THE TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS Richard Hodges, Karen Francis and Sarah Leppard

INTRODUCTION

T he construction of San Vincenzo Maggiore was a massive technical operation. Although columns and other structural and sculptural elements could be obtained from the sites of derelict

Roman buildings located within San Vincenzo's considerable terra (cf. Castellani 2000), many aspects of the fitting out of the new and restructured buildings had to be provided for on si te. Con­sequently, whilst the building work extended slowly eastwards from the apsidal end of the Basilica, the area destined to li e below the Atrium was utilized as a seri es ofTemporary Workshops and later, as the work neared completion, as a builders' yard complete with an animal-driven mortar-mixer (Fig. 5. 1 ). The Temporary Workshops complex consisted of a sequence of distinct artisanal activities involving skilled craftsmen (and perhaps some monks). Specifically these involved the manufacture of specialist materials and fittings required for the new church and perhaps associated buildings (Fig. 5 .2).

The exceptionally rich archaeology within the Temporary Workshops showed that there were at least four distinct phases of industriai production in the form of tile-making, copper-smelting, glass-working and bell-casting. At the end of each phase, once the required quota of materials had been produced, the activities and their associated furnaces were replaced by new ones directly above the destruction levels. Ultimately, the area in question was levelled and enclosed, first by the walls of the Atrium, probably built during Ab bot Joshua's period in o:ffice (792-817), and later by the Eastwork, constructed soon after by either Abbots Talaricus or Epyphanius (or both).

This unique archaeological sequence was represented by a depth in some places of over 3.5 m of stratigraphy, only partially excavated due to the extant ninth-century buildings. These workshops, episodically active for, almost certainly, relatively short periods of time, have been distinguished from the first and second Collective Workshops constructed to the south of the Atrium (Chapter 6). The Collective Workshops appear to have been designed as a functioning and ongoing sector of the monastery, and such was their perceived importance that they were connected to the claustrum by a vaulted corridor beneath the phase 5 Atrium. Francesco D'Angelo and Federico Marazzi (2006) have argued that the glass-making in the Temporary and Collective Workshops formed two parts of the same operation. Their argument is intended to develop the thesis that the Atrium of San Vincenzo Maggiore was first built in the eleventh century (D'Angelo and Marazzi 2006: 452; Marazzi 2006a). This, as we have argued in Chapter 4, is simply not the case. Nor, indeed, does the complex archaeology sustain their thesis that the two different sectors for glass-making belong to the same operation. Instead, as will be apparent, the glass-maker was active for a brief peri od in the Temporary Workshops, whereupon, perhaps, he moved his operations to Room C in the Collective Workshops.

The Temporary Workshops discussed in this chapter are those that were found in the excavations within the area of the subsequent vaulted corridor (that is, under the Atrium) and beneath the Eastwork, and that precede the phase 5 Collective Workshops to the south of the Atrium (cf. Chapter 6).

The archaeology can be summarized as is shown in Table S.I.

PHASES 3C/4Al-4A6: THE PISÉ BUILDINGS (THE THREE-ROOM WORKSHOP)

The excavations within the area of the builders' yard show that craftsmen and builders inevitably occupi ed a huge p art of the monastic complex during the construction of San Vincenzo Maggiore.

1 30 CHAPTER FNE

A. The tile-kiln o._ .. ==� .. �==S2om

C. The glass workshop

D Excavated in 1 99 1 - 3

Excavated by Suor Orso la Benincasa

E. The builders' yard and mortar-mixer

B. The copper-alloy workshop

D. The bell foundry

Area of the builders' yard

FiG. 5. l. The Temporary Workshops and the builders' yard situated below the later Atrium and Eastwork of San

Vincenzo Maggiore. (SL)

·( !

,,

Excavations carri ed out in 199 5 an d 1996, to the south of the present Atrium, revealed an extension to the existing complex in the fonn of a range of clay-bonded buildings and yards. These buildings have proved puzzling because they took a different alignment and were constructed differently from all the other structures associated with the Temporary Workshops as well as the Collective Workshops. However, to complicate matters further, a part of the originai structure remained in use throughout the ninth century, fonning p art of the first and second Collective Workshops.

T ABLE 5. l . The construction sequences related to the Temporary Workshops.

Phase Construction work attributable to this period

Phase 3c/4a l Pisé buildings south of San Vincenzo Maggiore

Phase 4a l Kiln for tile production

Phases 4a2/3 Two phases of meta! production ·,,

Phase 4a4 Glass-maker's house and associated kilns

Phase 4a5 Bell-making pit/foundry

Phase 4a6 Mortar-mixer for constructing the Atrium

Phase 4a7 Construction of the fìrst Atrium

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 3 1

FIG . 5.2. Excavating the Temporary

Workshops below the later vaulted

corridor of the Eastwork. (IWA)

As these buildings were constructed on the natural clay, it appears probable that they belong to the earliest occupation in this sector of San Vincenzo. More importantly, their alignment, being roughly west-south­west-east-northeast, is strikingly similar to the angled alignment of the monastic claustrum. The east si de of the originai complex appears to have been found below Room C of the second Collective Workshops. This would seem to confinn that its alignment was established either in phase 3c (Hodges 1995a: xiv, table O: l ) or early in phase 4a, with the construction of the axial Upper Thoroughfare, but before the construction of San Vincenzo Maggiore on a different and new alignment (see Chapter l , p. 6). So to which phase do these buildings belong? Presently we cannot be sure. Certainly the buildings should pre-date the Basilica, which took another alignment. So it might be that they represent a southem sector of San Vincenzo before the Basilica of San Vincenzo Maggiore was constructed (cf. Marazzi 2008: figs 6-7). If so, this would mean that the phase 3c monastery was larger than has been believed previously. More convincingly, the buildings may ha ve been erected at the south end of the notional line of the Upper Thoroughfare once the project to enlarge the monastic ranges had begun, and before the project to build San Vincenzo Maggiore started.

