Horwitz - Some Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for Second Language Teaching

Some Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for Second Language TeachingAuthor(s): Elaine K. HorwitzSource: Hispania, Vol. 69, No. 3 (Sep., 1986), pp. 684-689Published by: American Association of Teachers of Spanish and PortugueseStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/342782 .Accessed: 12/04/2014 05:47

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APPLIED LINGUISTICS Prepared by Yolanda Russinovich Sole*

Some Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for Second Language Teaching

U Elaine K. Horwitz, University of Texas at Austin

Introduction

In the last decade, we have witnessed an in- tense interest in research in second language acquisition. Unfortunately, the resulting literature often seems to contain more controversies than clear-cut findings. Many teachers feel frustrated and overwhelmed, not only by the sheer number of research studies, but by their confusing and sometimes contradictory results. Language teachers and students will ultimately benefit from a thorough understanding of second language development, but in the meantime, many teachers, preferring pragmatic certainty to theoretical contradic- tions, elect to base teaching practices on their own intuitions and classroom experience. While doubtless much of this instruction is sound, it can be strengthened and enriched when based on knowledge about how people develop fluency in a second languange.

This paper will summarize some current trends in second language acquisition research and suggest implications of research findings for teaching. The purpose of this paper is to give teachers a guide to second language acquisition research that is readily applicable to classroom practice, as it may be a long time before researchers resolve many of the current controversies. This paper is organized around language acquisition principles, i.e., general statements about second language development which have theoretical and empirical support from recent research. Each principle is followed by a discussion of the relevant literature and a description of consistent language teaching practices. In some cases, because of interrelationships among the acquisition principles, the same teaching practice(s) is listed for several principles.

The reader should note that this survey is, of necessity, somewhat selective; it reflects the author's judgments of the relative importance of individual studies, the appropriate- ness of research designs, and the most com- pelling and parsimonious explanations for empirical findings. The scope of this effort introduces a further element of subjectivity. This review attempts to identify important findings from the large and varied body of literature, loosely organized under the label of second language acquisition, and at the same time, to make research findings acces- sible to people with varied backgrounds. It cannot, therefore, reflect the complexity and subtlety of some issues as they appear in the research literature, although an effort has been made to point out controversies where they exist.

Language Acquisition Principles Principle #1

There is a nonconscious process involved in second language development which ac- counts primarily for second language fluency. Several researchers have discussed this

nonconscious process, but the best-known definition comes from Krashen's monitor model. Krashen distinguishes between second language learning which is conscious and second language acquisition which is not. Sec- ond language acquisition, as described by Krashen, might best be explained as a by- product of listening or reading comprehension. When a language learner encounters target language input data (speech or writing) which is at least to some extent comprehensible, second language acquisition may occur.


LINGUISTICS: APPLIED 685

(Learner receptiveness to the input is also necessary for second language acquisition, a condition which is discussed in Principle 2.) For example, when a language learner who has no background in Russian tunes into a short-wave broadcast from Radio Moscow, it is unlikely that second language acquisition will occur because the learner will not have any means to understand the Russian. On the other hand, when a language learner who already speaks Spanish happens onto a Por- tuguese broadcast, the learner's previous linguistic background will help to decode the Portuguese. As understanding input is the major criterion for second language acquisition, in this example, the language learner who already speaks Spanish is "acquiring" Portuguese via the radio broadcast.

The alternative process, second language learning, is familiar to both language teachers and students. It involves a conscious effort on the part of the learner to "get" part of the target language. In concrete terms, second language learning includes memorizing vocabulary, studying grammar, and practicing structural usage. In Krashen's model, second language learning can never lead to true second language fluency; all fluency stems from second language acquisition.

Other researchers, most notably Bialystok, allow that with practice a learner can make second language learning automatic, and therefore conscious learning could ultimately contribute to true language fluency. Principle 1 does not imply a position on this controversy. It does not state that second language learning has no role in second language development; rather, it calls second language acquisition the primary or more important process in the development of second language fluency.

