This study examines the political and military tactics utilized by the United

States and its European allies to impose political, economic, and social

hegemony on developing countries during the Expansionist Era. A historical

analysis of European colonialism – as it relates to the rhetoric of the Berlin

Conference and the division of China into European spheres of influence –

reveals the system by which the United States and European countries

determined whether or not an emerging nation was fit for self-governance. An

examination of U.S. propaganda aligned with expansionist ideologies and

historical documents, such as Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points speech and

the Covenant of the League of Nations, further demonstrates the concurrent

denial of the fundamental human right of self-determination as a result of

United States and European intervention within developing countries. The

study identifies not only the various hegemonic policies and methods of

control imposed on foreign countries, but the internal implications of these

policies within the United States. By examining the history of the United

States' imposed denial of self-determination on developing countries, one can

better understand the underlying contradictions in policy demonstrated by the

United States' advocacy of democracy and independence around the globe.

Abstract

German Philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, wrote a speech on

civilizations titled The Philosophy of History. According to Hegel, the

native African tribes were “savages” because they did not believe in a

Supreme Being. Hegel’s statement reflects notions of racial superiority

that later influenced European imperialism in Africa.

Following Hegel’s speech in 1884, German Chancellor, Otto von

Bismarck, convened a conference of fourteen member states to discuss

the political partitioning of the African continent. Without the consent of

African tribal leaders, these fourteen member states drew up boundaries

or borders, regardless of factors, such as tribal affiliations or tensions,

effectively denying native African tribes the right to determine their own

form of government.

Methodology

American missionaries first settled in Hawaii at the start of the nineteenth

century and quickly gained influence and wealth. With their increasing

influence and power, American residents forced King Kalākaua to pass the

Bayonet Constitution in 1887, which served to strip most of the monarchy’s

power and imposed income and property requirements for voting, which

effectively excluded all Asians. With the passing of this American-led

constitution, Native Hawaiians no longer had any say in their own

government.

King Kalākaua died in 1891, but to keep Hawaiian tradition, his sister

Lili‘uokalani took the throne. Her goal was to restore the monarchy’s power

and grant native Hawaiians their right to vote. Upon hearing of

Lili‘uokalani’s plan to restore power to the natives, the American residents

hatched a plan to overthrow the Queen and ready Hawaii to be annexed by

the United States. Fearing for her life, Queen Lili‘uokalani reluctantly

abdicated her throne and, in 1898, Hawaii was officially annexed by the

United States. Limiting the power of the Hawaiian government by excluding

natives from all involvement in decision making, American businessmen

denied the Hawaiian people the right to govern themselves through this white

hegemonic political reorganization – effectively, however, this was a poorly

disguised coup, backstopped by the United States government.

United States’ Protectorate System Internal Conflict During the 1960’s

The United States criticized European imperialists, while they were,

ironically, practicing those same methods of control through their oppression

of colored people within their own borders.

Following the passing of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, a large influx of

African Americans began to vote, drastically changing the balance of the

U.S. political system. Knowing full well that most voting African Americans

were once enslaved and denied rights to education, the predominately white

political regime countered any threat by including precautionary measures

such as poll taxes and literacy tests to limit African Americans from voting.

Under Jim Crow Laws, African Americans were condemned to inferior

facilities and endured unequal treatment under the law. During the Civil

Rights movement, outraged African Americans demanded fair and equal

treatment. Under these circumstances, the U.S. government continuously

denied equal rights to their own citizens based solely on ethnicity. Despite

the United States’ continuous advocacy of democracy around the globe,

underlying contradictions in policies effectively display the United States’

hypocritical denial of the same rights it sought to promote.

ConclusionBy analyzing historical instances of imperialism, we can better understand

the hegemonic policies imposed on developing countries. While some

nations instilled this denial through violent means, others maintained control

through limiting access to certain goods and services. Nations were not

deemed “unfit” for self-governance, but rather their resources deemed “fit”

to be utilized by the superpowers of the time for their own benefit.

Naturally, participating in imperialism or advocating against it leaves

countries blind to the inherent denial of this universal right within their own

borders.

Honors College at Lone Star College

Zachary Barber

The Denial of Self-Determination: An Analysis of Expansionist Ideologies

This project utilizes causal analysis to identify the concurrent denial of

self-determination associated with expansionist ideologies fueled by

Imperialistic models of control.

The Scramble for Africa

After participating in numerous wars throughout the nineteenth century,

China was left weakened and ripe for foreign imperialism. Through wars,

such as the Opium Wars and the Sino-Japanese War, many European nations

gained commercial privileges and territory throughout China by creating

spheres of influence.

Under the guise of the Open-Door Policy, the U.S. attempted to gain access

to China by calling for “free trade.” However, the U.S. was motivated by

trading with the European footholds throughout China, rather than the

Chinese government itself.

