Upload
hannah-marshall
View
224
Download
2
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Homeostasis.Homeostasis.
Definition: Processes by which bodily equilibrium is maintained constant.
Examples of Bodily homeostasis:» temperature»blood pressure»heart rate»blood glucose level, etc.»body fluid composition
BODY FLUID BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTSCOMPARTMENTS
General Goal:
To describe the major body fluid compartments, and the general processes involved in movement of water between extracellular and intracellular compartments.
The Body as an Open The Body as an Open SystemSystem “Open System”. The body
exchanges material and energy with its surroundings.
Water IngestionWater Ingestion
Drinking (1.4 L/day). Water contained in Food
(0.85L/day). Metabolism ----> CO2 and H2O
(0.35 L/day).
Water EliminationWater Elimination
Urinary loss (1.5 L/day). Fecal loss (0.2 L/day). Insensible H2O loss (0.9 L/day) Sweat Losses. Pathological losses.
vascular bleeding (H20, Na+)
vomiting (H20, H+)
diarrhea (H20, HCO3-).
Electrolyte (NaElectrolyte (Na++, K, K++, Ca, Ca++
++) Steady State.) Steady State. Amount Ingested = Amount
Excreted. Normal entry: Mainly ingestion in
food. Clinical entry: Can include
parenteral administration.
Electrolyte lossesElectrolyte losses
Renal excretion. Stool losses. Sweating. Abnormal routes: e.g.. vomit and
diarrhea.
Metabolized Substances.Metabolized Substances.
Chemically altered substances must also be in balance
Balance sheet: conservation between substrates and end products.
Compartment.Compartment.
DEFINITION. A non-specific term to refer to a region in the body with a unique chemical composition or a unique behavior.
Distribution of substances within the body is NOT HOMOGENEOUS.
Compartment Properties.Compartment Properties.
Can be spatially dispersed. Separated by membranes Epithelial (or endothelial) barriers
(cells joined by tight junctions)
Gram Molecular Weight Gram Molecular Weight (GMW).(GMW).
Mole (mol) (6.02x1023 molecules). Atomic weight in grams Molecules: sum atomic weight
individual atoms.
Physiological Molecular Physiological Molecular WeightsWeights
ATOMICSUBSTANCE
Gram Molecular Weight (g/mol)
MOLECULE Gram MolecularWeight (g/mol)
Sodium (Na) 22.99 Bicarbonate ( HCO3- ) 61.02
Potassium (K) 39.10 Phosphate, monobasic ( H2PO4- ) 96.99
Calcium (Ca ) 40.08 Phosphate, dibasic (HPO42- ) 95.98
Magnesium (Mg) 24.31 Phosphate (PO43- ) 94.97
Chlorine (Cl) 35.45 Ammonia ( NH3) 17.03
Phosphorous (P) 30.97 Ammonium ( NH4+ ) 18.04
Carbon (C) 12.01 Glucose ( C6 H12O6 ) 180.16
Hydrogen (H) 1.008 Urea ( H2NCONH2) 60.06
Oxygen (O) 16.00 B.U.N. ( N2 ) 28.02
Nitrogen (N) 14.01
Percent Concentrations:Percent Concentrations: (Solute / Solvent) x (Solute / Solvent) x
100100 Body solvent is H2O
1 ml weighs 1 g. (weight/volume) percentages (w/v). (weight/weight) percentages (w/w). Clinical chemistries: mg % or mg / dl.
Molarity (M).Molarity (M).
Concentration expressed as: moles per liter of solution.
Symbol “M” means moles/liter not moles.
Physiological concentrations are low.» millimolar (mM) = 10-3 M» micromolar (M) = 10-6 M» nanomolar (nM) = 10-9 M» picomolar (pM) = 10-12 M
Electrochemical Electrochemical Equivalence (Eq).Equivalence (Eq).
Equivalent -- weight of an ionic substance in grams that replaces or combines with one gram (mole) of monovalent H+ ions.
Physiological Concentration:milliequivalent.
Electrochemical Electrochemical Equivalence (Eq). Equivalence (Eq).
Monovalent Ions (Na+, K+, Cl-): One equivalent is equal to one GMW. 1 milliequivalent = 1 millimole
Divalent Ions (Ca++, Mg++, and HPO4
2-) One equivalent is equal to one-half a
GMW. 1 milliequivalent = 0.5 millimole
Complications in Complications in Determining Plasma Determining Plasma
Concentrations.Concentrations. Incomplete dissociation (e.g. NaCl). Protein binding (e.g. Ca++) Plasma volume is only 93% water.
The other 7% is protein and lipid. »Hyperlipidemia»Hyperproteinemia.