The Good Language Learner Study by Nai- man, Fr6hlich, Todesco, and Stern also sup- ports the idea of a nonconscious language acquisition process. In case studies of successful language learners, i.e., those who had developed a near-native proficiency in the second language, the researchers found many who had undergone an intensive listening and/ or reading experience. In one instance, a 21- year-old woman living in France attended one or two movies every day. Since many of the movies were American, dubbed in French, and she had already seen most of them, they were an excellent source of comprehensible

input. This individual used her opportunity in the target country, contrary to popular wis- dom, to listen to French rather than to practice speaking it, with very successful results.

Suggested Teaching Practices 1. Much class time should be devoted to the

development of listening and reading abilities.

2. Teachers should provide meaning support for the listening and reading materials in order to make them more comprehensible.

3. Conscious grammar learning and teaching should be deemphasized.

4. Teachers should expect that students' listening and reading abilities will exceed their speaking and writing abilities.

5. Teachers should help students develop strategies to get more listening and reading experiences; that is, help them find sources of natural but comprehensible linguistic input.

A significant amount of class time should be devoted to listening and reading activities since second language proficiency is a by- product of listening and reading comprehension. The role of the teacher, however, is not limited to supplying listening and reading material; the teacher must also make the listening and reading passages as comprehensible as possible. In Krashen's terms, the teacher must supply "meaning support." To do this, the teacher might- among many possibili- ties- give an advance organizer (Ausubel) to the passage, supply pictures, act it out, give vocabulary words, or use sound effects. How- ever, the teacher must also be aware that students may come to use meaning support as a crutch, attending primarily to the extralin- guistic cues that the teacher supplies rather than the linguistic cues contained in the target language message. Therefore, while provid- ing meaning support the teacher should at the same time discourage the development of student dependence on it.

Although Krashen hypothesizes that listening and reading lead to oral proficiency, it is likely that learners will, for a while, have higher levels of receptive than productive skills. Learners who complain that they understand what the teacher says but have diffi- culty expressing themselves orally are ex- hibiting normal developmental patterns and should be reassured by the teacher. As listening and reading comprehension abilities in-


686 HISPANIA 69 SEPTEMBER 1986

crease, so should speaking fluency. There- fore, the teacher should encourage and assist students to find sources of comprehensible linguistic input (video tapes, shortwave broad- casts, magazines, native speakers in the community, more advanced students, etc.). Principle #2

The efficiency of the acquisition process is influenced by the degree of student involve- ment with the listening or reading material (input data). The degree of student involve- ment is influenced, in turn, by many factors including: (1) affective variables, e.g., attitudes and motivation (Gardner and Lam- bert); personality traits, e.g., tolerance of ambiguity (Naiman et al.) and (3) conceptual level (Horwitz); (4) the interest level of the material; and (5) the comprehensibility of the material. In a long series of studies, Gardner and

Lambert and their colleagues confirmed teachers' intuitive feelings that student attitudes and motivation play an important role in successful second language development. These studies found that students with positive attitudes toward the target language and culture and with strong motivation were more successful language learners (although the research designs employed do not allow an un- equivocal interpretation that the positive attitudes and motivation "caused" the successful learning).

Dulay and Burt argue that learner attitudes and motivation act as an "affective filter" through which the target language must pass. Students with positive attitudes are receptive to language acquisition experiences, while students with negative attitudes or poor motivation have a less permeable affective filter and are more likely to close themselves off from listening and reading in a second language.

Learning style also plays a role in absorbing linguistic input. More flexible students are able to listen (or read) for the gist of a passage and ignore unimportant words they do not understand. For example, Hosenfeld found that good foreign language readers were able to ignore less important words they did not know while poor readers attempted to decode every word in a text. Good readers are thus able to extract the maximum amount of meaning from the input while less flexible students may be left wrestling with one word in the

first sentence of the first paragraph.

Suggested Teaching Practices (The first four teaching practices listed here

refer to strategies for increasing student in- volvement with the linguistic input; the final four suggest means for despelling student stereotypes about the target culture.) 1. Teachers should assess student interests

and supply appropriate listening and reading materials.

2. Teachers should provide meaning support for the listening and reading materials.

3. Teachers should promote a supportive, nonthreatening classroom atmosphere.

4. Teachers should give students specific and reassuring instructions on how to listen and how to read ("You're not expected to understand every word," etc.).

