago. Note the formation of the Greater Islands (Luzon, Negros-Panay, Mindanao, Palawan). Note also that smaller islands have always been isolated (Sibuyan, Camiguin).

Map: http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Vanishing_Treasures/images/maps/ICE_AGE.gif

Mountain ecosystems


Most Philippine islands have prominent mountains.

Mountains harbor distinct forest types based on differences in temperature & rainfall.

Map: http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Vanishing_Treasures/Origins_4.htm

Each forest type produces its own unique set of plants and animals.

Humus, the sponge-like-flood-controlling layer of decomposing plant material, becomes more abundant the higher one goes up a mountain.

Forest types in Philippine mountains – Lowland forest

Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/30369673@N06/4236409604/


Lowland forest in Pasonanca Natural Park, Zamboanga Peninsula, Southwestern Mindanao.

The largest trees (2-3 meters diameter, 30-40 m tall) are found in the lowland forests. Most of these trees are dipterocarps which are known for their beautiful, lustrous wood collectively known as “Philippine mahogany.”

Lianas and other vines reach from the forest floor to the canopy providing a natural highway for monkeys, squirrels, civet-cats and monkeys.

Photo: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dipterocarpus_grandiflorus_Blanco2.263-original.png


The Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) produces, aside from its timber, an oily resin used in lamps and varnishing compounds.

Photo: http://164.100.52.111/cat.asp?iCat=2

Dipterocarps take 40 years to produce their first seeds (above) and about 100 years to reach marketable size.


Most lowland forests have been decimated and nearly all Philippine species are threatened with extinction. Of the 45 native Philippine dipterocarps, nearly half are found nowhere else on Earth.

Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/lekowala/18798900/

Forest types in Philippine mountains – Montane forest

Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/30369673@N06/4235586655/

Montane forest in Mt. Polis, Ifugao, Luzon.

Montane forest trees are shorter (max of 25 m) and are much more decorated with vines, pandans, pitcher plants and orchids.

The montane forest receives 2 to 3 times more rain than the lowlands. Rain is well distributed throughout the year.


Photo: Greg Allikas in www.cites.org


Considered as the Queen of Philippine orchids, the Waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana) is nearly extinct in the wild forests of Mindanao due to over collection.

Montane forests feature an abundant array of orchids and pitcher plants.

Forest types in Philippine mountains – Mossy forest

Photo: http://pcij.org/stories/playground-of-the-gods/

Lower mossy forest in Mt. Pulag, the highest peak in Luzon.

Mossy forests are the wettest places in the Philippines receiving as much as 5 times more rainfall than at sea level. Combined with a cool temperature, the abundant rain fosters an explosion of plant life (mostly mosses, ferns, and orchids). Trees are kept small (2-3 m) and are often gnarled and twisted by the wind.


Photo: http://www.birdforum.net/opus/Aethopyga_boltoni


The sunbirds are the hummingbirds of the Philippines. Shown here is the Apo sunbird (Aethopyga boltoni) found only in Mindanao.

Mossy forests feature abundant species of birds, rodents and apmhibians.

Each of the Ice Age islands are considered faunal regions and act as centers of diversification. (Heaney et al, 2010)


Greater Luzon – 70% endemism

Greater Mindanao – 80% endemism

Sibuyan Island (463 km2) – 4 endemic mammals & 1 bat, more than any European country

Camiguin Island (265 km2) – 2 endemic mammals, 1 frog, 12 plants

The study of biodiversity

Boiga dendrophila levitoni (Mangrove cat snake)Endemic to PanayVulnerable (Destruction of mangroves for prawn farms)Photo: Maren Gaulke in www.gernot-vogel.de

The study of biodiversity (Stiling 2002)


Species richness – total number of species

Species evenness – distribution of individuals per species

Field studies (A need for real heroes!) – field studies are financially and physically challenging, sometimes even life-threatening

Trapping for mammals


Netting for birds and bats


Camera traps for dangerous carnivores


Forest studies


Canopy studies


Classifying threatened life forms (IUCN 2010)


Extinct (EX)

Extinct in the Wild (EW)

Critically Endangered (CR) : > 250 individuals

Endangered (EN) : > 2,500 ind

Vulnerable (VU) : > 10,000 ind

Near Threatened (NT)

Least Concern (LC)

Data Deficient (DD)

Not Evaluated (NE)

Workshop # 1: Mark-recapture game

Arctictis binturong ssp. whitei (Palawan binturong, Bear cat)Endemic to PalawanVulnerable (Hunted for food and medicinal uses)Photo: www.columbiabbc.edu


Rafflesia speciosa (Bunga-bangkay, Uruy)Endemic to Panay (5 new sp since 2002)Critically Endangered (Deforestation)Photo: Dr. Julie Barcelona, Philippine National Herbarium

What are hotspots?


“Hotspots are the richest and most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on Earth.”(Carr and Langhammer 2010)

There are 34 hotspots in the world. The Philippines is ranked by many as the hottest.

