HOLY SPIRIT SEMINARY COLLEGE

OF THEOLOGY & PHILOSOPHY

Member College of PONTIFICAL URBANIANA UNIVERSITY

Institute of Religious Sciences

A Book Report on “Models of the Church”

by Cardinal Avery Dulles, S.J.

KWOK CHI KEUNG (10908)

RD306 Course Paper

Lecturer: Sr. Maria Goretti Lau, SPB

HONG KONG Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary, 2011.

I. Introduction

The Second Vatican Council is a watershed in many senses. The most

conspicuous change the world witnesses is the bold experiment of

liturgical reform. Lesser known to the laity is the mushrooming of no less

bold theological opinions on various topics. Bracing the danger of

oversimplifying the scene, the present author is of the opinion that before

Vatican II, theology was done in a top-down manner. Afraid of raising

heresies, theologians of various branches began with universally valid

theses to deduce more valid theses. Consequently, theology became a

huge artifact, abstract and dry. Thank God, the Vatican II had opened the

windows of the Church to let in the Holy Spirit whose breath raises the

dry bones to their feet, forming an exceedingly great host of theologians

(Ezekiel 37:10). Nowadays, most theologians take another route, a

bottom-up route, to do theology. They begin with concrete data which

they attentively experience in their daily life; try to intelligently

understand the data, reasonably reflect on the judgment reached and

responsibly decide the actions to take 1.

II. A brief biography of Cardinal Avery Dulles, S.J.

Cardinal Avery Robert Dulles, S.J. (1918-2008) was raised a Presbyterian

and converted to Catholicism in the fall of 1940. He entered the Society

of Jesus and was ordained in 1956. He was created a cardinal in 2001 by

Pope John Paul II. He spent most of his time teaching theology, authoring

more than 700 articles on theological topics and twenty-two books. He

served as president both of the Catholic Theological Society of America

and American Theological Society and Professor Emeritus at the Catholic

1 Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology , pp. 15

1

University of America. He also served on the International Theological

Commission and as a member of the United States Lutheran/Roman

Catholic Dialogue and received many awards. 2 This outstanding CV

explains the inclusivity of his theological views and the systematic style

of his writings.

His interest in ecclesiology did not stop at the writing of Community of

Disciples as a Model of Church (1986) 3, an article that appears 12 years

after publishing the first edition of Models of the Church . He continued to

publish books such as The Catholicity of the Church (1987), The Priestly

Office: A Theological Reflection (1997) and Magisterium: Teacher and

Guardian of the Faith (2007) to further develop the ideas he touched upon

in the present book. He also wrote articles to meet different audiences on

topics about the Church, for professional theologians in 1989 4 and for

laymen in 2004 5.

III. Model as a methodology

Cardinal Avery chose “model” as a methodology to approach ecclesiology.

Nine years later, he did the same on the topic of revelation. Using models

seems to be a trend in those days.

To study concrete physical things, we are able to describe them without

ambiguity. Colours, number, length, location, shapes, smell, sounds,

texture and weight etc. are attributes we are able to perceive. However,

2 Avery Dulles, Wikipedia . 3 Avery Dulles, “Community of Disciples as a Model of Church”, Philosophy &

Theology , vol .1, no. 2, Fall 1986, pp. 99-120 4 Avery Dulles, “A Half Century of Ecclesiology”, Theological Studies , 1989,

pp. 419-442 5 Avery Dulles, “A Eucharist ic Church”, America the National Catholic Weekly ,

December 20, 2004.

2

when we study intangible objects, i t is difficult to be free from

misunderstanding when we try to communicate our ideas. We resort to

using images. In theology, we employ a lot of images and symbols in our

discussions. Even then, we cannot guarantee that our audience

understands what we mean them to understand.

Model is an ideal type of images. It is useful in guiding investigation, in

framing hypotheses, and in writing descriptions. 6

IV. A summary of the 5 models

Cardinal Avery was an experienced professor of theology. The books he

wrote are highly structured like textbooks. “Models of the Church” is no

exception. In this book, he summarizes the major contributions of both

Catholic and Protestant theologians in ecclesiology and classifies them

into five models. To compare the models, he puts up three sociological

questions and explains how each model deals with them. The three

questions are:

… the bonds that unify the Church, the benef iciar ies that are

served by the Church, and the nature o f the benef i ts bestowed by

the Church. 7

As for the third question, he later clarifies that he meant the goals of the

Church. 8 Then he gives his opinions on the strengths and weaknesses of

each model. For a sociological analysis of the models, refer to a summary

table on page 8. For a summary of strengths and weaknesses, refer to pp

9-10.

6 Bernard Lonergan, Methods in Theology , pg. 285 7 Avery Dulles, Models of the Church , pg. 40. 8 Ibid , pg. 58

3

A) The Church as Institution

Advocates : St. Bellarmine (1542-1621) and numerous popes between

Vatican I and Vatican II.