At first, at least two structures were built (Fig. 5 .3) (probably before the Temporary Workshops occupying the Atrium area existed), with one further structure

1 32 CHAPTER FNE

o o c

1/

Axial line of the l l Upper Thoroughfare� l

Il

��---_-:_ -_ -_ -_-_ -_ �--� r1 f-------.

t:=::=--u

b [ �

Si e of Sa 1 ' incenzo Maggiore J [

o o c

31911 __ ·····� ��7

h(____ 3228 - - - :J:;J: �-- - -

,-_ -_ -_ -_ -_--l l Il

Il Il Il Il l l l l

Il Il

b [

Il f-------. �

1 ---:-_-_ 3208 ---- --� // �-�--==::: --J l

o 20m 3 330

-- -J

FIG. 5.3. The phase 3c/4a l pisé buildings and their relationship with the axial line of construction of the

monastic complex. (SL)

added on the east end, probably during phase 4a6- the peri od of the builders' yard and the construction of the first phase Atrium. These buildings were later remodelled to form part of the first Collective Work­shops (see Chapter 6). The Suor Orsola Benincasa mission has identified a possible extension further west (Marazzi 2008: fig. 6 (OG, OH), fig. 42); these rooms are not described here.

The first complex measured about 28 m in length and comprised two rooms, running west to east. The western room measured 14 x 9 m; the eastern room measured c. 11 x 9.5 m. The evidence for these build­ings was strongest in the western room, whose southern (3208) and eastern (3228) walls were both rather poorly built of rough travertine blocks and tile fragments with occasionai limestone fragments, bonded with yellow

clay. The northern walls (3237, 3149) also were built from travertine blocks and bonded with yellow clay. Wall 3237 was bonded to the northern end of wall 3228. The doorway in the northern wall would have been roughly centrai to the room. The western extent of this large room is represented by wall 3191. The relationship between this western wall and the northern wall (3149) was concealed beneath the later ninth­century buttress (10061) (see Chapter 2, p.47).

The eastern room was represented clearly by its western and southern walls only, the latter being a continuation of wall 3208 to the east (and uncovered in the area of later Room D). Wall 3330, running east-west, was visible for just over 12 m, and was then obscured by a later partition wall (4305). However, excavations beneath the level of this later

l - l

'· -_ Il

o o c

o o c

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 33

Il

�� r-1 f----

� l�; � �l

Tempora�\ p [ Workshops

l\ t: p [ 0:

' p [ � f-------

f----- s 5144

�--- \ - - - -------1r -_ -_ -_ -_ -_ �5406

l l l l l l Il l l

Il l l Il

ri?

�

l l Il

l l

-- -- -- �.. i i ::

o 20m

��-- JI 11 3 330

-- - .::::::::::: - _: : D Basilica under construction

FIG . 5.4. The additional room added to the pisé buildings and the new alignment with the Temporary

Workshops. (SL)

wall revealed a quoin-stone that may represent the turn of the early wall to the north. Further excavations to the east (in the area of later Room C) showed a possible structure, of similar build to wall 3330, in the south section. No other evidence was found of any similar walls further to the east, to indicate the initial extent of the pisé buildings beneath the later Room C.

The first complex was enlarged in a second phase when a third room, measuring approximately l O m square, was adcfed to the east of the earlier two rooms but on a different alignment (Fig. 5 .4). The evidence for this

' new room was a small part of its north wall

(5144), mostly removed by a robber cut (5129), and a small part of its east wall (5406), that was later built over by wall 4 722 of the Collective Workshops Room B. These walls appear to create the northeast corner of this new phase 3c/4a room. Its new alignment, which follows the line of San Vincenzo Maggiore, may suggest that it was built with the new Basilica and

Atrium in mind. Noticeably, north-south wall 5406 - now the eastern wall of these workshops - tellingly aligns with the north-south pilastered façade of the first Atrium.

The occupation levels associated with this phase of building were not reached in ali areas of the excavation. In the west end the natura! clay (3201) was reached only to the south of the pisé building; within the rooms the lowest level of excavation was associated with the next phase of occupation. In the excavation within the later Room D of the Collective Workshops, however, a floor surface (3366) was uncovered (Chapter 6, p. 178). This surface of limestone and clay was found only to the north of clay-bonded wall 3330. The excavations to the east revealed severa! clay levelling deposits (5359, 5341, 5392), which covered the generai eastern area before the later walls were constructed. These clay deposits contained glass waste, showing how the deposits cleaned out of the

r

1 34 CHAPTER FIVE

• •

• •

f3?f�:. -- ---:_- �---_- -

�-Post-holes

o 20m

- - · - -,_ -::

::

:::

-

:

�- -- -- - ----- --

-,

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

Atrium under construction

FIG. 5.5. The pisé buildings in phase 4a6 with the builders' yard and San Vincenzo Maggiore under

construction. (SL)

glass workshop to the north were used here to raise the leve l of the ground. In the area just to the north of the pisé buildings two mortar surfaces were uncovered that can be associated with this phase. In the area north of what later became Room C of the Collective Workshops, a white mortar spread (3323) was laid. This thin surface was made of poor-quality mortar, the brown clay natural being visible below it. This surface also underlay the threshold of the later room. The second mortar surface (5158) was located less than l O m to the east of this one and was a hard yellow mortar level. This surface ran below the walls (5649, 4931) in this area, which were constructed later, with the new alignment of the buildings in this area, during the construction of the phase 4 Atrium.

After the Temporary Workshops were demolished and the builders' yard was functioning for the building of the first Atrium, these pisé buildings were slightly re-formed and extended (Fig. 5 .5). The western room

was divided into two rooms by the insertion of a wall (3091 ). This wall, measuring just over 8 m in length, was constructed from limestone boulders, rather than the usual travertine, and bonded with a poor-quality clay mortar. This narrow wall would not have been suitable for heavy load-bearing and it was inserted just to the east of the main doorway, creating a western room measuring 7.5 m wide and a smaller eastern room measuring just less than 6 m wide. The wall stopped l m from the south wall (3208), creating a doorway between the two rooms. It appears another doorway was created in the northem wall (3237), allowing access from the north. The two rooms created by the inserti an of this dividing wall may ha ve had a thatched roof supported by a centrai post in each room; represented in the western room by pit 3203 and in the smaller eastem room by pit 3295 (cf. Chapter 6, p. 182). The pit in the western room cut through a sterile clay deposit (3216), which may have been a

FFIF

FIG. 5.6. The remains of the Tile Workshops. (SL)

beaten earth surface in this phase; the surface in the smaller eastern room (3301) appeared to be a slightly more defined surface of mortary clay. T o the south of the western room the brown clay deposit continued as 320 l ; this was cut by a line of three large post-holes, positioned 3.4 m south of wall 3208. The two outer post-holes (3198, 3196) were both 0.25 m square, while the centrai post-hole (3189) was slightly larger, at 0.3 m square. The two post-holes that were excavated showed they were very deep, between 0.70 m and 0.99 m, suggesting that they held substantial posts. These J:?.OSt-holes possibly held posts for a modest timber-framed porch on the south side of the pisé building.