The world’s hotspots


Photo: http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2009/02/05_atlanticforest.shtml

Vital statistics (Carr and Langhammer 2010)


Hotspot Original Extent (km2) 297,179

Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km2) 20,803

Endemic Plant Species 6,091

Endemic Threatened Birds 56

Endemic Threatened Mammals 47

Endemic Threatened Amphibians 48

Extinct Species 2

Human Population Density (people/km2) 273

Area Protected by law (km2) 32,404

Area Significantly Protected (km2) 18,060

Vital statistics of the Philippines’ ecosystems:


State of the Philippine forests (Heaney and Regalado, JR. 1998)


Pre-Spanish times: 95% forest cover (probably most forested archipelago in the world)

1600 : 90% old growth forest cover

1900 : 70% cover

Some islands already denuded (Cebu) Others untouched (Protected by: Malaria in Mindoro; Isolation in Palawan; Moro people in Mindanao)

1997 : 7% cover

State of the Philippine forests (Mallari et al, 2001)


Summative data on Philippine wildlife (Ong et al, 2002)


# SpEndemicSpecies

% EndThreatened

SpeciesThreatened Endemics

Amphibians 101 79 78% 24 24 (100%)

Reptiles 258 170 66% 8 4 (50%)

Birds 576 195 34% 74 59 (80%)

Mammals 204 111 54% 51 41 (80%)

TOTAL 1139 555 49% 157 128 (82%)

Workshop # 2: The Reasons Why

Tarsius syrichta (Philippine Tarsier)Endemic to Greater Mindanao; BoholEndangered (Less than 1,000 individuals in the wild)Photo: Jeroen Hellingman in www.bohol.ph

Culprit or scapegoat? (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)


Habitat loss is the immediate cause of extinction.

Commercial logging and farming

Mining

Subsistence farming

Over population is the favorite suspect.

Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)


1600s

1st Spanish census showed 25,000 people

Coastal communities

Hunter-gatherers and kaingeros

1800s – 30,000 people; little change



1850s

Smallpox vaccine and other medicines

Hacienda system began

Triangular social caste emerged

Population boomed: from 30,000 to 500,000



1900s

American colonial government (1898)

Granted the 1st logging concessions

Subsidized the sugar industry

Population: from 500,000 to 3M by end of 1900s



Marcos regime

Gave logging concessions to supporters at 1 peso per hectare (100,000 hectares for 25 yrs)

Low taxation

Wealth gap increased


Chart: http://www.fieldmuseum.org/vanishing_treasures/Deforestation_2.htm

Population and forest cover trend in Negros (1600 to 2000)


Map: http://www.fieldmuseum.org/vanishing_treasures/Deforestation_2a.htm

Loss of forest cover in Negros (1875 to 1992)

1992



Today

Less than 6% of the forest remains

Starving coastal communities

Rich landowners (sugar & copra)

Desperate upland farmers

The Cost of Loss (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

Medinilla magnifica (kapa-kapa, rose grape)Endemic to Luzon and MindoroRare in the wild due to destruction of lowland forests.

The cost of loss (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

The cost of loss

Deforestation results to massive erosion (250 tons per hectare per year).

Siltation destroys coral reefs.

Siltation lessens life of dams (Magat dam).

Flooding and drought worsens.

Indirect losses of income.

Opportunity cost.

Magat Dam, Isabela, Luzon

The cost of lossPhoto: http://www.jcmiras.net/jcm2/p156.htm

Photo: http://www.vistapinas.com/article/magat-dam

Designed to operate for 90 years, Magat dam was built in 1983 at a cost of 6.5 B pesos. Siltation from the denuded watershed forest has now reduced its operational life by half.

The Ormoc Tragedy (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

The watershed forests were cleared for plantations owned by only 6 families (including the mayor).

November 1991: River water rose 10 ft in just 3 hrs. 7,000 people died.

Main roads, bridges, crops were destroyed. Ormoc Bay was filled with muddy water.

The cost of loss

The Ormoc Tragedy

The cost of loss

Photo: http://www.greenpeace.org/seasia/en/photosvideos/photos/a-lone-man-surveys-the-grim-de

The Ormoc Tragedy (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

A year later, no reforestation efforts have begun. According to a city councilor:

We are still waiting for a plan for reforestation that will not disrupt the economy. To make reforestation attractive, the landowners must be convinced that the economic value of the trees will be commensurate to the value of the sugar cane.

The cost of loss

The cost of loss (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

The cost of loss

Deforestation worsens drought conditions. The groundwater system is not renewed.

Panay is one of the most deforested island.

450km2 of farmland affected; 118,000 tons of rice lost.

Starving farmers cut trees for charcoal.

Water in Iloilo city is rationed (4 days a wk).

Bacuit Bay, Palawan

The cost of loss

Photo: http://goseasia.about.com/od/philippinestopattractions/ig/Beaches-of-El-Nido/Miniloc-Island.htm

Indirect income losses in Bacuit Bay, Palawan, 1985 (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

The cost of loss

Coral reefs (ecotourism) and fisheries = $53M

78km2 mountainside watershed with 50% forest cover.

May to Dec (1986) : Logging intensified. Erosion increased to 49,080 tons. Killed 50% of corals.

Ecotourism and fisheries now worth = $23MIncome from logging = $8.5MTotal worth of the Bay = $31.5M

Net loss of income = $21.5M

Opportunity Costs (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

Dicaeum quadricolor (Cebu flowerpecker)Endemic to CebuCritically Endangered (less than 100 in the wild)

Opportunity Costs (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)

The cost of loss

Beauty

Genetic diversity (crops)

50% of current medicines come from plant and animal compounds

Strongylodon macrobotrys (Jade Vine)Endemic to LuzonThreatened (rare in the wild due to overcollection)Photo: www.tropicalflowersforums.com

What is being done? (Ong et al, 2002)

Social movement

What is being done?

National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS), 1992

National Biodiversity Action Plan, 1995

Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Program, 2000

Individual action. What can you do? (Miller 2001)

What is being done?

Support a green economy.

Practice a sustainable lifestyle.

Educate yourself and others.

Live simply so that others may simply live.

Haste makes waste.

Wants – Needs = Waste

Walk your talk.

Documents

Hottest of the hotspots: Philippine biodiversity in peril Pithecophaga jeferyii (Philippine Eagle) Endemic to Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Leyte 30 breeding