III. Distribution and III. Distribution and Composition of Body Fluid Composition of Body Fluid
CompartmentsCompartments
Fig 2: Body Water Fig 2: Body Water DistributionDistribution
CELL WATERCELL WATER36% 25 L
ECFECF24% 17 L
RBC
DENSE CONNECTIVE
4.5% 3 L
BONE
3% 2 L
INTERSTITIALFLUID
COMPARTMENT
11.5% 8 L
PLASMA WATER
4.5% 3 L
TRANSCELLULAR WATER
1.5% 1 L
Input
Total Body WaterTotal Body Water
Individual variability
= f(lean body mass) 55 - 60% of body weight in adult
males 50 - 55% of body weight in adult
female ~42 L For a 70 Kg man.
Extracellular Water vs. Extracellular Water vs. Intracellular WaterIntracellular Water
Intracellular fluid ~36% of body weight 25 L in a 70 Kg man.
Extracellular fluid ~24% of body weight 17 L in a 70 Kg man.
Major Extracellular Fluid Major Extracellular Fluid Compartments (11L of Compartments (11L of
ECF)ECF) Plasma (blood minus the red and white cells) ~3 L in a 70 Kg man ~4.5% of body weight.
Interstitial space (between organ cells) ~8 L in a 70 Kg man ~11.5% of body weight.
Minor Extracellular Minor Extracellular Compartments (6 L of Compartments (6 L of
ECF)ECF) Bone and dense connective tissue Transcellular water (secretions)
digestive secretions intraocular fluid cerebrospinal fluid sweat synovial fluid.
Blood is Composed of Cells Blood is Composed of Cells and Plasma.and Plasma.
Hematocrit (Hct). Fraction of blood that is cells. Often expressed as percentage.
Plasma volume = Blood volume x (1-
Hct).
Ingress and EgressIngress and Egress
Plasma water Ingested nutrients pass through plasma
on way to cells Cellular waste products pass through
plasma before elimination Interstitial space.
Direct access point for almost all cells of the body
Exception -- red and white blood cells
Solute Overview:Solute Overview: Intracellular vs. Intracellular vs. ExtracellularExtracellular Ionic composition very different Total ionic concentration very
similar Total osmotic concentrations
virtually identical
0
100
200
300
400
Protein
Organic Phos.
Inorganic Phos.
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Magnesium
Calcium
Potassium
Sodium
Figure 3: Summary of Figure 3: Summary of Ionic compositionIonic composition
InterstitialH2O
PlasmaH2O
CellH2O
IV. PROTEINS, OSMOTIC IV. PROTEINS, OSMOTIC CONCEPTS, DONNAN CONCEPTS, DONNAN MEMBRANE EQUILIBRIUM MEMBRANE EQUILIBRIUM
Net Osmotic Force Net Osmotic Force DevelopmentDevelopment
Semipermeable membrane. Movement some solute obstructed. H2O (solvent) crosses freely. End point:
Water moves until solute concentration on both sides of the membrane is equal.
OR, an opposing force prevents further movement.
Osmotic Pressure (Osmotic Pressure (). ).
The force/area tending to cause water movement.
SS
S
S S S
S S SS
S
S S
p
Osmotic Concentration.Osmotic Concentration.
Proportional to the number of osmotic particles formed.
Assuming complete dissociation: 1.0 mole of NaCl forms a 2.0 osmolar
solution in 1L. 1.0 mole of CaCl2 forms a 3.0 osmolar
solution in 1L.
Osmotic ConcentrationOsmotic Concentration
Physiological concentrations: milliOsmolar units most appropriate. 1 mOSM = 10-3 osmoles/L
Biological membranes are Biological membranes are not impermeable to all not impermeable to all
solutes. solutes. Endothelial Cell Barriers All ions can freely cross the capillary wall. Only proteins exert important net
osmotic forces. Cell Membrane Barriers
Membrane pumps effectively keep Na+ from entering cells, thus forming a virtual barrier.
Proteins can’t escape the cell interior.
Gibbs-Donnan Membrane Gibbs-Donnan Membrane Equilibrium.Equilibrium.
Proteins are not only large, osmotically active, particles, but they are also negatively charged anions.
Proteins influence the distribution of other ions so that electrochemical equilibrium is maintained.
Figure 5: Donnan’s LawFigure 5: Donnan’s Law The product of Diffusible Ions
is the same on the two sides of a membrane.
33 K+
33 Cl-
67 K+
50 Pr -
17 Cl-Step 2
66 Osmoles 134 Osmoles
50 K+ 50 K+
50 Cl- 50 Pr -Initial
100 Osmoles 100 Osmoles
Final
33 ml 67 ml
33 K+
33 Cl-
67 K+
50 Pr -
17 Cl-
Total Volume100 ml
IonsMove
H2Omoves
Measurement of Body Measurement of Body Fluid CompartmentsFluid Compartments
Based on concentration in a well-mixed compartment:
Concentration =Amount Injected
Volume of Distribution
Measurement of Body Measurement of Body Fluid CompartmentsFluid Compartments
Requires substance that distributes itself only in the compartment of interest.