The fragmentary and complicated archaeology pre­vents any definitive interpretation of the chronology and early history of this building. The alignment of the earliest buildings suggests that they were conceived well before the construction of the church. The addition of the third, eastem, room appears to suggest a realignment of the

Wall 4610

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 35

5641 FF/H

Wall 5244

5770

5501

FF/G

complex and its continued use as the building of the Basilica and Atrium proceeded (see Chapter 6, pp. 157-61). The function of these buildings cannot be ascertained with certainty. The presence of a porch added to the west room may suppose it had some status. Were one or more of these three rooms desig­nated as accommodation for the itinerant artisans, for example? Others, given the absence of industriai activity, may have served as storerooms for tools, building materials and finished products. Either way, their retention to be partly incorporated into the ninth­century first and second Collective Workshops, while convenient, also suggests that a certain importance or memory may have been attached to these buildings.

PHASE 4Al: THE TILE WORKSHOP

The initial phase of industriai activity was represented by a large kiln complex discovered within the lowest levels below the Eastwork (Figs 5. 1 and 5.6). Aligned

1 36 CHAPTER FNE

FIG. 5.7. View of the tile-kiln looking west. (IWA)

to the front of San Vincenzo Maggiore, it clearly belongs to the era in which the new Basilica was being built. Here, hundreds of terracotta roof- and floor-tiles were made in preparation for the new monastic buildings (Fig. 5.7). The confines of the Tile Workshop are not known, although two structures partially excavated below the standing walls of the Eastwork encompass an area of over 20 m2 and may well represent different parts of the same furnace (cf. Moran 2000). This tile-kiln was excavated under two area codes, FF/G in 1991 and FF/H in 1992. The FF/ G excavations uncovered three parallel walls (5500, 5501, 5770), each measuring 0.55 m wide, 0.4-0.7 m in height, and nearly 2 m long, which ran north into the trench edge. The 1992 season uncovered the full

structure, which continued north into area FF /H, running under the phase 5 Eastwork wall (5244). The full visible kiln structure measured 5 x 3.5 m, and comprised the three parallel walls, measuring a final 5 m in length, built from fragments of Roman dolia and of Roman and early medieval tiles bonded with clay. These three walls repre­sented two parallel flues, each 0.9 m wide, aligned north-south. The flues ended squarely at the north end with a cross-wall (5641) built of the same materia!, showing clearly that the kiln had. been fired from the south. The kiln walls had been cut into the clay levelling layers (in FF/H: 5524, 5538, 5707; in FF/G: 5651, 5662). These may represent the alluvial clays imported to terrace the w ho le area for the construction of the main church. The walls also were built on a thick foundation deposit of clay mixed with brick and tile fragments (5642). This was about 0.3 m deep and had been burnt to a deep red by the firing of the kiln. A stone and mortar surface (5652) formed the floor level inside the two flues, along which the hot air would have travelled from the mouth of the furnace. While the kiln was in use, the freshly-made tiles would have been stacked vertically upon a tile plat­form that was situated directly above the flues. Holes within the platform, evident from tile fragments contained within the demolition rubble, allowed the heat to pass from the flues to the tiles during firing. On the present evidence, the structure may be reconstructed to resemble a rectangular tile­kiln (Fig. 5 .8).

The remains of an almost identica! structure were partially uncovered within an eleventh-century work­shop situated on the east bank of the river, in the grounds of the New Abbey (Bowden and Gruber 2006: 163-5, fig. 5.25). In total, four kiln structures were excavated within the 20 m long workshop there. The structure resembling the Temporary Workshops kiln was located in the southwest corner of the complex, dose to a bottle-shaped pottery kiln. The kiln, 2.4 m wide and at least 4 m in length, comprised at least one flue channel of the same dimensions as the examples described above. The three principal walls that made up the flues were constructed of tiles and lirnestone, bonded with clay. The flue channels of both examples survived to a height of 0.9 m, although

o - 2m - t

FIG. 5.8. Reconstruction of a rectangular tile-kiln. (After Le Ny

l 988: fìg. 23)

the deposits that had been used to fill them differed considerably. In contrast to the ninth-century kiln below the Eastwork, which contained a series of burnt clay and mortar layers, the eleventh-century kiln had been filled with mixed clay and ash deposits

- although both structures contained large quantities of burnt tile and charcoal. The tile-kiln at the New Abbey appears to have been in operation for only a short time, probably during the late eleventh or early twelfth century.

Returning to the Temporary Workshops, the second kiln structure (5871) found within the Tile Workshop lay immediately southwest of the large kiln with the parallel flues, although it extended transversely to it, aligned east-west (Figs 5. 1 and 5 .6). This kiln was built within a construction cut (5869) that cut into the alluvial clay (5883). This is equal to the . earliest levelling clays in FF /G and FF/H, into which the large tile-kiln was cut, putting both kilns into the earliest phase of activity in this area. This kiln was built into the base of the cut, with the tiles of its construction being set into the alluvial clay as well as being bonded with it. The excavated structure comprised approximately half of a fan-shaped wall (5871),'running east to west, remaining to 0.6 m in height, with a consider-able overhang in the centre but nearly vertical at the ends, suggesting a centrai vaulted chamber, originally 2 m wide. The walls of the kiln were built of alternating courses of

" specially-made cylindrical and rectangular

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 37

of the kiln on the north side six large tiles were un­covered, presumably forming the kiln floor. The area between the two kilns remains hidden beneath the supporting wall of the ninth-century Eastwork. Con­sequently, it is not possible to deterrnine whether the two structures represented separate, but broadly­contemporary, kilns or, alternatively, the flues and firing chamber of a single L- or T-shaped kiln.