As a result of growing European influence in China in 1900, a group of

Chinese nationalists, the Righteous and Harmonious Fist Society, fought back

the foreign influencers. Europeans labeled them rebels because of their

unwillingness to assimilate to western ideals, but the nationalists felt they

were liberating China of the invading Europeans. In this situation, the ruling

Chinese government became a subsidiary to the European powers residing in

China.

Cuba

American propaganda during the Spanish-

American War created a moral imperative to

fight Spain for Cuba’s “freedom.”

In April 1898, America added the Teller

Amendment to the declaration of war with

Spain, which stated that the United States

would not establish permanent control over

Cuba. The United States claimed it was not

practicing imperialism, like the Spanish

before them in Cuba, and would only aid

Cuba until fit for self-governance.

However, in 1903, the Platt Amendment

was added to the Cuban Constitution. This

amendment gave the U.S. the ability to

intervene in Cuban affairs and total control

over Cuba’s debt, effectively controlling

Cuba’s foreign and domestic policies; thus,

diminishing any true power Cuba had to

govern itself.

Philippines

In 1898, the Philippines declared its

independence, though technically it

was still under Spanish control.

Following the conclusion of the

Spanish-American War, Spain ceded

the Philippines to the U.S. While the

Filipino people praised the U.S. and

expected the same treatment as Cuba,

the U.S. effectively denied the

Philippines independence as it was

still under Spanish rule at the time.

Outraged that the U.S. denied their

independence, the Filipino people

declared war on America. For three

years after their declaration of

independence, the Filipino people

continued to fight for their right to

govern themselves, free from foreign

control.

Shift in Thinking: Wilson’s IdealsFollowing the end of World War I in 1918, President Woodrow Wilson delivered his

famous Fourteen Points speech, in which he called for the self-determination of

newly emerged countries following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. President

Wilson believed that, in order to prevent another global conflict of this magnitude,

there needed to be a centralized location where world leaders could gather and voice

their concerns. Thus the League of Nations was established in 1919.

The creation of the League of Nations signified the expansion of self-determination

rights for years to come. In the Covenant of the League of Nations, Article 22 states

the establishment of the Mandates system, most likely influenced by the United

States protectorate system. Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations is

important because it set the precedent for establishing these “tutors” that would aid

the country until it was “fit” to rule itself. Likewise, we see this attention to self-rule

in the United Nations, the League of Nations’ successor.

Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, drafted in the Charter for

the United Nations, states that all individuals have the right to a national identity and

that no one can be denied the right to change their nationality. Article 15

demonstrates the changing paradigm of world leaders and the advocacy of

democratic ideals.

Defining Self-Determination

For the purpose of this project, self-determination will be defined as the

process by which a country determines its own form of government. Self-

determination can be further broken down into its core function, self-

governance, and it can also be applied to cultural and social identity.

The Annexation of Hawaii

Carving up the “Chinese Melon”

References

Hooker, Richard. “Boxer Rebellion” Imperialism, Accessed April 6, 2014,

http://bradleyhardin.com/worldhistory/imperialism/boxer_brief_overview.htm.

Jarosz, Lucy. “Constructing the Dark Continent: Metaphor as Geographic Representation of

Africa” Geografiska Annaler, Series B, Human Geography 74, no. 2 (1992)pp.105-115,

Accessed December 1, 2014, http://www.jstor.org/stable/490566

Library of Congress. “Teller and Platt Amendments” The World of 1898: The Spanish-

American War, Accessed November 18, 2014,

http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/teller.html.

Ourdocuments. “Joint Resolution to Provide for Annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United

States (1898)” 100 Milestone Documents, Accessed November 18, 2014.

http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=54

Ourdocuments. “Platt Amendment (1903)” 100 Milestone Documents, Accessed November

18, 2014, http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=55

United Nations. “Preamble” The Universal Declaration of Human rights, Accessed

November 21, 2014, http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/.

Wright, Jane. “Minority Groups, Autonomy, and Self-Determination” Oxford Journal of Legal

Studies 19, no.4 (1999)pp.605-629, Accessed November 21, 2014,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/20468297.

Yale Law School. “President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points” The Avalon Project,

Accessed November 18, 2014, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/wilson14.asp

Yale Law School. “The Covenant of the League of Nations” The Avalon Project, Accessed

November 18, 2014, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22

This research project analyzes the historical rationale behind various forms of

human trafficking, such as drug, sex, and labor trafficking, originating in the

20th century, procedures associated with the elimination of these issues, and

contemporary implications of trafficking. The aforementioned methods were

investigated by drawing from three distinct problem areas of the world (i.e.