In order to perform its mission, the Church needs some stable

organizational features. Without them, the Church cannot unite men

of many nations into a community of conviction, commitment and

hope. Without them, the Church cannot serve the needs of mankind. 9

Bishop Emile De Smedt of Bruges characterized the Institutional

Model of the Church with clericalism, juridicism and triumphalism. 10

Authority is hierarchical. All power is conceived as descending from

the pope through the bishops and priests, thus clericalism. Such a

view of authority is also juridicist. It models on the pattern of

jurisdiction in the secular state and greatly amplifies the place of law

and penalties. Such an ecclesiology is triumphalistic. The Church is

looked on as an army fighting against Satan and the powers of evil. It

also attaches crucial importance to the action of Christ in establishing

the offices and sacraments that presently exist in the Church. The

dogmas of the Church were affirmed to be part of the original deposit

of faith, complete with the apostles. Mother and Teacher are images

commonly conjured up in this model. 11

B) The Church as Mystical Communion

Advocates : Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Protestant theologians

like Rudolph Sohm, Emil Brunner and Dietrich Bonhoeffer and some

Catholic theologians like Jérôme Hamer, Yves Congar, Emile Mersch

9 Ibid , pp. 34-35 10 Ib id , pg . 39 11 Catechism of the Catholic Church , #36

4

and Heribert Mühlen.

Dissatisfied with the formal organization model of the Church, they

turn to the informal aspect. The Church is a communion. There is the

horizontal dimension of fellowship between man and man. There is

also the vertical dimension of the divine life disclosed in the

incarnate Christ and communicated to men through the Holy Spirit .

Such a model conjures up the images of the Body of Christ 12 and the

People of God 13. The Mystical Body of Christ image has a long

history and was re-affirmed by Pope Pius XII in 1943 and he stated

that the Mystical Body is identical with the Roman Catholic Church.

Lumen Gentium of Vatican II shifts the paradigm to the People of God

and does not assert that the Mystical Body is coterminous with the

Roman Catholic Church. The People of God is a Spirit-filled

community and is not exclusively identified with any given societal

organization, not even the Roman Catholic Church. It is more

democratic in tendency and emphasizes the immediate relationship

with the Holy Spirit who directs the whole Church. The People of

God image differs from the Mystical Body of Christ in that it allows

for a greater distance between the Church and its divine head.

Members are individually free. It stresses the continual mercy of God

and continual need of the Church for repentance. The Church is both

holy and sinful, needing repentance and reform.

However, this People of God variant of this model is rather

egotistical and monopolistic. How can any particular group of men

affirm that they, and they alone, are God’s own people? This model is

12 Ibid , #737 13 Ibid , #839

5

also old-fashioned because it is a metaphor of a military and political

treaty entered into between a suzerain state and a vassal state in the

ancient Near East.

The Mystical Body variant is in danger of leading to an unhealthy

divinization of the Church. If the Holy Spirit is the life principle of

the Church, all the actions of the Church would be attributable to the

Holy Spirit . This would obscure the personal responsibili ty and

freedom of the members and make the mistakes made by the Church

unintelligible.

C) The Church as Sacrament

Advocates : Cyprian, Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas; the mystic

Matthias Joseph Scheeben (1835-1888), Henri de Lubac, Karl Rahner

and Otto Semmelroth.

The Sacrament Model takes the best of both models mentioned before.

It is able to deal with the institutional as well as the mystical aspects

of the Church. The Second Vatican Council endorses this model.

Simply put, they start with the basis proposition that Christ is the

sacrament of God, thus the Church which Christ has commissioned to

continue his mission on earth is also a sacrament which is a visible

sign of the invisible grace of God. 14

The theology of sacrament these theologians embrace is not the

traditional top-down type. It starts with the structure of human life.

Man is seen as a polar unity of spirit and flesh. Without contact with

the world through the body, the spirit simply would not actuate itself.

Therefore, the structure of human life is symbolic. The corporal

14 Ibid , #775

6

expression gives the spiritual act the material support it needs in

order to achieve itself; and the spiritual act gives shape and meaning

to the corporal expression. In the supernatural plane, man share in the

divine life in a human way consonantly with his nature as man. This

is done through the sacraments.

As a sacrament, the Church is a historically tangible form of the

redeeming grace of Christ . It is able to trace its l ink back to the

apostolic times, thus historical. It must incarnate itself in every

human culture. Its institutional aspect is essential and visible but it is

also a living community in which God’s grace is at work effectively.

D) The Church as Herald

Advocates : St. Paul, Martin Luther, Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann, his

students Ernst Fuchs and Gerhard Ebeling; and Han Küng.

Most advocates of this model are Protestant and they emphasize faith

and proclamation over interpersonal relations, mystical communions

and sacraments. The basic image is that of the herald of a king who

comes to proclaim a royal decree in a public square. The Church is a

congregation that is gathered together by the Word. However, the

Word of God should never be imprisoned or bracketed by the Church.

The correct attitude is for the Church to point away from itself to the

Lamb of God. The Word of God is not a set of timeless ideas but an

encounter with God. It makes God present here and now. The

post-Bultmannians draw on the philosophy of language of Heidegger

and push the model to its edge by claiming that the “language-event”

of proclamation constitutes the Church.

7

8

E) The Church as Servant

Advocates : Catholic theologians like Teilhard de Chardin, Robert

Adolfs, Eugene Bianchi, Richard McBrien; and Protestants like

Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Gibson Winter, Harvey Cox and John Robinson.

The first four models are flawed in that the outlook is still very

top-down. They give a privileged position to the Church with respect

to the world. The Church is produced by God’s direct action and

stands as a kind of mediator between God and the world. But in

reality, the modern world, through its advances in philosophy, science

and technology, rebels more and more against the teachings of the

Church. In reaction to the situation, the Church took a defensive

stance until Pope John XXIII (1958-63) and Vatican II (1962-65)

when the Catholic Church registers a dramatic change of attitude.