The tile furniture retrieved from the core of this kiln was all made from fabric B, the predominant fabric of the two employed in the production of tiles at the monastery during phase 4 (Patterson and Coutts 2001). Intriguingly, though, associated with this kiln were fragments of Roman tegulae, with arched flanges and in a fabric that had small white inclusions, suggesting spoil from nearby robbed buildings.

In sum, the Temporary Workshops tile-kiln is clearly of a Roman type (cf. Le Ny 1988: type II E) that, as Lucia Tonezzer (2002: 104) has shown, was used throughout western Europe in the high and later Middle Ages.

PHASES 4A2/3: THE COPPER-ALLOY WORKSHOP

After tile production had ceased, it appears the flues of the main kiln w ere used for mixing mortar before the vaults and walls were demolished. A mortary-consolidated deposit (5626/5645) was found at the base of the two flues, at a thickness of 0.3 m. This may be from the construction of wall 5694, which appears to be the

South l North

l l Cut 5869

o---====:::�---===::::J50cm bricks, bonded with clay (Fig. 5.9). These bricks were heavily burnt and are of a type otherwise unknown on the site. At the base

FIG. 5. 9. East-facing elevation of the tile-kiln wall (587 1 ) showing the cylindrical

bricks. (SL)

1 38 CHAPTER FIVE

Wall4603

Wall4610

L___) o 5m

FIG. 5.1 O. The Copper-alloy Workshop. (KFISL)

northern wall relating to the next phase of production in this area: the Copper-alloy Workshop (Figs 5 . 1 and 5 . 1 0). Above this consolidated deposit lay a series of demolition dumps infi lling the fi ues: 5586 was the main demolition of the walls and vaul ts, with tiles, bri cks and day to a depth of 0.6 m. In this deposit signi:fi cant amounts of fired day were recovered along with many broken tiles. Above this were two mixed day and mortar levelling deposits (5584, 5580). Across the whole area of the Tile Workshop an orange-brown sandy day levelling layer was laid (588 1/5825) to prepare the area for the next activity. This was the second phase of industriai pr oduction here (Fig. 5 . 1 l).

The Copper-alloy Workshop, containing a complex sequence ofhearth structures and pits, was built directly over the remains ofthe tile-kilns. The workshop dearly precedes the construction of the Eastwork: several copper-working hearths and storage pits were truncated by the construction ofthe main supporting wall (4610) of the Eastwork at a later date. Although the confines of the workshop are at present unknown, it seems to have covered an area of approximately 40 m. O nly the north w ali of the workshop ( 5 8 14) has been identified. This wall, aligned slightly off the east-west direction of

Hearth Wall

5881 5244

the main Basilica, was constructed directly above the fan-shaped tile-kiln (5871), and survived to a height of O .4 2 m. It was of rough construction, made of lime­sto ne rubble, bonded with a white soft mortar, similar to the mortar deposi t left in the fiues of the tile-kiln. The workshop fi oor was made up of trampled day and sand.

Two ofthe features associated with the Copper-alloy Workshop appear to relate to the earliest phase of its use. A small, square kiln (5934), less than l .O m in width and length though surviving to 0.66 m in height, was found in the southern half ofthe workshop. It was a skilful construction of roof-tiles laid horizon­tally, bonded with day (Fig. 5 . 1 2). This kiln was cut deep into the levelling days. The fi oor of th e kiln was formed by one large rectangular tile measuring 0.36 x 0.48 m, with two smaller tiles filling in the gaps. A t the base of the kiln was a mixture of charcoal and fine white sand (5937/5936), which probably represents the remains of the final fir ing episode. The fili suggested that the kiln may have been used for the reduction of copper ore, whereby roasted ore is placed in a kiln along with charcoal and a fi ux such as sand, used to lower the melting point of the metal. Similar square kilns associated with the production of

bronze have been excavated at Rocca San Silvestro in Tuscany (Brunn 1 993; Francovich 1991 : 83) (Fig. 5 . 1 3).

The copper-smelting kiln was filled in with one large demolition deposit (5935), which was full ofrefractory material, induding the remains of a smashed siege or platform, which contained the bowl-shaped impression of a large crucible with a base diameter of aro un d O . l m. Handprints made by the builders survive on the outer edges ofthe siege, together with tile-fi ange impressions on the underside. These show how the kiln had been

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 39

FIG. 5.11. Excavating the copper­

alloy-kilns and related features.

(IWA)

shaped from day and moulded by hand onto a tile base. Although the day was not analysed, it is likely that it resembles refractory materials from other smelting sites, comprising a fairly low-grade material, gathered locally by the craftsmen building the kiln. In fact, analysis of crucible fabrics from San Vincenzo has shown that day was obtained from the area of Colli a Volturno, some 6 km south of the monastery (Patterson 1 989; 2001a). The siege has not been reconstructed and consequently it is not possible to

FIG. 5. 12. The square copper­

smelting kiln (5934). (IWA)

1 40 CHAPTER FIVE

FIG. 5.13. Reconstruction of the copper-smelting kilns at Rocca San Silvestro. (After Daniele de Luco in Froncovich 199 1 : fig. 65)

activity. A number of features within the metal workshop were cut into this clay, showing that there w ere two distinct phases here. The principal structures comprised the ground-level working plat­forms of two kilns, situated 5 m apart. One of the kilns (5768) had been built up against the north wall (5814) of the workshop. The second kiln (5872) was built just north of the earlier reservoir. The two kilns were of the same construc­tion type, made of roof-tiles that had been placed horizontally onto mortar bases. Kiln 5768 measured over l m square, while kiln 5872 was slightly smaller. Both kilns were partially enclosed by narrow walls built of limestone and tile, bonded with mortar, probably representing the remains of the actual kiln structures (Figs 5. 1 1 and 5. 1 5). The bases of both kilns contained channels constructed of tile fragments set verti­cally, possibly to form a kind of flue mechanism or perhaps to direct molten metal. Deposits of ash, copper-alloy

determine whether i t is from the upper p art of the kiln in which it was contained, or from the later demolition of the Glass Workshops.