Vd =Amount Injected - Amount Excreted
Concentration after Equilibrium
Total Body Water (TBW)Total Body Water (TBW)
Deuterated water (D2O) Tritiated water (THO) Antipyrine
Extracellular Fluid Volume Extracellular Fluid Volume (ECFV)(ECFV)
Labeled inulin Sucrose Mannitol Sulfate
Compartments with no Compartments with no Compartment-Specific Compartment-Specific
SubstanceSubstance Determine by subtraction:
Intracellular Fluid Volume (ICFV).ICFV = TBW - ECFV
Interstitial Fluid Volume (ISFV).ISFV = ECFV - PV
VI. PRINCIPLES OF HVI. PRINCIPLES OF H22O O MOVEMENT BETWEEN MOVEMENT BETWEEN BODY COMPARTMENTSBODY COMPARTMENTS
Intracellularvs.
Extracellular
Principles of Body Water Principles of Body Water Distribution.Distribution.
Body control systems regulate ingestion and excretion: constant total body water constant total body osmolarity
Osmolarity is identical in all body fluid compartments (steady state conditions) Body water will redistribute itself as
necessary to accomplish this.
Intra-ECF Water Intra-ECF Water RedistributionRedistribution
Plasma vs. InterstitiumPlasma vs. Interstitium Balance of Starling Forces acting across the capillary membrane. osmotic forces hydrostatic forces
Discussed in more detail later in course
Intracellular Fluid VolumeIntracellular Fluid Volume ICFV altered by: changes in
extracellular fluid osmolarity. ICFV NOT altered by: iso-osmotic
changes in extracellular fluid volume.
ECF undergoes proportional changes in: Interstitial water volume Plasma water volume
Primary Disturbance:Primary Disturbance: Increased ECF Osmolarity Increased ECF Osmolarity
Water moves out of cells ICF Volume decreases (Cells shrink) ICF Osmolarity increases
Total body osmolarity remains higher than normal. (Of Course, because...)
Primary Disturbance:Primary Disturbance: Decreased ECF Decreased ECF
OsmolarityOsmolarity Water moves into the cells ICF Volume increases (Cells swell) ICF Osmolarity decreases
Total body osmolarity remains lower than normal. (Of Course, because...)
Plasma Osmolarity Plasma Osmolarity Measures ECF OsmolarityMeasures ECF Osmolarity
Plasma is clinically accessible. Dominated by [Na+] and the
associated anions Under normal conditions, ECF
osmolarity can be roughly estimated as:
POSM = 2 [Na+]p 270-290 mOSM
Clinical Laboratory Clinical Laboratory Measurement.Measurement.
Includes contributions from glucose and urea.
Contribution from glucose and urea normally small. Glucose normally 60-100 mg/dl BUN normally 10-20 mg/dl
Effective Osmolarity.Effective Osmolarity.
Urea (BUN) crosses cell membranes just as easily as water. [BUN]E = [BUN]i
No effect on water movement
Effective Osmolarity.Effective Osmolarity.
P (effective) 2 [Na ][glucose]
18
P (effective) = P (measured)BUN
2.8
OSM
OSM OSM
Osmolar Gap.Osmolar Gap.
Posm (measured) - Posm (calculated) Suggests the presence of an
unmeasured substance in blood. e.g. following ingestion of a foreign
substance (methanol, ethylene glycol, etc.)
VII. EXAMPLE VII. EXAMPLE CALCULATIONSCALCULATIONS
Strategy for solving infusion problems
Use for Workshop
VIII. Common Clinical VIII. Common Clinical Conditions Affecting Body Conditions Affecting Body
Water and ElectrolytesWater and Electrolytes
Read on your own Relate to the Principles we have
discussed
SOLUTIONS USED SOLUTIONS USED CLINICALLY FOR VOLUME CLINICALLY FOR VOLUME REPLACEMENT THERAPYREPLACEMENT THERAPY
Types of SolutionsTypes of Solutions
Isotonic Solutions --> n.c. ICF Hypertonic Solutions --> Decrease
ICF Hypotonic --> Increase ICF
Dextrose SolutionsDextrose Solutions
Glucose is rapidly metabolized to CO2 + H2O.
The volume therefore is distributed intracellularly as well as extracellularly.
Saline solutions.Saline solutions.
Come in a variety of concentrations: hypotonic (eg., 0.2%), isotonic (0.9%), and hypertonic (eg. 5%).
Dextrose in Saline.Dextrose in Saline.
Again available in various concentrations.
Used for simultaneous volume replacement and caloric supplement.