5. Teachers should present cultural materials to illustrate cultural differences.

6. Teachers should help students identify and confront their stereotypes about the target people and their culture.

7. Teachers should help students clarify their reasons for studying a language and help them to set and achieve individual goals.

8. Wherever possible, teachers should arrange student contacts with native speakers. By creating a supportive atmosphere and

supplying interesting and comprehensible materials, the teacher can do much to weaken the affective filter. Negative attitudes and stereotypes may have to be confronted di- rectly, because if these prejudices are not dealt with, affective filters will likely remain impermeable. Students would thus be insuffi- ciently receptive to the target language material to allow language acquisition to take place.

Most importantly, the teacher should help students develop concrete skills for decoding foreign language materials. They should be taught to listen (or read) for the gist of a passage instead of searching for the meaning of individual words. Reading and listening (and rereading and relistening) are highly ef- fective means of increasing second language acquisition. Each time students encounter a specific passage, they have more information to use to understand it; therefore, their language acquisition is facilitated. They also learn not to get anxious when their first comprehension attempts are not successful. Decreasing



anxiety itself is an important means of weak- ening the affective filter.

Principle #3 You learn to talk by talking. To develop true speaking fluency, a learner

must have experience with the pressures and feedback of natural conversational interactions. This principle is based on research in communicative competence and discourse analysis (although it is in direct contradiction to the monitor model). Savignon found that students who spent an hour a week in role- play and simulation activities achieved higher levels of communicative competence than students who spent the same amount of time in the language laboratory or in cultural activities. Studies in discourse analysis have shown that the speech of second language learners tends to emerge from conversational interactions and have documented the exist- ence of vertical structures in the speech of second language learners (Peck). In a vertical structure, the language learner con- tinues to build an utterance through conversational turns. Previous parts of an utterance and the response of a conversational partner are used to build a longer utterance. Hatch argues that such data questions a basic assumption of the second language acquisition literature that "one first learns how to manipulate structures, that one gradually builds up a repertoire of structures, and then, somehow, learns how to put the structures to use in discourse." Rather, she argues that ". .. one learns how to interact verbally, and out of this interaction syntactic structures are developed" (Hatch 404); thus, according to this perspective, language learners use conversational interactions to increase their abil- ity to communicate.

Principle 3 is also supported by recent research in first language acquisition where researchers are pointing increasingly to the role of parents and other caretakers in encourag- ing a child's verbal development. In a large- scale study in Britain, Wells has found that children who are encouraged to talk (asked open-ended questions, responded to inquisi- tively, etc.) are more verbally fluent than children whose caretakers discourage communication attempts. Wells's findings are taken as additional evidence that merely immersing a child in language is not sufficient to develop communicative competence.

Suggested Teaching Practices

1. Speaking fluency emerges from acquisition and practical language use.

2. Teachers should promote a supportive, nonthreatening classroom atmosphere to encourage communication attempts.

3. Teachers should listen carefully to students' communication attempts and help to formulate them in the target language.

4. Conversation activities should focus on the communication of meaning and be important to the student.

5. Errors should be corrected within the con- text of a conversation. ("Oh, you mean that you went to the store over the weekend?") The teacher's primary responsibility here

is to provide students with interesting and realistic communication experiences and appropriate feedback on their communication attempts. The classroom atmosphere is espe- cially important if the teacher wants students to speak spontaneously in the target language. In one study, Steinberg and Horwitz found that ESL students undergoing an ex- perimental condition intended to induce anxiety attempted less personal and interpretive messages than those students in a relaxed and comfortable environment.

Once students have developed some speaking fluency, every effort should be made to put them in contact with native speakers. Foreign language teachers, native or non- native, have experience with the halting speech of language learners and will likely understand target language attempts which might well be incomprehensible to native speakers unused to foreigners. Learning to negotiate meaning in real life interactions is an essential part of the language learner's task (Horwitz and Horwitz). Principle #4

Target language errors are a natural part of the language development process. Teachers sometimes feel that student er-

rors are the result of a poor learning effort or even poor teaching practices; however, numerous studies have shown that second language learners produce a systematic, albeit "incorrect," version of the target language called an interlanguage (Selinker). The errors found in learner interlanguage seem to be at least somewhat independent of the learners'