The second early feature of the metal workshop was located 2 m to the west of the kiln discussed above, and comprised a large, globular, ceramic vessel (SF 1378) that had been tightly inserted into a specially-dug pit (5920) in the ground. The sides of the pit were just wider, 30-60 mm, than the pot. The pit was a slightly ovai shape, 0.7x0.5 m, and 0.6 m deep - deep enough for the v esse l to sit right inside. A small ceramic bowl (SF 13 79) had been inverted over the v esse l to form a lid (Fig. 5. 1 4). The main vessel was a domestic handled jar, while the 'lid' was a coarse-ware bowl; the handles of the jar were broken off and only shown by the scars left at the widest point of the vessel. The vessel stood approxi­mately 0.3 m high and may have served as a reservoir for water or other liquid substances associated with the metalworking process. In his twelfth-century treatise, De Diversis Artibus, the monk Theophilus described the use of water or urine as a quenching and hardening medium for metals (Dodwell l 961: 74-127).

The kiln and reservoir were partially concealed by a deposit of clay (5881). This appeared to be another layer of levelling clay, laid to cover the first kiln and reser­voir pit and prepare the area for the next industriai

splashes, slag and crucible were found in association with the kilns. In particular, the tile platform of the

FIG. 5. 14. The ceramic reservoir (SF 1 378 and 1 379) found in the

Copper-alloy Workshop. (JBB)

FIG. 5.15. The copper-alloy-kiln (5768) showing the narrow walls

enclosing the tile base. (IWA)

southernmost furnace had small pieces of copper alloy and iron adhering to it.

A complex series of features cutting the clay, including post-holes, gullies and pits, were associated with the Copper-alloy Workshop. There were two shallow rectangular pits cut to the east of kiln 5872; the first (5895) was 0.97 x 0.87 m in dimension, and was about 0.1 m deep; it was cut by 5932, the second rectangular pit, which was slightly smaller, at 0.76 x 0.60 x 0.1 m. This appeared to be a re-cut of the originai pit to reuse the feature, though its precise use is not clear. 'lll.e two pits were filled with the same fine, multicoloured sand, which appeared to have been subjected to heat. Small splashes of copper alloy found within the fili suggest that the sand had been utilized in the kilns, probably as a flux. Two large ovai pits (5930, 5964) were cut either side of the two rectangular pits, and as 5930 just clips the edge of 5932, it must be slightly later. Both pits appear to have been similar in size, roughly 0.7 x 0.9 m, although the full length is unknown as both are truncated by the later phase 4a7a Atrium wall (4610). Both contained fine, ashy-sand deposits with many burnt inclusions, including charcoal,

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 4 1

stones, clay, copper-alloy lumps and slag. The pits may have functioned initially as storage bins and later as waste containers for the workshop. To the west of these pit features, three identica!, deep post-holes were uncovered, located together close to the southern kiln. The northernmost post-hole was the largest of the three, measuring 0.45 m in diameter and 0.7 m deep, with almost vertical sides and a flat base. Two smaller post-holes (5891, 5893) were both about 0.38 m in diameter and between 0.4 and 0.5 m in depth. As with the larger post-hole, these both had vertical sides and flat bases. These post-holes suggest the existence of a tripod-based structure or mechanism, perhaps a manually-operated bellow used to fuel the furnace. Finally, a small metalworking hearth (5881) was found in the excavations in FF/G, just east of, and indeed cut by, the later Atrium wall (4610). This small T-shaped hearth was 0.2 m deep and just less than l m in length. It was cut into layer 5580, the top levelling layer above the earlier tile-kiln. It appears to be contemporary with the copper-working kilns, though it is outside the main working area. The hearth contained ash, charcoal and :fragments of copper, and may represent a second working area, though nothing more was found within these excavated areas.

PHASE 4A4: THE GLASS WORKSHOP

When copper-working had ceased, the building and its associated furnaces were demolished to foundation level and covered with tips of clay and rubble. The initial demolition of the kilns (5880) was a thick mixed deposit of sandy clay with large inclusions of ash, charcoal and bronze droplets. A series of mixed sandy clay levelling deposits (5820, 5704, 5783) followed this demolition. A number of copper-alloy rods, sheets and wires, derived from the Copper-alloy Workshop, were found within the demolition layers. This demolition and levelling activity was followed by two thick clay mortar layers (5787, 5785). These layers may represent a rudimentary surface for the next phase of industriai activity. A new workshop, intended for the large-scale production of glass, was built directly above the remains of the previous workshop and on the alignment of the new Basilica (Figs 5 . 1 and 5. 1 6).

The dimensions of the Glass Workshop are unknown, as it extended below the later Atrium to the west (cf. Marazzi et al. 2002: plate 18; D'Angelo and Marazzi 2006). However, the foundations of the north wall (5694) of the complex have been identified,

1 42 CHAPTER FIVE

L

Robber cut 5851

FIG . 5. 16. The Glass Workshop. (KFISL)

Wall4603

Wall4610

close to the remains of the north wall of the Copper­alloy Workshop. This wall remained to 0 .42 m in height and measured 3 .4 m long (though it was trun­cated at both ends by the Atrium walls ), and was 0 .55 m wide. It was a quite rough construction, built with rubble limestone bonded with soft white mortar; it was also faced only on the south side, showin g the direction of its in terior. The wall was built partially above the northern copper- alloy-kiln, totally destroying its southern half. Just over 7 m to the south a wide linear cut was uncovered (5851), cutting in to the earlier copper-alloy-kilns and the demolition layers. This east-west linear cut was just under 0.9 m wide and was 0.25 m deep. Its alignment was parallel to that of wall 5694 and the levelling deposits that covered the copper- alloy- kilns appeared to continue to the south of it, showing this wall did not coexist with the copper-alloy-kilns. This robber cut therefore could represent the location of the south wall of the Glass Workshop. A low stone bench (5703) built at a right