Nowadays, the Church recognizes the legitimate autonomy of human

culture. It seeks to serve the world by fostering the brotherhood of all

men. Since Vatican II, numerous high level Church documents from

both the Catholic and Protestant Churches continue to promote this

servant image of the Church. 15 Theologians make the theology of

servant Christocentric and at the same time, make the Church the

focal point of love in the world.

15 “The Servant Church”, pastoral let ter by Cardinal Cushing of Boston, 1966;

the Presbyterian Confession of 1967; the Uppsala Report of the World Council

of Churches in 1968; the Conclusions of the 2n d General Conference of Latin

American Bishops at Medell in in 1968 and Justice in the World issued by the

Roman Catholic Synod of Bishops in 1971. (pg. 93)

A Summary of a Sociological Analysis of the five models

Institution 16 Communion 17 Sacrament 18 Herald 19 Servant 20

Bond Doctrines,

sacraments, and

duly appointed

pastors

Grace and gifts of

the Holy Spirit

All social and

visible signs of the

grace of Christ

Faith and

proclamation of

the gospel

The sense of

brotherhood among

those joining

Christian services

Beneficiaries All church

members

Membership is

spiritual

Active members of

the Church

Those who hear the

Word of God

People who receive

comfort or material

help

Goals To give members

eternal life

To lead men into

communion with

the divine.

To purify and

intensify men’s

response to the

grace of God.

To summon men to

put their faith in

Jesus as their

Saviour

To actualize the

Kingdom of God

on earth

16 Models of the Church , pp. 40-42 17 Ibid , pp. 57-58 18 Ibid , pp. 72-73 19 Ibid , pp. 83-84 20 Ibid , pp.97-98

9

A Summary of the Strengths of the five models

Institution Communion Sacrament Herald Servant

Strengths Is endorsed in

official Church

documents

Gives a strong

sense of

corporate

identity21

Has better scriptural

and tradition basis

Is ecumenically

fruitful

Agrees with official

teaching

Revivifies

spirituality and life

of prayer

Meets the human

need of

belongingness22

Supports the best of

the 2 previous

models

Solves problems

where they fail

Gives ample scope

to the workings of

grace

Integrates smoothly

with other

theological themes

Makes room for

honest criticisms

towards the Church23

Has good biblical

foundation and

prophetic tradition

Gives a clear sense of

identity and mission

Encourages a

spirituality that focuses

on God’s sovereignty

Gives rise to a very

rich theology of the

word24

Enables the Church to

re-engage with the

world

Brings about a

spiritual renewal

within the Church

Shows the world

what the Church

alone can give

Encourages prophetic

criticism of social

institutions25

21 Ibid , pp. 42-43 22 Ibid , pp. 58-59 23 Ibid , pp. 73-74 24 Ibid , pp. 84-85 25 Ibid , pp. 98-99

10

11

A summary of the Weaknesses of the five models

Institution Communion Sacrament Herald Servant

Weaknesses Has little basis

in scripture and

tradition

Suffers

clericalism,

juridicism

Hinders

development of

fruitful theology

Hinders

dialogue26

Exalts and divinizes

the Church

Gives a vague sense

of identity or mission

Is the Church a social

network or a mystical

communion of

grace27

Little basis in

scripture

Induces an

attitude of

narcissistic

aestheticism28

Neglects the

incarnational aspect

of Christian

revelation

Neglects a

communion of life

and love

Focuses too

exclusively on

witness to the

neglect of action29

Lacks direct biblical

foundation

The concept of

“servant” is ambiguous

Doubtful if the Church

has the mandate to

transform the world into

the Kingdom of God

The Kingdom of God is

not a collection of

abstract values. 30

26 Ibid , pg. 43-45 27 Ibid , pp. 59-61 28 Ibid , pp. 74-75 29 Ibid , pp. 85-87 30 Ibid , pp. 99-102

V. Testing the Models

Models don’t just describe the phenomena under study. They also

generate hypotheses to explain the phenomena. Therefore, their strengths

can best be shown by how well they are able to explain. Cardinal Avery

tests these five models with five theological topics, viz. eschatology, the

true Church, the relation between the Church and the churches, ministry

and revelation.

A) The Church and eschatology

Cardinal Avery disagrees with theologians who stress too much the

separation of a this-worldly, man-made institution with the Kingdom

of God at the end of times. They opine that after serving her purpose

and finishing her pilgrimage, the Church would cease to exist when

the Kingdom is finally actualized. Avery enlists the teachings of the

Scripture, the Church Fathers, the Scholasticists and Vatican II to

insist on the eschatological dimension of the Church. However, there

are at least five different types of eschatology. 31 Due to the limitation

of space, Avery chose to focus on the partially realized eschatology

which practically all Christians embrace.

According to the Institutional Model , Christ has left behind the

threefold deposit of doctrine, ministry and sacraments to the Church.

This deposit is an eschatological gift . The Church is eschatological

insofar as she brings men to their ultimate goal in heaven. Therefore,

as a means of grace, there is no real place for the Church in the final

consummation. This model does not mention heavenly Church.

31 Ibid , pg. 105

12

The Mystical Communion Model agrees with an inaugurated

eschatology. The mystical communion begins on earth and is

consummated in heaven. The Church is the pilgrim people of God stil l

on the way to its completion. Therefore, the Church reaches its

fullness in the life beyond. The Church on earth is an anticipation of

the Church in heaven. However, the question of continuity is not yet

settled. Some people still look upon the final parousia as a

catastrophic and discontinuous event.