Europe, Southeast Asia, and Africa) as these regions employed distinct

trafficking methods. A meta-analysis was contextualized by using: The

Seasoning House (2012), a movie produced by Paul Hyett which describes

additional methods pertaining to Europe, Jaime L. Small’s Trafficking in

Truth: Media, Sexuality, and Human Rights Evidence detailing labor

trafficking in Asia and Africa, and various United Nations’ laws and

regulations. Findings illuminate correlations between the evolving definition

of human trafficking─the unlawful movement of individuals for

exploitation─and the shifting paradigm of how the crime is combated

worldwide. Due to mainstream media coverage, the public possesses a

baseline understanding of this controversial topic, but solutions to eradicate

trafficking are not emphasized. The research indicates social limitations are

placed on the victims, having been dehumanized, and a societal threshold has

desensitized us towards the consequences. At the turn of the century, given the

heavy implementation of methods to combat trafficking during the latter part

of the 21st century, ideally, the number of cases should have significantly

decreased; however, even with the implementation of new laws and

regulations, trafficking cases have gradually increased.

Abstract

Human Trafficking: Definition and Methodology

In order for Europe’s economy to thrive, illicit drugs played a key component.

As the expansion of drug trafficking increased, drug mules became prevalent

to the practice of transporting drugs across many countries in Europe. In

many ways, this form had many cost-benefits for the traffickers. Besides

Germany (producer of cannabis), Spain (producer of heroin), and Turkey

(producer of morphine), other regions within Europe soon joined the chain of

countries using humans to transport illicit drugs. Networks developed, and

the European market was enhanced with all forms of illicit drugs for the

countries to consume. As a wider variety of drugs were made available,

greater black market practices enriched the drug trafficking industry.

Eradicating Drug Trafficking

• The League of Nations attempted to control the illicit traffic of drugs.

The League of Nations’ own assessment of their rules and

regulations brought to light how inefficient the body would be

combatting the crime since drug trafficking is pivotal to economic

growth in Europe.

• The International Labor Organization was in charge of social justice as it

concerned labor work but could not focus on drug trafficking even though

it was a business.

Drug trafficking did not directly correlate into labor work since

this was illegal, and the International Labor Organization was not

able to handle illegal businesses.

Europe: Drug Trafficking

In Asia, cultural devaluation on women and children versus able-bodied men

led to subjugation into sex trafficking rings. The vending and trading of

women and children accounted for the greatest proportion of human

trafficking globally—with Southeast Asia acting as the illegal industry’s

largest international hub. From the early 20th century, at least 225,000 women

and children trafficked from the southeast region of Asia every single year.

This figure accounts for approximately one-third of the entire human

trafficking trade around the world.

Determinants of Sex Trafficking

• Social determinant of poverty

• Corrupt government officials and police shared profits

• Social determinant of gender

• Lack of enforcement of existing laws

Unsuccessful Attempts to Eliminate Sex Trafficking

• The local police deemed evidence as “weak” when arresting traffickers

Government officials/police were subjected to bribery– resulting

in the weak prosecution of traffickers.

• The government largely neglected the public outcry and took little

responsibility in combatting the issue.

Government officials/police focused more on profit rather than

the victims.

Southeast Asia: Sex Trafficking

Conclusion

The corrosive effects of these various forms of human trafficking witnessed

throughout the early 20th century have brought both political and social

ramifications into the 21st century. Comparative assessment of attempted

solutions indicates efforts were ineffectual as they did not adequately address

the economic force of human trafficking. Governmental agencies misplaced

their efforts by combating human trafficking using laws and regulations

without appropriate emphasis on combatting this crime on a monetary level,

which resulted in legal and policing leniency. Despite increasing awareness

addressing the issue, this awareness has not translated into tackling the root

causes, and, as a result, human trafficking has expanded and grown into an

even more powerful economic enterprise. Future study is needed to identify

other potential obstacles on the perception level and combat public

desensitization to human trafficking.

Impacts of Early 20th Century on Early 21st

Century

As human trafficking becomes more widespread, it has also become more

sophisticated. As a countermeasure, some governments are implementing new

legislation, hosting international conferences, and signing new and existing

conventions. The United Nations (UN) and other Inter-Governmental

Organizations (IGOs) dedicated substantial resources to developing more

effective solutions. Where government initiatives and assistance for trafficking

victims are not present, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) take up the

challenge of organizing locally, nationally, and internationally in order to

advocate for and meet the needs of victims.

Africa: Labor TraffickingAfrica associated human trafficking with irregular migration, prostitution, or

labor. However, the most common form was trafficking for labor. Specifically,

the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region characterized itself with a variety of

migration configurations, cross-border movements, contract workers, labor

migrants, refugees, and displaced persons, which led to human trafficking.