Kiln 5711

1 Wall

o--- 5694

o l o

J

angle to the north wall extended along the western side of the buildin g. This was constructed with lime­stone and travertin e blocks bonded with a pinky orange sandy mortar. It existed to a height of 0 .45 m, and was 4.5 m in length, although at its south end it appeared to have been robbed away. This construction did not appear to be the western wall ofthe Glass Work­shop as the north wall was clearly truncated to the west by the later phase 5 Atrium wall ( 4603). It was also of a different construction type. Two cours es of the wall existed and showed signs ofbumt tile and clay adhering to it from where the large main kiln (571 1) at one time extended to this wall. This wall was also partially built over by one ofthe glass- kilns (5717), showing that the height this wall was found at was its originai built height, and therefore suggesting that it was a work bench associated with the kiln activity. The eastern wall of the Glass Workshop may have been removed for the construction of the phase 4 Atrium wall 461 O . No wall associated with the Glass Workshop phase

FIG. 5 .18 . The centrai glass furnace (57 1 l ) showing the centrai

fìring chamber and connecting ash-pits. (IWA)

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 43

FIG . 5 . 17 . View of the Glass

Workshop. (!WA)

was located further east in the excavated area FF/G (in the later vaulted undercroft), so i t can only be presumed that its location lay where 461 O is no w. A layer of firm dark grey clay and mortar (5691) was found to cover the area of the workshop; this appeared to be the working floor associated with the kilns as it had large amounts of ash and charcoal trampled into the surface.

The Glass Workshop comprised two kilns (Fig. 5 . 1 7). A t the junction of the bench and the north wall, in what may have been the northwest corner of the workshop, was a semicircular kiln (571 7) constructed of tiles, which may have had a chimney (cf. D'Angelo and Marazzi 2006: 449, fig. 3b). O nly the floor- level hearth survived, measuring 1 .5 x 1 . 1 5 m. The base of the kil n was constructed with tiles. O n its east side were two impressions, possibly from tegula ridges, which probably represent the outer wall structure of the kil n. Between two existing tiles at the base of the kiln was a 0.6 m wide space where the mortar was burnt pink and no impressions of tiles were visible. This could represent the stoke- hole for the kiln. Ash deposits found within the centre of the hearth contained glass fr agments, glass waste and copper- alloy slag. The structur e may have functioned as a subsidiary furnace, possibly used for melting down cullet, to make new glass.

The main feature of the Glass Workshop was the large, centrai fumace (57 1 1) that consisted of an L­shaped or tripartite structure with a centrai firing chamber and conn ecting ash-pits (Fig. 5 . 1 8). The

i Il: l,

1 44 CHAPTER FIVE

fir ing chamber compr ised a squar e pit (5781), 0.7 m wide an d O. 7 m deep, dug into the fio or of the building and lined with tile fragments bonded with clay and mor tar . Both the tiles and the mor tar lining of the pit wer e heavily vitr ified. A r ing of burnt r ed clay that encir cled the pit testifies to the fier ce heat that was contained within it when the kiln was in oper ation. The clay r ing, which had a diameter of l . 7 m, was initially thought to r epr esent the r emains of an ear lier, circular kiln, although its per fect positioning ar ound the pit implies that the two wer e r elated. The inside of the pit contained a thick mixed layer (5726) of ash and char coal, as well as a lar ge quantity of vessel-glass, window-glass and glass-wor king waste (cf. D'Angelo and Mar azzi 2006: 45 1) . A number of delicate vessel-glass fragments, decor ated with foliate and lozenge designs in gold leaf (SF 1 5 14), wer e found amongst the waste mater ial in the pit (cf. Chapter 7, pp. 261-6, Fig. 7.38). Simi lar pieces have been r ecover ed from a number of eighth- and ninth-centur y sites in Scandinavia and nor thwest Eur ope, such as Dor estad in the Nether lands (V an Es and Ver wer s 1980) and Helgo in Sweden (Holmqvist and Arrhenius 1964).

A second, smaller mor tar -lined pit (5782), located in front of the western hear th of the centrai kiln, may r epr esent a subsidiar y ash­pit or per haps a separ ate fir ing chamber . It was a r ectangular pit, 0.45 m long and 0.3 m deep, or iented nor th-south. The mor tar lining of the pit was vitr ified, showing that it had been subjected to extr eme heat. A cer amic disc (SF 15 13) with a centr ai per for ation found within the ash fill of the pit may be the cover of a glor y-hole (boccarella). The per for ation, 12 mm in diameter, r epr esents the hole wher e the glass-blower 's ir on r od was inser ted into the kiln. An identica! disc (SF 1 5 1 9) was r ecover ed from demolition debr is excavated above the kiln.

bonded with clay, and situated slightly above the floor level of the wor kshop, suppor ted on tile and clay bases. O ne lar ge cut (5841) was found to extend to the south and east of the firing-pit, with two oval­shaped segments on each side. These two pair s of oval pits wer e O. 7 m deep and w er e between 0.55 m and 0.6 m in length. These pits wer e initially thought to be flues for the kiln, though the fill (5842), which appear s to r epr esent the final fir ing of the kiln, could suggest they wer e ash-pits, used for the gener ai clear ing out ofthe ash after each firing. These ash-pits contained

The r emainder of the fu rnace str uctur e constituted two squar e platfor ms or hear ths, both just under l m squar e, that wer e attached to the nor thern and western sides ofthe mor tar ­lined fir ing-pit. Ther e may have been a thir d platform extending to the south of the pit, as suggested by tile impr essions on the mor tar lipping over the top of the pit. The wor king sur faces of the platfor ms wer e made of tiles

FIG . 5. 19 . Woodcut showing the three-tier 'southern'-style glass furnace.

(Reproduced (rom Agricola in Hoover and Hoover 1950)

immense quantl tl es of glass waste in the form of moiles : the r enm ants of glass r emoved from the blow­pipe dur ing glass-blowing. The moiles indicate that the diameter s of the blo wpipes r anged between l O and 15 mm - in keeping with the holes in the boccarelle. O ther glass-making debr is included dr oplets, clippings and tr immings of glass, and r eticelli r ods, used to decor ate glass vessels (Piate 5 .1 ).