688 HISPANIA 69 SEPTEMBER 1986

native language. For example, longitudinal studies of learners of varying linguistic backgrounds have found that learners, for the most part, follow a similar sequence in the acquisition of certain grammatical morphemes as well as the negative, interrogative, and auxil- iary systems in English. (See Dulay, Burt, and Krashen; and Hatch, Psycholinguistics, for a full review of this literature.) These findings seem to question a belief that students are destined to make errors when target-language structures contrast with structures in their native language. Student errors are also seen as evidence that learner target language production is based on a systematic set of rules and is relatively impervious to correction. Hendrickson, for example, has found that teacher identification or explanation of learner errors has little if any effect on subsequent productions of error. This finding is consistent with the monitor model which posits that un- conscious interlanguage rules and consequent production errors are only modified by second language acquisition resulting from increased exposure to the target language. Suggested Teaching Practices 1. Teachers should expect that students will

make errors. 2. Teachers should not expect either overt

or covert error correction to have a strong impact on the correctness of learner target-language speech. First-language researchers have found that

parents and caretakers tend to correct the truth value of children's speech rather than its structural correctness. Foreign language students would probably also benefit from feedback based on the communicativeness of their utterances. In addition, since learners of different linguistic backgrounds tend to make similar target language errors, it ap- pears unnecessary to structure a grammar curriculum for learners of a particular native language. Principle #5

Students can only consciously correct a minimum of their errors. Human memory limitations and the demands of the communication situation allow for only minimal use of conscious grammatical knowledge. Krashen calls the student's store of con-

scious grammatical knowledge the "monitor" and posits that it has only limited utility for

language production; that is, the learner must have time to use the monitor, must know the correct rule, and must be motivated to speak (or write) correctly. Krashen and his colleagues have tested the time requirement of this hypothesis by comparing student performance on timed and untimed written tasks (Krashen, Butler, Birnbaum, and Robertson). They have found that language learners make more and different errors under the time- pressed conditions when they presumably do not have adequate time to use the monitor. Krashen believes that students do not have access to the monitor during free speech activities, and therefore, they are likely to make errors even in structures they have already consciously learned.

Suggested Teaching Practices 1. Teachers should expect that students will

make mistakes during spontaneous communication on material they already "know."

2. The teaching of conscious language rules should be deemphasized.

3. Speaking practice should be as much like natural conversation as possible (role-play- ing, etc.) to provide for natural error feedback. Since it is hypothesized that increased flu-

ency stems from language acquisition rather than language learning experiences, overt teaching of grammatical principles probably will not lead to fewer student errors. Although previous language teaching paradigms urged the teacher to correct all errors as early and as consistently as possible, Principles 4 and 5 when considered together imply that student errors are a natural part of the learning process and that conscious attempts on the part of the learner can only have a small impact on them. As an alternative to strict teacher correction of form, the research reviewed here suggests that participation in realistic communication activities will more likely give students the feedback they need to improve their grammatical accuracy. Conclusion

In the last decade, researchers have begun to make significant progress in understanding how people become bilingual. This knowledge can provide teachers with a sound basis for foreign language instruction. This paper has summarized some recent findings in second



language acquisition research which have important classroom applications. The language acquisition principles presented here em- phasize the importance of natural and holistic linguistic experiences in the development of language fluency. Teaching practices consistent with these principles stress the development of listening and reading comprehension, participation in lifelike conversational activities, and contact with natural instances of the target language. Student attitudes and motivation are also very important in the development of fluency because they can affect a person's willingness to participate in the necessary language acquisition and language use experiences.

Language teaching practices tend to change when conceptions about language learning change. In previous times, a behavioral view of language learning influenced teachers to isolate the structural patterns of the target language and require correct manipulation of individual patterns by their students. Teach- ers whose training reflected this perspective may find it difficult to adjust to the view of language learning described here. It may, therefore, be wise to experiment slowly with some of the suggested teaching practices. Since many studies stress the importance of second language acquisition or language proc- essing to the development of fluency, increasing the number of listening and reading activities could be a natural starting point.

Second language acquisition is very much an applied field of study; many of the researchers are also practicing language teachers. The scientist-practitioner model has been particu- larly successful in identifying a useful body of knowledge for foreign language teachers. For- eign language instruction will continue to improve over the years as researcher/practition- ers come to better understand the processes of second language acquisition and learning.