Labor Trafficking Forced Upon Men, Women, and Children (Image Below):

• Sweatshops

• Domestic Servitude

• Peddling

• Hotel/Hospital labor

In this region, the victim’s social class contributed to the utilization of labor

trafficking. Class elements included poverty, deteriorating living conditions, a

cycle of unemployment, conflicts, human deprivation, and a sense of

hopelessness becomes engraved in each individual. Each of these aspects

fostered the environment for labor trafficking to flourish within the Sub-

Saharan Africa region.

Methods to Combat Labor Trafficking

• The African Government developed a holistic approach to combat labor

trafficking in Africa while taking into consideration the following

populations could not participate:

• Great poverty

• Vulnerable environment

• Unsustainable livelihood

• Female gender

• Low economic class

• Specific ethnicity (to be determined by the government)

• This holistic approach failed as the attempt was never implemented because

officials needed labor trafficking for their economy to thrive.

For the purposes of this project, human trafficking will be defined, according

to Article 3, paragraph (a) of the “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish

Trafficking in Persons,” as the “recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring

or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of

coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a

position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits

to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the

purpose of exploitation.”

In the early 20th century, human trafficking activity targeted the European,

Southeast Asian, and African geographic regions where the three main forms

of human trafficking—drug, labor, and sex trafficking—were prevalent. Each

region favored a particular trafficking method, which corresponded with the

region's unique background.

The Honors College at Lone Star College – North Harris

Jenny Hwang

Human Trafficking:

Putting a Price Tag on Human Dignity in the Trajectory of the Early 20th Century

Buckley, Mary. 2009. "Public Opinion in Russia on the Politics of Human

Trafficking." Europe-Asia Studies 61, no. 2: 213-248. Academic

Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed May 7, 2016).

Feingold, David A. 2005. "Human Trafficking." Foreign Policy, no. 150.

Washington Post. Newsweek Interactive, LLC: 26–32. Accessed

April 7, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30048506.

Fuller, Tripp. 2012. Interview by author. Tijuana. May 12.

Hua, Julietta. 2014. "Telling Stories of Trafficking: The Politics of

Legibility." Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism 12, no.

1: 201, 2016).7. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed

May 7, 2016).

Lobasz, Jennifer K. 2009. "Beyond Border Security: Feminist Approaches

to Human Trafficking." Security Studies 18, no. 2: 319-

344. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost(accessed May 7,

2016).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1900s 1950s 2000s 2016

HU

MA

N T

RA

FF

ICK

ING

CA

SE

S (

PE

R 1

00

,00

0S)

HUMAN TRAFFICKING METHODS

Human Trafficking: 20th and 21st Century

Drug Trafficking Labor Trafficking Sex Trafficking

In the early 21st century, new initiatives have gained traction to alleviate the

issue of human trafficking. The Victims of Trafficking and Violence

Protection Act recognized trafficking as a federal crime worldwide for the first

time and provided a definition of victims in need of protection and services.

Despite the political energies expended on human trafficking, little evidence

suggests any significant impact on aggregate levels of trafficking. For

example, U.S. government figures indicate the presence of some 200,000

trafficked victims in the United States. But even with a well-trained law

enforcement and prosecutorial system, less than 500 people have actually been

prosecuted. In fact, between 2001 and 2003, only 110 traffickers have been

prosecuted by the Justice Department. Of these, 77 were convicted or pled

guilty. Given the nature of the trafficking business, token convictions will

have little effect.

Themes Count

Enforce existing laws and borders, prosecute, and hold officials

accountable

17

Create or strengthen bilateral agreements to combat trafficking and

risky migration patterns

7

Build community management and development strategies 6

Reduce government corruption 5

Empower women and vulnerable groups (instead of welfare) 5

Pragmatics in the News Media Realm: The Truth About Political BiasJesus Patino

The Honors College at Lone Star College – University Park

Abstract

This independent research seeks to objectively examine the role

news networks partake in partisan media bias and its overarching

effect on consumers. To determine the degree of partiality through

a contemporary lens, the linguistics concept of pragmatics—

specifically, the sub-topics of conversational structure, implicature,

and emphatic deixis—were applied to the 2016 Presidential

Primary coverage by Fox News and The Young Turks. These

elements of pragmatics serve as analytical criteria that assist in

conducting an impartial analysis focused on how news networks

present their information rather than concentrating on the specific

topics of discussion. Additionally, Fox News and The Young Turks

were chosen because they are widely-consumed media outlets and

are highly condemned for reporting information favoring certain

political ideologies. The application of this linguistic criteria

reveals how Fox News and The Young Turks engage in biased

news reporting by presenting their information using rhetorical

strategies, indirectly influencing their audience towards a certain

political ideology without having to resort to obvious partisanship.

Fig. 1. Media Bias: Prejudiced Reporting. Storify; 2015, https://storify.com/teamunicorn/media-bias-560 eaf1402b185be6a772a0d.