A glass furnace in some ways sirnilar to that found at San Vincenzo, but dating to the four teenth or fifteenth centur y, was discover ed in the Genoese Apennines (Mann oni 1 972). The main char acter istic ofthe furnace her e, as at San Vincenzo, was a centr ai, mor tar -lined pit, surrounded by sieges and connected to a single ash-pit. Wind was appar ently channelled natur ally into the pit from stone slabs surr ounding the ash-pit. The cir cular kiln pr obably had a domed cover . This type of glass-kiln, known as a 'southern' furnace, consisted of a thr ee-tier ed str uctur e (Char leston 1 978). The bottom stor ey of the kiln contained the fir e and a single stoke-hole; the middle chamber contained the cr ucibles and was accessed by multiple glor y-holes; and the upper par t of the kiln was used to cool (anneal) the finished vessels (Fig. 5.19). The southern type of furnace r equir ed that all thr ee pr ocesses of fritting ( the r oasting of the r aw mater ials : silica and ash), .ft, unding (the shaping and blowing of the glass) and annealing w er e carri ed out in the same structur e (Mannoni 1 972). Closer in date to the San Vincenzo kiln, a lar ge fumace dating to the seventh centur y is known from excavations of a glass-making complex at Santa Mar ia Assunta on the Venetian island of Tor cello (Leciejewicz, Tabaczyn ska and Tabaczyn ski 1977).

In the alternative type of furnace, kn own as a 'nor thern' kiln, with which the San Vincenzo kiln also shar es some featur es, heat from the centr ai par t of the str uctur e was tr ansmitted later ally to subsidiar y furnaces constr ucted on the same level (Fig. 5 .20). In this way, the later al hear ths could be used inter change­ably for the fritting, founding and annealing pr ocesses. Nor thern fumaces dating to the ninth centur y ar e r ar e: a poss, ible ninth-centur y example is kn own from Glastonbur y in southern England (Char leston 1978), and four ninth-centur y furnaces wer e excavated at Nitr a in Slovakia (Hejdova 1 965). The examples contempor ar y with the San Vincenzo kiln have oval gr ound-plans, although it is possible that the significant element is the later al tr ansfer ence ofheat r ather than the actual shape of the kiln. The construction and use of the 'nor thern' type of furnace was descr ibed in detail by

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 145

FIG . 5 . 20. Fifteenth-century 'northern' glass furnace. (From The

Travels of Sir John Mandeville. London, British Library, Additional MS

24189, (o/. 16r) (Reproduced courtesy o( the British Library Board)

Theophilus in the second book of his tr eatise, De Diversis Artibus, wr itten in the fir st half of the twelfth centur y, although he seems to suggest a r ectangular gr ound-plan (Dodwel1 1 961 : 37-8).

The ear liest kn own visual r epr esentation of a medieval glass fumace is to be found within the eleventh-centur y manuscr ipt of Rhabanus Maur us, De Rerum Naturis (also known as De Universo), at Monte Cassino (Cavallo 1994: facsimile, p. 429A) (Fig. 5.21 ). The details of the fumace ar e r ather unclear, although it appear s to include an extension to the main str uctur e, simi lar to the subsidiar y platfor ms at San Vincenzo. Per haps mor e r elevant is the descr iption of a tr ipartite glass furnace contained in a twelfth- or thirteenth-centur y text, De Coloribus et Artibus Romanorum, compiled by Er aclius (Merr ifield 1967). The furnace is descr ibed as having a centr ai hollow for the fir e and thr ee small compar tments or archae. A lar ge centr ai ar ch is used for founding and wor king, a smaller, r ight-hand ar ch for the annealing of finished vessels, and a left-hand ar ch for fritting and for the heating or 'pot-ar ching' of the cr ucibles in which the glass was melted. It is tempting to find convincing sirni­lar ities between the thr ee compar tments of Er aclius's kiln and the two or thr ee subsidiar y platfor ms of the San Vincenzo kiln.

1 46 CHAPTER FIVE

the Temporary Workshops consisted of a triple-chambered kiln with two add­itional or subsidiary chambers, possibly for annealing. In summary, the ldln uniquely appears to have operated as a combination of the two known types : a three-tiered, southem type of fumace but with heat transferred laterally to a number of subsidiary chambers, as in a northem fumace.

FIG. 5.21. Eleventh-century miniature depicting a glass-kiln. (Reproduced (rom Cavallo,

1994: facsimile, p. 429A)

At San Vincenzo, glass appears to have been made in a remarkable range of colours, including purple, cherry red, cobalt blue, turquoise, streaked red in a green-blue background, dark red and dark green. Analysis of the glass frag­ments has shown that both vessel- and window-glass was being manufactured (Stevenson 1997; Dell'Acqua 1 997a; Dell'Acqua and James 2001 ; Stevenson 2001 ; Dell'Acqua 2003a). The wide

A number of questions surround the San Vincenzo ldln and the way in which it operated. It is not known, for example, whether the firing-pit was origin­ally covered by a centrai platform and one or two upper chambers, or whether it remained open. In essence, did the kiln operate as a southem or northem type of fumace? Furthermore, the absence of a flue leading into the lower levels ofthe pit is puzzling. It is possible that air was fed into the kiln at ground level: the linear cut (5847) that runs from the south edge of the firing chamber for 1 .3 m to the south could be the remains of a possible flue channel - this was found to be cut into the clay floor of the workshop.

Some light may be shed on the San Vincenzo kiln by the discovery of a virtually contemporary Abbasid glass workshop at al-Raqqa, Syria (Henderson 1999). Here, the main glass fumace, described as a 'beehive' type, comprised a three-tiered structure with an addi­tional semicircular annealing chamber built on to the back of the fumace. The fumace, which had an internai diameter of 0.75 m, is almost identica! to the San Vincenzo example when compared in section (Fig. 5 .22). The San Vincenzo kiln differs slightly in that it contains two additional side chambers, rather than a single one. Furthermore, the glass workshop at al-Raqqa contained a centralized system of floor-level flue channels, which may confirm the ones at San Vincenzo. On the basis of the al-Raqqa kilns, it seems reasonable to suggest that the glass fumace in

range of vessel types includes o il lamps with vertical handles, bowls, jars, bottles, flasks, dishes and drinking vessels. The waste material demon­strates that a range of decorative techniques was employed, including flashing, festooning of coloured trails and the application of trailed thread The window-glass was similar to Roman glass in some aspects, particularly in terms of its composition. A large majority of the windows appears to have been made using the 'cylinder' method, whereby a cylinder of glass was blown, cut open and flattened on a slab of stone called a marver. Some crown glass, made from a glass cylinder that was quickly rotated to form a disc, was also madè in the workshop. Both methods of production owed their origins to classica! antiquity. Their presence once again demonstrates the continuation or rediscovery of ancient techniques by the craftsmen worldng within the Temporary Workshops.