The Sacramental Model sees the Church as the mystery or

sacramental presence of the ultimate, consummated Kingdom. She

must continually labours to become a credible sign of the future glory

to which it points. Again, the question whether the Church will

continue when history comes to a close cannot be settled with this

model. Some theologians hold that the sacraments will cease because

we shall have open access to the grace they represent. However, some

hold that it is possible that the life of grace will still be expressed and

communicated in visible embodiments. Only the ambiguity and

discrepancy between the symbols and the effects will be removed.

Man’s experience of God will presumably be expressed through a

network of tangible and social signs which constitute the heavenly

Church as sacrament.

Herald is eschatological. The Church announces the arrival of the

last times and it helps to prepare for the final consummation. The

Church Fathers and the Scholastic Doctors have always connected the

Christian mission with eschaton. Preaching which evokes the

response of faith is the event that constitutes the Church. Thus

constituted, the Church is i tself an eschatological reality. The Word

13

the Church preaches saves those who respond to it and condemns

those that fail to respond. This implies heaven and hell. In the end,

there will be no more need to proclaim the Word.

For some theologians of the Servant Model, eschatology is less

important because God is present in the process of history. Serving

the human family by building this world into a better place to live in

is more important than the end. Others think that the hope of the

Kingdom is the motive for actions seeking justice and peace on earth.

The values of human dignity, brotherhood and freedom are both to be

realized within history and fulfilled in the final Kingdom. The task of

the Church is to be a well-spring of prophetic, liberating criticism for

the transformation of the world. 32

Cardinal Avery thinks that instead of passing judgment on the

fruitfulness of each model, we can accept certain points from each of

them. From the Institution Model , the Church helps its own members

work out their salvation by giving them guidance, admonition and

every kind of pastoral and sacramental assistance. From the Mystic

Communion Model , the Church is a place where grace is realized and

lived here on earth in the anticipation of the final Kingdom. From the

Sacramental Model , the Church is a sign of salvation, a sign that

will become clear and unequivocal when the final Kingdom arrives.

From the Herald Model , God’s saving and judging power is already

at work in the Church when she proclaims the coming of the Kingdom.

The Servant Model sees the Church introducing the values of the

Kingdom into the whole of human society, preparing the world for the

final establishment of the new heavens and new earth. Cardinal Avery

32 Ibid pp. 109-119

14

concludes that the final coming of the Kingdom is the work of God. It

will not be the destruction, but fulfillment of the Church which will

be indivisibly united with the renewed cosmos. 33

B) The True Church

Christians believe that the Church is the work of God. It is a mystery

of grace, not knowable independently of faith. Naturally, they are

concerned to make sure that the churches to which they belong are

true ones and efforts have been made to establish criteria for

determining the truth of Christianity. The Nicene-Constantinopolitan

Creed enshrines the basic tenets of what Christians believe in. Since

then, four attributes have been assigned to the Church. It is “one, holy,

catholic and apostolic”. Cardinal Avery shows how each of the five

Church models interprets the four attributes differently.

The Institutional Model understands the four attributes as

characterizing a visible society. Unity is understood as the

subordination of all the faithful to one and the same spiritual

jurisdiction and to one and the same teaching magisterium.

Understood as such, the Church falls victim into a cult of uniformity

that aspires to a single universal language (Latin), a single

theological system (neo-Scholasticism), a single system of worship

(the Roman Rites) and government (Canon Law). Catholicity is

understood as highly visible and measurable in terms of geography

and statistics. Outside the Church, there is no salvation. Holiness is

visible in the sacrifice of the Mass, the sacraments, the vows of

religion, the priestly celibacy and the infallible magisterium. The

Church tends to develop forms of piety that are showy and external. 33 Ibid pp. 120-121

15

Apostolicity is interpreted as something belonging to the institution

as a means of salvation. The retention of the apostolic deposit of

doctrine, sacraments and ministry mean the legitimate succession of

pastors, and the approval of the pastors from Rome. This results in an

excessive concern with legalistic formalities to the neglect of the

spirit and service. 34

The Mystical Communion Model sees the four attributes as qualities

of a living community. Unity is not the external unity of an organized

society but the interior unity of mutual charity leading to a

communion of friends. Holiness is not so much the holiness of means

but the lived holiness of an interior communion with God, pouring

over into communion with one’s fellow men. Catholicity is not

geographical but the dynamic catholicity of a love reaching out to all

and excluding none. Apostolicity is not concerned with the juridical

succession of duly ordained prelates, but the perdurance of the

magnanimity of the spirit that was originally poured forth on the

Church at Pentecost. This spirit drives the Church ceaselessly to

embrace more and more peoples into a diversified unity patterned on

the three divine Persons.

In the Sacramental Model , the Church is a divine sign. The sign of

Christ must be extended in time so that i t becomes definitive and

abiding. The Church of every age must remain in visible continuity

with Christ and the apostolic Church. It must have apostolicity . The

sign of Christ must be extended in space so that i t manifests and

actualizes God’s saving will to men of all regions and ethnic and

cultural groups. That means the Church must be catholic . The sign of

34 Ibid , pp. 127-129

16

Christ should be one that unites men with their fellows. The Church is

called to be a representative sign, one that includes a sufficient

diversity of men. The Church must be characterized by holiness

otherwise it could not be a sign of Christ. Under the leading of the

Holy Spirit , the Church constantly works to purify men from their

sins.

The Herald Model which sees the Church as a community of

proclamation focuses on Christ and the gospel. The gospel is one and

holy . I t is directed to all peoples and thus it is catholic . The gospel is

handed down from the apostles. Therefore, i t is apostolic . Thus as

long as the Church lives off the gospel, it shares these four attributes.