Political Bias

Political bias fundamentally impacts public perception of news

networks, both traditional and alternative platforms, alongside their

active audience. When analyzing alleged partisan favoritism,

consumer opinions regarding news platforms ranges from people

who believe their networks do not favor a certain political

philosophy to those who believe all media platforms hold a certain

partisan agenda.

Fig. 2. Presidential Primary Minutes. Media Matters; 2012, http://mediamatters.org/blog/2012/11/03/ fox-news-redefines-unbalanced-by-giving-romney/191118.

Fox News

Since this linguistic analysis seeks to objectively and

contemporarily analyze political bias and its overarching impact on

consumers, Fox News was chosen because it is a widely consumed

traditional media source and is perceived to possess strong

conservative leanings. As a well-established journalistic network,

preliminary observations would assume Fox News employs

conventional journalistic practices to remain objective in their

reporting. This notion is further supported through a study

conducted by East Carolina University revealing how Fox News is

“the most commonly used primary source of political information

for television news.” Nevertheless, a Pew Research Center

investigation found how “almost two-thirds of Republicans

watched Fox News and reported using the network as their primary

source for political information.” The factors have lead numerous

political pundits and observers to criticize Fox News and their

audience for possessing strong Republican favoritism in its news

reporting, providing a strong platform for the basis of this

investigation.

Fig. 3. Fox News Logo. Fox News; http://www.foxnews.com.

The Young TurksDue to the liberal bias often attributed to The Young Turks and its

growing popularity in the media realm, this platform was selected

for its wide consumption and perceived partisan favoritism,

serving as an opposing linguistic perspective to Fox News. As an

emerging internet news source “with more than 1.7 billion

lifetime views,” initial interpretations might suggest The Young

Turks possess a certain level of bias due to the nature of online

information and the freedom the network holds from utilizing

objective journalistic practices. While the founding members of

The Young Turks label themselves as political analysts “focus[ed]

solely on the facts, always reveal[ing] the truth because of their

independence from corporate influence,” the network consistently

receives criticism for their alleged political bias. For example, the

Washington Post credits The Young Turks for building “a cult

reputation as liberal talkers who [are] as loud and fearless as

right-wingers.” The Young Turks represents the second component

of this analysis on partisan favoritism because of its increasing

audience and politically opposing counterpart to Fox News.

Fig. 3. Main members of The Young Turks. Tube Filter; 2016, http://www.tubefilter.com/2016/12/29/the-young-turks-nomiki-konst-shaun-king/.

Conversational StructureConversational Structure, defined universally by social scientist

Stephen Levinson as “the linguistic concept focusing on how and

why speakers order their sentences in a specific structure,” is vital

to analyzing political bias. Empirical research conducted at the

University of Georgia and Temple University demonstrates how

the retention of political information is often chosen from the last

knowledge the person reads, observes, or hears.

Fox News

“We talked about the Democrats, let's

proceed and talk about the Republic

Race” – Bret Baier, Special Report

“We just finished the first segment, this

next section holds some interesting

results” – Sean Hannity, America’s

Election HQ

The Young Turks

“I just finished my analysis, the

Democratic results are next” – Cenk

Uygur, Primary Coverage

“I left the Democratic results for last

because the results were quite

astonishing” – Cenk Uygur, Primary

Coverage

Fig. 4. Quotes representing how both shows largely organized their 2016 Primary Coverage. Original Creation.

These statements largely represent how Fox News and The Young

Turks organized their political coverage of the 2016 Presidential

Primaries. Both networks discussed a certain party’s results in the

first part of the show and then analyzed the other partisan

outcomes in the latter half of the program. This rhetorical strategy

primarily influences viewers of Fox News to more clearly

remember and discuss Republican ideals while spectators of The

Young Turks more often recall and spread the results of the

Democratic primaries. Despite their opposing alleged political bias,

both networks utilized similar linguistic utterances in their news

coverage, highlighting the parallels between the platforms.

ImplicatureImplicature, outlined in the Scientific Journal of Humanistic

Studies as “the factor analyzing what is suggested in an expression

and the word associations created even though not directly

express,” assists in examining beyond the superficial meaning of

the 2016 Presidential Primary coverage of Fox News and The

Young Turks.

Complementing the Issue

“Ted Cruz did really well in the debate,

especially his attacks on Donald Trump,

and he truly represents the conservative

values of the Country” – Chris Wallace,

Fox News America’s Newsroom

“Sanders did amazing in this debate, he

really proved himself to the American

people” – Ana Kasperian, The Young

Turks Primary Coverage

Against the Opposition

“All Hillary is about is money for her

foundation and own pocket” – Chris

Wallace, Fox News America’s Election

HQ

“Republicans are debasing our culture,

we look like clowns internationally,

thing about the fact that Trump is

dominating” – Cenk Uygur, The Young

Turks Primary Coverage

Fig. 5. Quotes representing the implied message of the news reporting. Original Creation.