N WORKS CITED Ausubel, David P "The Use of Advance Organizers in

the Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal Ma- terial." Journal of Educational Psychology 51 (1960): 267-72.

Bialystok, Ellen. "A Theoretical Model of Second Lan- guage Learning." Language Learning 28 (1978): 69-83.

Dulay, Heidi C., and Marina K. Burt. "Remarks on

Creativity in Language Acquisition." Viewpoints on En- glish as a Second Language. Ed. Marina K. Burt, Heidi C. Dulay, and Mary Finocchiaro. New York: Regents, 1977. 95-126.

Dulay, Heidi C., Marina K. Burt, and Stephen D. Krashen. Language Two. New York: Oxford UP, 1982.

Gardner, Robert C., and Wallace E. Lambert. Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House, 1972.

Hatch, Evelyn. "Discourse Analysis and Second Lan- guage Acquisition." Second Language Acquisition: A Book of Readings. Ed. E. Hatch. Rowley, Massachu- setts: Newbury House, 1978. 402-35.

Hatch, Evelyn. Psycholinguistics:A SecondLanguage Per- spective. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House, 1983.

Hendrickson, James M. "Error Correction in Foreign Language Teaching: Recent Theory, Research, and Practice. An Historical Perspective of Learner Errors." The Modern Language Journal 62 (1978): 387-98.

Horwitz, Elaine K. "The Relationship of Conceptual Level to Communicative Competence in French." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 5 (1982): 65-73.

Horwitz, Elaine K., and Michael B. Horwitz. "Bridging Individual Differences: Empathy and Communicative Competence." Personalizing Foreign Language Instruc- tion: Learning Styles and Teaching Options. Ed. Renat Schulz. Skokie, Illinois: National Textbook Company, 1977. 109-18.

Hosenfeld, Carol. "A Preliminary Investigation of the Reading Strategies of Successful and Nonsuccessful Second Language Learners." System 5 (1977): 110-23.

Krashen, Stephen D. "The Monitor Model of Adult Sec- ond Language Performance." Viewpoints on English as a Second Language. Ed. Marina K. Burt, Heidi C. Dulay, and Mary Finocchiaro. New York: Regents, 1977. 152-62.

Krashen, Stephen D., James Butler, Robert Birnbaum, and Judith Robertson. "Two Studies in Language Ac- quisition and Language Learning." ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics 39-40 (1978): 73-92.

Naiman, Neil and Maria Fr6hlich, H. H. Stern, and A. Todesco. The Good Language Learner Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1978.

Peck, Sabrina. "Child-Child Discourse in a Second Lan- guage." Second Language Acquisition: A Book of Read- ings. Ed. E. Hatch. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House, 1978. 384-400.

Savignon, Sandra J. Communicative Competence: An Ex- periment in Foreign Language Teaching. Philadelphia: The Center for Curriculum Development, 1972.

Selinker, Larry. "Interlanguage." IRAL 10 (1972): 209-31.

Steinberg, Faith S., and Elaine K. Horwitz. "The Effect of Induced Anxiety on the Denotative and Interpretive Content of Second Language Speech." TESOL Quar- terly 20 (1986): 131-36.

Wells, Gordon. "Becoming a Communicator." Learning Through Interaction: The Study of Language Develop- ment. Ed. Gordon Wells. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1981. 73-115.


Article Contentsp. [684]p. 685p. 686p. 687p. 688p. 689

Issue Table of ContentsHispania, Vol. 69, No. 3 (Sep., 1986), pp. 466-755+i-livFront Matter [pp. 573-664]The Ascetical Meditative Literature of Renaissance Spain: An Alternative to Amads, Elisa and Diana [pp. 466-475]El gracioso en La hija del aire [pp. 476-482]Petrarchan Motifs and Plurisignative Tension in Quevedo's Love Sonnets: New Dimensions of Meaning [pp. 483-494]Stranger in a Strange Land: The Discourse of Alienation in Gmez de Avellaneda's Abolitionist Novel Sab [pp. 495-503]Problemas de tcnica narrativa en dos novellas de Lizardi [pp. 504-511]Al margen de la ficcin: Autobiografa y literatura mexicana [pp. 512-520]Juego de cmaras de Carlos Gorostiza [pp. 521-530]Vargas Llosa y La seorita de Tacna: Historia de una historia [pp. 531-536]ReviewsPeninsular LiteratureReview: untitled [pp. 537-538]Review: untitled [pp. 538-539]Review: untitled [p. 539]Review: untitled [p. 540]Review: untitled [pp. 540-541]Review: untitled [pp. 541-542]Review: untitled [pp. 542-543]Review: untitled [pp. 543-544]Review: untitled [pp. 544-545]Review: untitled [pp. 545-547]Review: untitled [pp. 547-548]Review: untitled [p. 548]Review: untitled [p. 549]Review: untitled [pp. 549-550]Review: untitled [pp. 550-551]