Sacraments such as baptism, Holy Eucharist and ordination are

essential components of the church life. Their administration is seen

as a sign of fidelity to the gospel and an extension, a dramatization of

it . The four attributes are not considered characteristics of a true

Church. Rather, they are gifts that the Holy Spirit bestows on the

Church to live off the gospel.

The Servant Model sees the four attributes as characteristics of the

new creation, the Kingdom of God rather than those of the Church.

The Kingdom of God is a regime of universal brotherhood embracing

all men and the whole of creation. Thus it is one and catholic. It is the

gift of God, uniting men to God. Thus it is holy. It is apostolic in the

sense that it continues what God began in Jesus Christ . The Church,

as the servant of the Kingdom is one as a team collaborating for the

realization of the Kingdom. It is holy insofar as it dedicates itself to

the realization of the Kingdom. It is a catalyst of holiness in the

human community, thus it is catholic . It is apostolic insofar as it

17

continues to labour for the extension of the Lordship of Christ.

In conclusion, the Institutional Model identifies the true Church

undialectically with a given existing body. The other models tend to

depict the attributes as ideals that are incarnated in history. The true

Church is not perfectly realized anywhere on earth. At the end of time,

the Church will be without spot or wrinkle. Vatican II favours a

compromise position. The one true Church of Christ subsists on earth

in the Roman Catholic Church which is i tself an imperfect realization

of the Church of Christ. 35

C) The Divided Church

It is one thing to talk about the unity of the Body of Christ

accommodating a multiplicity of congregation and another to face the

painful reality that there are rival and conflicting denominations

rejecting each other ’s doctrines, ministries and sacraments. Cardinal

Avery puts this issue of the divided Church in perspective in the light

of the five models.

The exclusivist Institutional Model would recognize the legitimate

claim of only one denominational body to be the Church of Christ .

This way of understanding is an obstacle to ecumenism. Therefore,

two variants have arisen to cater for the needs of ecumenical

dialogues. There was the branch theory of the Church in the 19th

century which maintains that the true Church of Christ exists as three

mutually divided communions --- the Roman Catholic, the Orthodox

and the Anglican --- all of which have preserved the apostolic deposit

of faith, sacraments and ministry. This theory was rejected by Pope

35 Ibid , pp. 127-138

18

Pius IX. The second variant holds that the Church of Christ exists

fully in one communion. But it also exists in a real but deficient

manner in other communions. This inclusive institutionalism is

accepted by Vatican II. 36 On this model, there could be no possibility

of organic reunion but only of conversion. 37

The Mystical Communion Model sees the Church wherever the Holy

Spirit is at work, bringing men together into a fellowship of faith and

love. However, Christians have to face the actual divisions among

communities. How can the one and the same Holy Spirit be divided?

In theory, spiritual perfection should correlate positively with

institutional perfection. Surprisingly, the spiritual reality of the

Church will be better achieved by a somewhat deficient institution.

Three factors contribute to this: the Holy Spirit is free to bestow His

graces with greater or less abundance, the individuals and groups are

free to respond less perfectly to the gifts of the Holy Spirit and lastly,

the imperfect implementation of the right institution. Thus division is

inevitable. To achieve reunion, Christians should not look for a

merger of business corporations but a mutual rediscovery of brothers

who have never lost their kinship. 38

The Sacramental Model sees both the sign and the grace aspects of

the Church. Thus conceived, the Roman Catholic Church does not

have the monopoly of being the only sacrament of salvation for the

world. The invisible reality of grace may be realized intensely both

inside and outside the Church. Even on the sign level, Catholicism

36 Ibid, pp. 142-143 37 Ibid , pg. 191 38 Ibid , pp. 144-147

19

cannot deny the salvific presence of Christ in the confession of faith,

the reading of Scripture, the celebration of the sacraments and the

charity service in the name of Christ in other communities. These

non-Roman Catholic communities enjoy a certain sacramental status

when they invoke Christ and worship God in his name. Granted that

they are imperfect realizations of the sacrament of Christ , the

Catholic Church would be self-righteous and impenitent to

overestimate herself to be the Church of Christ . To achieve reunion,

Christians should aim at a restoration of visible communion among

Christian groups that need each other to become more adequately the

sacrament of Christ . 39

The Herald Model is not deeply concerned with visible unity.

Supporters of this model are happy as long as theirs are communities

of faith and witness sustained by the active presence of the Lord.

However, the present dividedness of the churches is proof of their

failure to hear the word of the Lord. Each church must confess that i t

has yet to become, in any satisfactory sense, the Church of Christ. No

one church can be taken as the norm. The only valid norm is the word

of God. Thus the way to unity is Christ. Unity is not achieved through

interchurch negotiation but the continual conversion of each

congregation to Christ. 40

39 Ibid , pp. 148-151 40 Ibid , pp. 152-153

20

The Servant Model sees the Church as an agent for the

transformation of the world according to the pattern of the Kingdom

of God. Thus, Christians of different confessions are drawn together

into a community of action that transcends their present

denominational barriers and paves the way for a richer unity in faith

and worship. Lonergan argues that the Church is a constitutive,

effective and cognitive community. The division between the

churches rests mainly on cognitive factors. Therefore, it is important

for Christians to act together in fulfilling the redemptive and

constructive roles of the Christian church in human society, thus

achieving Christian reunion. 41

To conclude, Cardinal Avery notes that the eschatological dimension

of the Church makes it clear that Christian unity is an eschatological

ideal. Separated Christians must seek to promote authentic unity by

the various routes suggested by each of the five ecclesiological

models. None of these approaches is invalid, non superfluous, and

none by itself sufficient. 42

D) Ecclesiology and Ministry

All Christian communities must have a certain structure to sustain

their existence. There must be office bearers or functionaries who

regularly exercise a special ministry. The Church of every age must

adjust its structures and offices so as to operate effectively in the

social environment it exists. The structure of a Church operating in a

class society must somehow be different from that in a professionally

organized society or in a media-dominated society.