The application of implicature exemplifies how the speakers of

Fox News and The Young Turks utilize subtle linguistic techniques

in their reporting, indirectly influencing audiences’ opinions and

attitudes regarding presidential nominees. While not directly

stated, the various hosts of the news platforms imply certain

emotions when discussing presidential candidates, leading the

audience to associate certain words with a particular person or

idea. Even though the language of both networks imply distinct

messages pertaining to opposing parties, Fox News and The Young

Turks utilize the same linguistic strategy, ultimately influencing

their audiences’ political beliefs.

Emphatic Deixis

Emphatic Deixis, labeled by The Oxford Dictionary of Pragmatics

as the “analysis of encode[d] emotional proximity or distance

between the speaker and aspects of a speech based on the use of

deictic expressions,” was applied to several six-minute videos of

Presidential Primary analysis by Fox News and The Young Turks

searching for the amount of times hosts utilized Proximal Deictic

Expressions (this, here now) and Distal Deictic Expressions (that,

there, then).

21

21

19

0

5

10

15

20

25

Proximal Deictic Expressions Distal Deictic Expressions

Conservative Topics

Fox News The Young Turks

1

33

29

00

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Proximal Deictic Expressions Distal Deictic Expressions

Liberal Topics

Fox News The Young Turks

The hosts of both shows utilize a similar number of proximal

deictic expressions when discussing the political ideology they are

criticized for favoring; while employing almost identical amounts

of distal deictic expressions when analyzing the opposing political

party. Despite their claimed objectivity and their contrasting

reporting mediums, Fox News and The Young Turks use a parallel

number of deictic expressions, further emphasizing the show’s

rhetorical similarities.

ConclusionPreliminary observations would conclude Fox News and The Young

Turks both employ analogous subjective practices to promote their

respective political bias. By analyzing the rhetorical strategies

employed by the news reporting rather than the specific topics of

discussion, this analysis further reveals how Fox News and The

Young Turks utilize parallel linguistic expressions to appeal

rhetorically to their given audiences, despite their claims of

objectivity and partisan impartiality. The fact two networks

deemed polar opposites in perceived bias, contextual audience, and

media reporting platform, used similar strategies in their coverage

of the 2016 Presidential Primaries further highlights the biased

nature of these news networks and their role in influencing the

opinions of consumers, becoming a political tool capable of

impacting the future of the election cycle, rather than objective

news coverage of said events.

ReferencesHuang, Yan. The Oxford Dictionary of Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2012. Print

Leah, Claudia. "A Theoretical Approach To Linguistic Implicatures." Scientific Journal Of

Humanistic Studies 2.3 (2010): 74-81. Academic Search Complete. Web. 14 Apr.

2016.

Levinson, Stephen. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Print.

Mastro, Dana, et al. "News Coverage Of Immigration: The Influence Of Exposure To

Linguistic Bias In The News On Consumer's Racial/Ethnic Cognitions."

Communication Quarterly 62.2 (2014): 135-154. Communication & Mass Media

Complete. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.

Morris, Jonathan S. "Slanted Objectivity? Perceived Media Bias, Cable News Exposure, And

Political Attitudes." Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell) 88.3 (2007): 707-728.

Academic Search Complete. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.

“News Audiences Increasingly Politicized.” People Press. Pew Research Center, 8 June 2004.

Web. 14 April 2016.

Surlin, Stuart H., and Thomas F. Gordon. Selective Exposure and Retention Of Political

Advertising: A Regional Comparison. N.p.: 1974. ERIC. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.

RESEARCH POSTER PRESENTATION DESIGN © 2015

www.PosterPresentations.com

Baz Luhrmann’s 2013 ostentatious adaptation of F. Scott

Fitzgerald's great American novel, The Great Gatsby, is often

assessed as a failure along with prior The Great Gatsby films.

However, despite mixed critical and audience reception, some

identified the film as an artistic feat. This research questions

how Luhrmann’s version differs from the previous film versions

of the novel by applying Jean Baudrillard’s Simulacra and

Simulation to the 1974, 2000, and 2013 versions of The Great

Gatsby movies and analyzing that application in relation to the

film’s critical backlash. Baudrillard’s theory in Simulacra and

Simulation explains that symbols repeat themselves but do not

share a common meaning—confusing an individual’s perception

of reality and fantasy and creating a hyperreal. The simulacra

trend makes it impossible for humans to distinguish reality from

fantasy. Does Luhrmann’s film artistically mimic the previous

films, represent the original novel, or stand alone? The

application of the theory suggests that The Great Gatsby (2013)

is not a part of simulation; rather, it is a representation that

celebrates the adaptation process. Applying Simulacra and

Simulation productively explains varied receptions of The Great

Gatsby movies over time and, ultimately, provides criteria to

analyze film adaptations as a whole.