Latin American LiteratureReview: untitled [pp. 551-552]Review: untitled [pp. 552-553]Review: untitled [pp. 553-554]Review: untitled [pp. 554-555]Review: untitled [pp. 555-556]Review: untitled [pp. 556-557]Review: untitled [pp. 557-558]Review: untitled [pp. 558-559]Review: untitled [pp. 559-560]Review: untitled [pp. 560-561]Review: untitled [pp. 561-562]Review: untitled [pp. 562-563]

Pedagogy, Linguistics, TextsReview: untitled [pp. 563-565]Review: untitled [pp. 565-566]Review: untitled [pp. 566-567]Review: untitled [pp. 567-568]Review: untitled [pp. 568-569]Review: untitled [pp. 569-570]

Books Received [pp. 570-572]Letters to the EditorOn " 'How': The Missing Interrogative in Spanish" [p. 574]On Distinguishing between ser and estar through Structure Analysis [p. 574]Response to "Cuba, an American Boogeyman" (March 1986: 148-49) [p. 575]

The President's Corner [pp. 575-576]Professional News [pp. 577-584]The Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian World [pp. 585-598]Chapter News [pp. 599-605]The 1986 AATSP National Spanish Examination [pp. 606-623]Preliminary Directory Materials: The American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, Inc. [pp. 624-640]Official Announcements [pp. 641-660]1985-1986 AATSP Medal Awards [pp. 661-662]Theoretical LinguisticsThe Effect of Two Phonological Processes on Syllable Structure in Peruvian Spanish [pp. 665-668]Clusulas e infinitivos con verbos y preposiciones [pp. 669-676]Acerca del Voseo Culto de Chile [pp. 677-683]

Applied LinguisticsSome Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for Second Language Teaching [pp. 684-689]Observations on the Tu/Vos Option in Guatemalan Ladino Spanish [pp. 690-698]

Pedagogy: Elementary SchoolsThe Teacher of FLES in 1986 [pp. 699-701]Distinguished Children's Books in Spanish [pp. 702-706]

Pedagogy: Secondary SchoolsFun and Games-With a Purpose [pp. 707-708]Introducing Literature: Some Points of Departure [pp. 709-710]

Pedagogy: Community CollegesAprendiendo con movimientos: TPR in a College Spanish as a Second Language Class [pp. 711-713]

Pedagogy: Colleges and UniversitiesFitting It All in One Semester: An Intensive Introductory Course in Spanish for Health-Care Personnel [pp. 714-719]Strategies for Teaching and Testing Reading [pp. 720-722]A Survival Spanish Course for the Older Learner [pp. 723-727]

Audio-Visual Instructional MediaReview: untitled [p. 728]Review: untitled [pp. 728-729]Review: untitled [p. 729]Review: untitled [pp. 729-730]

Computers in Research and Teaching[Introduction] [p. 731]Our Continuing Progress [p. 732]Computers in Teaching, Research, and Departmental Administration [pp. 733-735]The Power of Public Domain Software, Built-In Editors, and Computer Games in CALL [pp. 736-739]The Athena Language Learning Project [pp. 740-745]Software ReviewsReview: untitled [pp. 746-747]Review: untitled [pp. 747-748]Review: untitled [p. 749]Review: untitled [pp. 749-750]Review: untitled [pp. 750-752]Review: untitled [pp. 752-753]Review: untitled [pp. 753-754]Review: untitled [pp. 754-755]

Back Matter [pp. i-liv]

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Horwitz - Some Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for Second Language Teaching