41 Ibid , pg. 156 42 Ibid , pg. 160

21

The Institutional Model sees the Church as a secular State. The

clergy are viewed as the ruling class, ruling by divine right.

Priesthood is viewed primarily in terms of power. This divine power

enables a priest to supply or withhold the means of grace at his

discretion, thus to confer or deny salvation. Modern secularization

and democratization challenge such a system of clericalism. There

arises a strong demand from within and without the Church for a

greater lay participation and co-responsibility on all levels.

The Mystical Communion Model calls for a concept of ministry as

the fostering of fellowship. Pastors are ordained to build the

community, to help the Church develop as a living community of faith.

Ministers are inspirers, moderators and animators in preaching, in the

administration of sacraments and in the service of love.

The Sacramental Model sees the priest as a sacred mediator, a cultic

figure mediating between God and men. The Church actualizes itself

most fully in its sacramental worship and priesthood is the sign and

guarantee of the Eucharistic unity of the Church. Not only is a priest

a guiding pastor and a prophet of the Word of God, he is also the

sacramental representative of the sacrificing Christ. Ordination is a

sacred action and celibacy sets a priest off as an eschatological sign.

However, overemphasizing the sacral concept of priesthood would

easily lead to superstition and a great reliance of laity on priests.

The Herald Model sees the ordained minister primarily as a preacher

rather than an administrator of sacraments. He is a visible extension

of the preached word, or a dramatic expression of the faith of God’s

people. Cardinal Avery insists that the priestly ministry is indivisibly

a ministry of the word of God and the sacraments because both of

22

them are formative of Christian communities. The three traditionally

recognized ministerial functions of preaching, sacramental worship

and communal leadership should all be integrated in any complete

theory of priestly ministry.

The Servant Model sees a priesthood that does not turn inward on the

Church itself, but outward to the larger society of mankind.

Liberation theology stresses the need for priests to identify

themselves with the oppressed in their struggle for liberation. In USA,

political responsibility is part and parcel of a priestly responsibility

and is integral to the mandate to evangelize.

In conclusion, it is not desirable to construct a single tight definition

of priesthood because it involves not only cultic offices but also

prophetic, li turgical, sacred, secular, personal and bureaucratic

offices. Priestly activities touch on all the four traditional functions

of the Church: community, worship, preaching and charity work.

These functions do not exclude one another. A given priest will not be

equally involved in all four.

E) The Church and Revelation

The Church helps people communicate with God. Yet, modern people

find it hard to accept the idea of revelation. Firstly, many traditional

presentations of revelation are mythical. Secondly, people are told

reports of revelation but they do not themselves experience revelation.

Lastly, some feel that the acceptance of revelation impedes dialogue

with philosophers, scientists and the rest of the human family. It is a

complex issue which Cardinal Avery took up nine years later in

another book, Models of Revelation (1983).

23

According to the Institutional Model , the Church is the guardian and

conserver of revelation which is a body of doctrine that have come

down from apostolic times. This highly juridical, authoritarian and

propositional understanding of revelation gives rise to the doctrine of

infallibility. Believers surrender their independent thinking to the

Church and accept whatever the magisterium teaches. Such an

interpretation would engender a certain indifference to the content of

revelation.

The Mystical Communion Model sees revelation as a personal

communion with God. It is the illuminating influence of divine grace

and the Church is a mystical fellowship of grace. Revelation is

identified with grace and faith with the acceptance of grace.

Revelation is an anticipation of the final vision of God. The Holy

Spirit takes on a central role. It opens us up to see life as Jesus saw it .

The revelatory grace opens men up to one another in fellowship.

However, this approach tends toward subjectivism and emotionalism.

The Sacramental Model acknowledges two levels in revelation: the

implicit and the explicit. On the first level, revelation is an ineffable

encounter, a pure experience of grace. It leads to expression through

some kind of visible symbolization in words or deeds, in creed or

sacrament. Thus said, revelation is essentially Christological and

ecclesial. It is Christological because Christ is a symbolic revelation

of God. The Church, as the sacrament of Christ , is also a kind of

concrete revelation of the divine. The perseverance of the Church in

the truth of the gospel gives it a certain qualified infallibility. Such a

sacramental view of revelation may lend itself to aestheticism.

24

The Herald Model designates revelation as the word of God. Barth

holds that the word of God occurs in three forms: the incarnate word,

the written word and the proclaimed word. The Church appears as the

herald or mediator of revelation. Nothing else about the Church is

considered really important. Old Testament scholars hold that

revelation consists chiefly in the mighty acts of God in salvation

history. The Church will always remain a centre of faith and witness.

Bultmann considers revelation as consists in the event of

proclamation itself. It brings about an existential transformation of

the hearer and opens up to him the possibility of authentic existence.