Abstract

The socioeconomic parallels between the 1920s and 2000s

create similar exigencies for the novel and the 2013 film. In

2008, Luhrmann told Mark Naglazas of The Toronto Star, “The

Great Gatsby is the perfect allegory for our own gilded age, a

devastating dissection of the materialism, the excess and the

spiritual emptiness that lead to the economic apocalypse from

which the world is still struggling to recover.” Fitzgerald’s

novel served as a socioeconomic commentary when it was

published in 1925, right before the Great Depression. The early

2000s were gradually leading to the Great Recession in 2008.

Luhrmann recognized the similarities between the Great

Depression and the Great Recession, and he wanted to use The

Great Gatsby story as a mirror. However, the previous films

ignored the exigency for the novel, resulting in a shallow

adaptation of the novel. In fact, the 1974 version romanticized

the 1920s, presenting it as a happier decade in American history.

Exigence for Novel and 2013 FilmLuhrmann incorporated Fitzgerald’s original symbols into his film,

once again separating his film from earlier versions.

• For example, the eyes of Dr. T.J. Eckleberg, a multilayered

symbol, superficially represents God watching down on

immoral people. However, the eyes also represent the failures

of capitalism and the death of the American dream.

• In the novel, Myrtle’s death represents the inability to escape

the lower class. Similarly, in the 2013 film when Myrtle is

struck by Gatsby’s gold car (which represents wealth), she flies

in front of the eyes in slow motion to underscore the underlying

meaning Fitzgerald’s readers understood.

The films prior to the 2013 version interpreted the novel in a

bubble, ignored Fitzgerald’s socio-economic commentary, lost the

multi-layered symbolism that Gatsby is so famous for, and resulted

in water-downed versions of the original.

Symbolism ConclusionJean Baudrillard explains the consequences of simulacra's

repetition of symbols: the symbols risk losing their original

meanings—and thus their identity. Jay Gatsby, for example,

struggles to retain his identity as he repeatedly, and unsuccessfully,

attempts to recreate himself throughout his pursuit of Daisy

Buchanan. In creating his new identity, Gatsby’s original persona is

lost—creating a simulacrum within the plot of novel. The 2013

film does not, however, fall into the same simulacrum pattern as

the prior movies because it adheres to the original novel and at the

same time, updates the exigence by paralleling the social and

economic climates of the 1920s to early 2000s. The 2013

adaptation suggests we continue reading—and watching—The

Great Gatsby because it still applies to us today. The message need

not change; the application of the message to the twenty-first

century needs to be repackaged. Although critics debate the film’s

ostentatious additions, Luhrmann welcomes the discussion and

considers his film a success because of the ongoing conversation.

This debate also reveals a transition towards acceptance of

contemporary revisions of classics. However, many audiences feel

they can only trust “traditional” portrayals of the novel—leaving

them more susceptible to falling into the hyperreal. This study

suggests The Great Gatsby (2013) is a truer representation of the

novel that maintains the artificiality of the prior films because of

the parallel exigencies between the film and the novel enhanced by

the cinematics and symbols. Luhrmann is not trying to repeat the

past, old sport…rather, he is celebrating the adaption process.

ReferencesBaudrillard, Jean. Simulations. New York: Semiotext Columbia

University, 1983

Berardinelli, James. "Great Gatsby, The (Australia/United States,

2013)." Review of The Great Gatsby (2013). ReelViews, May

9, 2013. Accessed April 11, 2016.

Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. New York: Scribner, 2013.

Naglazas, Mark. “Gatsby’s Great Comeback.” West Australian,

May 4, 2013.

Poster, Mark. "Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings." The Journal of

Aesthetics and Art Criticism 47, no. 1 (1989): 102. Accessed

February 20, 2016.

Scott, A. O. "Shimmying Off the Literary Mantle: 'The Great

Gatsby,' Interpreted by Baz Luhrmann." Review of The Great

Gatsby (2013). The New York Times, May 9, 2013. Accessed

April 11, 2016.

The Great Gatsby. Directed by Jack Clayton. Performed by Robert

Redford and Mia Farrow. Hollywood, CA: Paramount

Communications, 1974.

The Great Gatsby. Directed by Baz Luhrmann. Performed by

Leonardo DiCaprio, Carey Mulligan, and Tobey Maguire.

Burbank CA: Warner Bros. Entertainment, 2013.

Cinematics and Modern ElementsThe contemporary elements in the 2013 version prove the film is

not attempting to be the novel; rather, it is a self-aware product of

the twenty-first century, and therefore not a part of simulacra.

• Luhrmann created a twenty-first century Gatsby. He did not

intend remake the twentieth century Gatsby, but he wanted the

audience to react and learn from the story just as Fitzgerald’s

original audience did. The effect of the original novel translated

over into the modern day through Luhrmann’s film. The Great

Gatsby book was risqué and not immediately well-received.

• Fishing for a similar reaction to reveal the film’s social and

economic message, Luhrmann integrated ostentatious elements

specific to the twenty-first century, such as music by Jay Z and

Beyoncé, and exaggerated events from the novel, such as

turning a party into a modern-day orgy.

• Recall that the Disneyland Park is a “good appearance” because

we don’t confuse it with reality; the park embraces the fact that

it is a symbol and a representation. Using contemporary

cinematics, Luhrmann maintains the artificiality of the Gatsby

legacy by playing the “Disneyland role.”

Viewers are able to easily distinguish the elements of the film that

are Luhrmann’s and that which belong to the original novel. The

other, less successful, films attempt to hide these differences,

which Baudrillard argues is more “dangerous” because it skews

their perception of the original artifact.

Of Course, You Can Repeat the Past, Old Sport:An Application of Jean Baudrillard’s Simulacra and Simulation

to Baz Luhrmann’s The Great Gatsby (2013)

Simulacra DefinedBaudrillard’s definition of simulacra helps assess the adaptations

of The Great Gatsby. According to his theory, symbols frequently

repeat themselves, straying from their original meanings. The

result, according to Mark Poster, translating Simulacra and

Simulation, is a “world... that has no reference to a ‘reality’ other

than its own referential signs…, bypassing any distinction

between ‘real’ and ‘unreal’.” The result is the “hyperreal.”

Symbols today no longer relate to the original source; rather, they

are reflections of the symbols preceding themselves. The cross is

one example. Baudrillard argues that these individual realities

exist together. Baudrillard’s four stages of simulacra can be

applied to elucidate audience reactions to The Great Gatsby films.

Audience Reception of the FilmsDiffering receptions of the various films suggest that

Luhrmann’s film is set apart from its predecessors. The films

prior to The Great Gatsby (2013) had unanimously negative

votes, criticized for being dry and for focusing too much on the

relationships between Jay and Daisy and between Nick and

Jordan. In 1974, audiences were excited that Robert Redford

played Jay Gatsby; however, after viewing the film, audiences

indicated he did not meet their expectations. The audiences’

criticism of the 2013 film, on the other hand, was divided

equally in favor and in opposition. A debate connected the

relationship between modern film and classic literature,

discussing Leonardo DiCaprio’s interpretation of Jay Gatsby.

• A. O. Scott of The New York Times said "[DiCaprio] is

beautiful…and desperate; in exactly the way Gatsby should

be.”

• Film critic James Berardinelli claimed “DiCaprio's

performance is…far from the definitive interpretation of Jay

Gatsby.”

Clearly, DiCaprio’s portrayal of Gatsby sparked a meaningful

conversation—which was Luhrmann’s goal.Maintaining artificiality, a specific concept within Baudrillard’s

theory, is placing an obviously fake representation next to other

symbols to make them look more real. External aspects

integrated into society maintain the artificiality of other symbols

and plunge the world deeper into the hyperreal. Disneyland Park

is an example of maintaining artificiality. In the park, visitors are

well aware they are in a “fantasy world,” so they assume the city

outside the park’s walls is reality. However, Baudrillard argues,

Los Angeles is more fake than Disneyland because it attempts to

hide the symbolism that exists, while Disneyland embraces it.

Maintaining artificiality, according to Baudrillard, masks

simulacra but also determines a “proper representation,”

consisting of self-awareness and celebrating that the adaptation is

a re-creation—not the original.

Maintaining Artificiality: The Disney Land Park

Greek Cross Latin Cross Crucifix

Lois Ann Suter

The Honors College at Lone Star College - Tomball

Fig. 2: Political Cartoon Relating the Great Recession to the Great Depressionhttp://www.keyword-suggestions.com/c3RvY2sgbWFya2V0IGNyYXNoIGNhcnRvb24/

Fig. 6: Book Coverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Gatsby

Fig. 7: 1974 Film Coverhttps://vanityvintageallure.wo

rdpress.com/2013/08/17/

Fig. 8: 2013 Film Coverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Gatsby_(2013_film)

Fig. 4: The Eyes of Dr. T.J. Eckleberghttps://www.thinglink.com/scene/505569456001384450

Fig. 1: Evolution of The Crosshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross

Fig. 3: Comparison of Actors in the 1974 film (left) and the 2013 film (right)http://www.whiskeyriff.com/2016/01/20/7/leonardo-dicaprio-the-great-gatsby-movie-wallpapers/

Fig. 5: Females At Jay Gatsby’s Party In 1974 Film (Left) And 2013 Film (Right)http://alf-img.com/show/gatsby-1974-party.html https://diversionsjournal.wordpress.com/2013/05/12/