These impacts help Catholics return to a more biblical and

Christocentric theology of revelation. Cardinal Avery warns that this

kerygmatic approach must need inputs from the Mystical Communion

and Sacramental approaches. Otherwise it will become too extrinsic,

too word-centred, too authoritarian and unappreciative of

non-Christian religious experience and too apathetic to the great

events of secular history.

The Servant Model entertains a more cosmic revelation theology.

Christ is the Omega force working throughout creation. Revelation is

viewed on the analogy of an evolutionary force whereby higher states

of consciousness emerge from lower. The content of revelation is the

inbreaking of the divine into history. The role of the Church is not

simply to proclaim the biblical message to the world, but to enter into

dialogue with all men of good will to discern the signs of the times,

judging them in the light of the divine Word. The value of revelation

is to contribute to the realization in the world of the values of the

Kingdom of God: justice, freedom, plenty and brotherhood etc. As

25

Christ was the man for others, so must the Church become fully

altruistic. This model tends to dissolve too much of what is

distinctive to Christianity. To remain recognizably Christian, i t must

include elements from each of the other models.

In conclusion, Cardinal Avery takes up the question of eschatology

again. Allowance is made for the discrepancy between the present

interim situation and the final eschatological fullness of revelation.

For Institutional and Herald Models, the Church ceases to exist and

the heavenly revelation will be an individual encounter with God

independently of the Church. For the Communion Model, the

heavenly Church will be a communion with Christ as head and

vivifier of the Mystical Body. For the Sacramental Model, the Church

in heaven will be a true sacramental presence of revelation. For the

Servant Model, the final encounter will be mediated not simply by the

Church but by the new creation. Whether the eschatological

revelation will be a smooth continuity or a cosmic apocalypse

remains a mystery.

26

VI. An Evaluation of Models

Cardinal Avery proposes seven criteria to evaluate the five models.

They are: basis in Scripture, basis in Christian Tradition, capacity to

give Church members a sense of their corporal identity and mission,

tendency to foster the virtues and values generally admired by

Christians, correspondence with the religious experience of men

today, theological fruitfulness and fruitfulness in enabling Church

members to relate successfully to those outside their group. 43 The

following table summarizes which criterion supports which models.

Criteria Institution Communion Sacrament Herald Servant

Scripture

Tradition

Identity

Values

Experience

Theology

Dialogue

Cardinal Avery remarks that different types of persons will be

attracted to different models and it is imperative at all costs to keep

open the lines of communication between different theological

schools and traditions. He invokes two principles to support a

43 Ibid , pp. 191-192

Cardinal Avery develops a more refined set of cri teria in a lat ter book. They are:

fai thfulness to the Bible and Christ ian Tradition, internal coherence,

plausibil i ty, adequacy to experience, practical fruitfulness, theological

frui tfulness and value for dialogue. (Models of Revelation , 1983, pp. 16-17)

27

reconciling approach. Firstly, what any large group of Christian

believers have confidently held over a considerable period of time

should be accepted. Secondly, men are more apt to be correct in what

they affirm than in what they deny. Assertions implied in each of the

five ecclesiological types are valid. They bring out certain important

and necessary points. But each model suggests different priorit ies.

Taken alone, each could lead to serious imbalances and distortions.

To remedy the Institutional Model, the structures of the Church must

be seen as subordinate to its communal life and mission. As for the

Communion Model, one must call for patience, faith, and a concern

for the greater and more universal good. The Sacramental Model

needs to pay attention to the values of structures, community, and

mission brought out in the other models. Supporters of the Herald

Model must stress the necessity of incarnating one’s faith in life and

action. Lastly, the Servant Model must insist on the provisional

character of any good or evil experienced within history.

Cardinal Avery is optimistic that the models are sufficiently flexible

to be mutually open and compenetrable. Except for the Institutional

Model, he demonstrates how starting from any one of the remaining 4

models, say the Servant Model or Sacramental Model, one can blend

the values of various other models together into a more powerful

model.

To conclude his book, Cardinal Avery prudently predicts the

following five trends in Church life: modernization of structures,

ecumenical interplay, internal pluralism, provisionality and

voluntariness. 44

44 Ibid , pp. 199-201

28

VII. An Epilogue: The Church, Community of Disciples

Cardinal Avery wrote twelve years later to update his models of the

Church. He admitted that writing in the 70’s, he had been too harsh

towards the Institutional Model. Now, he put forth a variant of the

Mystical Communion Model --- the Church as a Community of

Disciples. The concept has basis in the Scripture and the Christian

Tradition. Moreover, i t is able to build bridges to the other four

models. The concept has enjoyed warm reception in official

documents. Cardinal Avery made a sketchy review of the concept of

discipleship since Jesus’ time.

In the public ministry of Jesus, discipleship meant walking the way

with Jesus, sharing his redemptive sufferings. In the following three

centuries, discipleship was nearly equivalent to martyrdom. Since

Constantine, discipleship turned interior to embrace the values and

priorities upheld by Jesus: poverty, humility, celibacy and altruistic

service. In the meantime, the church has been such institutionalized

that a class of clergy arose among the laity. In the light of

discipleship, the clergy are seen to succeed certain positions held by

the disciples while the laity has special responsibility to penetrate the

secular sphere with the spirit of Christ and to leaven it with the yeast

of the gospel. The Institutional Model is revitalized.

Then Cardinal Avery goes through the four remaining models in the

light of discipleship. He begins with the Sacramental Model and

explains how worship and sacraments are related to discipleship.

Next, he turns to the need of setting up more basic ecclesial

communities for the formation of Christians in the de-Christianized

modern world. Lastly, he puts Herald and Servant Models together

29

30

into evangelization. The discipleship model makes every Christian,

not just priests and religious, responsible for the spreading of faith.

Besides proclaiming the good news, the Church, the community of

disciples must combat poverty and disease, show compassion for the

sick and dying and give assistance to the needy. Evangelization is

linked with the struggle for justice, development, peace and

liberation of the world.

The discipleship model is not without its weaknesses , but Cardinal

Avery thinks that these weaknesses are answerable. Firstly, this

model tends to accentuate the features that set Christians apart from

their fellow human beings in the world. Cardinal Avery answers that

to be faithful to Jesus, Christians must break away from worldly

values. This tension is inevitable in a universe deeply scarred by sin

and disorder. Secondly, this model seems to make excessive demands

on the average Christians. Cardinal Avery answers that this model

reminds Christians that Christianity obliges all its members to put the

call of Christ above family, friends, property and personal ambition.

Lastly, this model seems to imply that the Church is a free association

of individuals who wish to volunteer for generous service. Cardinal

Avery answers that discipleship always depends on a prior call or

vocation from Christ, a demanding call that brings with it the grace

needed for its own acceptance.

The discipleship model is not a supermodel. It is an enriched

understanding of the Church and discipleship itself.

VIII. Some comments

Reading Models of the Church is stimulating. It opens up many

theological topics which are skillfully linked with the central theme of

ecclesiology. As such, i t widens our understanding of these topics. For

those of us who have not yet already studied eschatology, ministry,

missiology and liberation theology, the second half of this book, where

Cardinal Avery applies the five models to deal with five different issues

each of which is saturated with a lot of theological opinions, is

eye-opening and yet leaves us a sense of déjà vu. For those of us who

have studied the sacraments and the concept of the Herald of the Kingdom

of God, this book is refreshing. When we read of the discussion of the

merits of using models in physical sciences, we cannot but admire

Cardinal Avery of his breadth of knowledge.

With his Presbyterian background, Cardinal Avery was the most

appropriate person to handle the issue of ecumenism which comes up

frequently in different parts of the book. I admire his broadmindedness.

He does not advocate any acquisition & merger approach. He does not

seek uniformity but rather recognition of the mutual needs for each other.

The brothers in Christ have been separated long enough to have developed

their distinctive traditions with strengths and weaknesses. Has not this

branching been foretold in the Parable of the Mustard Seed, that the

Church puts forth large branches so that the birds of the air can make

nests in its shade (Mark 4:32b)? For the salvation of humanity, i t must

have been God’s will for the Church to have branched out to cater for the

different needs of peoples living in different cultures. Acquisition and

merger is out of the question. Rather, putting aside their differences,

different denominations should engage in more dialogues and cooperation

31

in order to better serve humanity and bring forth the Kingdom of God.

Yet in his discussion, Cardinal Avery refrains from mentioning the

communion with the Roman Bishop. Perhaps this is a hornet’s nest which

is best left untouched in this textbook. But at least, he would discuss the

“Communion of Saints” tenet of the Nicene Creed, or the three states of

the Church: the Triumphant Church, the Pilgrim Church and the Suffering

Church in the light of the five models. 45 Considering the limitation of

space of a textbook, the choice of topics is his. Still , I suspect that

research along this line is a treasure trove when we apply these five

models together with the concepts of communion with the Roman Bishop

and the saints in the investigation of the current situation of the Catholic

Church in mainland China. If I am allowed to describe the Catholic

Church in China as a persecuted Church, which model or combination of

models best describe its situation? Can we find a better way out of the

current impasse?

In employing sociological conventions to analyze a social entity, the

Church, Cardinal Avery looked at it from two different perspectives: a

formally organized or structured society, thus the Institutional Model; and

an informal or interpersonal community, thus the Mystical Communion

Model which he chose two images as its representative: the Body of

Christ and the People of God. This was a commendable endeavour

because just as what the Servant Model has explained, the Church cannot

afford to ignore the external world and its achievements. Cardinal Avery

practiced what he preached. In order to better serve the world and bring in

the Kingdom of God, Church people need to engage in dialogues with all

men of good will. They need to be able to speak their languages in order

45 Catechism of the Catholic Church , #954

32

33

to reach out to them. In this case, Cardinal Avery tries to guide his

readers into using the language of sociology. However, his

formal-informal dichotomy is not warranted. Sociologists who follow the

functionalism paradigm also employ the body image to describe the

society, the formal as well as informal aspects. They regard norms and

institutions as organs that work toward the proper functioning of the

social structure under study. They employ biology analogies. 46 Thus the

Mystical Body image does not exclusively belong to the Mystical

Communion Model. The Institutional Model also claims it just as what the

Vatican II documents and Catechism of the Catholic Church have done.

This is just a minor flaw and is understandable for the sake of clarity of a

textbook.

Just in passing, though published in 1995, the ecclesiology of the

Catechism of the Catholic Church has not advanced beyond the Model .

In conclusion, the Church is not just geographical and social. It is also

historical. In response to different demands in times and spaces, it

evolves through different forms. The Church as an Institution is but one

of the many forms it goes through. The Church is also mystical. With the

guidance of the Holy Spirit , this institutional form has served and will

continue to serve the Church in more adaptive forms in the ages to come.

Mother of the Church, pray for us.

Queen of the Most Holy Rosary, pray for us.

46 Sociology. Retrieved from Wikipedia at

ht tp: / /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology

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