In terms of production, there is no evidence for glass-making using the raw materials of silica (sand) and alkali (plant ashes) at San Vincenzo. This absence may be explained by the presence of thousands of fragments of working waste and glass cullet, which were found discarded on the workshop floor. Large quantities of Roman vessel-glass and coloured, opaque, glass tesserae were also included amongst the waste material. The discarded glass was obviously a small part of that destined to be recycled and melted down in the kilns of the Temporary Workshops, whilst some of the material was specifically intended

0�--==---==--�SOcm

� - ' / - - ' / / ' ' l \ \

Firing chamber

l l ,.. � l

- ' l r -

Firing chamber

/ l

l

l l

A

B

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 47

its accompanying claustrum. The scale of his operation - judging from the profligate waste - was, by the standards of the age, stupendous, and we surely cannot doubt that by bringing light in various forms to the monas­tery the glass-maker was considered to be a significant artist and craftsman by the commu­nity.

PHASE 4A5: BELL-CASTING

Excavations undertaken 5 m to the southeast of the Glass Workshop, in area FF/C-2 (the South Tower, see Chapter 4, pp. 1 1 5-17), revealed substantial evidence of bell-casting in the form of two large pits containing indus­triai residues typically associated with the process (Fig. 5.23).

A series of demolition tip deposits covered the Glass Workshop, all rich with bumt clay, tile and many pieces of glass waste and slag. There were no inclusions of bell-mould

_ within these demolition layers, suggesting that the Glass Workshop was demolished prior to the bell-casting. Layer 5675 represented the main demolition of the glass-ldlns: i t consisted of a thick red-brown bumt clay deposit with a

FIG. 5.22. Comparative sections through the glass-kilns at (A) ai-Raqqa, Syria

(after Henderson 1999: fig. 3) and (B) San Vincenzo. (SDG)

large amount of broken bumt tile, from the kiln structure, followed by a series of mixed mortar, clay and waste tip deposits. The southem wall of the Glass Workshop was

to colour the window-glass and to colour and decorate glass vessels and lamps (cf. Whitehouse 2003). Normally glass-makers were very economica! with the waste products and trimmings, and reused every fragment. By contrast, we may surmise that the quan­tities of discarded glass found at San Vincenzo suggest that the glass-maker had access to large quantities of cullet, which were collected and melted down in the kilns to make new forms. Recycled ancient glass may have been imported to the site of San Vincenzo from urban and rural villas within the region. Intriguingly, Theophilus mentioned the existence of coloured, opaque: glass tesserae, found in the mosaic floors of Roman buildings. Altematively, ready-made glass may have been acquired from ports along the coast: there is evidence that glass for export was being mass-produced in Israel and transported around the Mediterranean during this time (Whitehouse 2003).

The glass-maker, we can argue, was maldng princi­pally windows and lamps for the great new church and

removed completely, its alignment being indicated by a robber cut (5851). This removal appears to be directly associated with the construction of the phase 4 Atrium wall (5547/461 0). The bell-pit was situated a little down­slope ofthe glass-ldlns, roughly 0.8 m lower in level, due to the terracing of the area. Few signs of prior activity existed here. The earliest layers were identi:fied as orange alluvial clays (5722), as in the other areas. The only features here relating to the earliest industriai activity of the Temporary Workshops were three post­hole cuts (57 1 5, 5716, 5497), a shallow square pit (5664) and a shallow gully (5663). These rather insig­nificant features were associated with the copper-alloy­ldln phase, judging from the inclusions of slag and crucible within their :fills. These features were all covered by a more significant layer ofyellow-brown clay (5442/ 549 1 ). This levelling layer was full of a mixture of finds, including iron nails, glass fragments and bone; but most significantly it contained 1 .2 kg of copper crucibles, marking the end of that kiln's activity in the Temporary

148 CHAPTER FNE

Wall 5 136

Wall 4610

Wall 5089

Wa11 5568

ds çj}594

50628�

Q y � 5596

5590

5600�

5505

J

Wall 4634

Wall 46 14

FIG. 5.23. The bell-casting pits and associated features below the South Tower of the Eastwork. (SL)

Workshops. Interestingly, this layer also contained three worked flints, a flint point and a fragment of a blade and a fragment of a volcanic quern-stone (see Chapter 9, p. 399, Cat. 1-5).

The next series of features most likely was asso­ciated with the preparation of the area for the bell-pit.

Cutting the levelling layer (5442/5491) on the western side of the area was a shallow linear gulley (5461), running north-south, possibly a drainage ditch. It was 0.2 m deep and sloped downwards to the north. On the east side of the area a second brown clay layer (5503) was deposited above 5442/5491 . Into this clay

layer seven post-holes were cut: 5590, 5592, 5594, 5596, 5598, 5628 and 5633 . Arranged in a slight curve, the post-holes possibly represent scaffolding related to construction of the bell-pit. Another gully was cut into the clay layers at the same level as the post-holes. This linear cut (5489/5505) ran east-west across the southern side of the area and appeared to continue under the later wall (4614) to the east; this may have been another drainage ditch. It was cut by the construction cut (5507) for wall 5089, which ran north-south across the centre of this area. Excavation showed that this wall tumed just under later wall 5 136, and ran east-west as wall 5568. These walls were built from travertine blocks with grey mortar bonding. The walls survived to a height of 0 .5 m, though the full length of wall 5568 is unknown as it ran beneath later walls in the area. The positioning of these walls suggests that they were related to the bell­making process. The final preparation of this area for the bell-pit appears to have been the making ofworking surface 5562. This was a dark brown clay, 0.25 m deep, that covers the area, butting up against walls 5089 and 5568. This clay surface was cut by the bell-pits and had a large amount of trampled inclusions on its surface, including charcoal, ash and broken tile, along with pot, bone, copper and iron pieces. There were also eighteen pieces of soapstone, 323 g of bell-mould and a near-complete copper-working crucible (SF 1412) found within the deposit.

Evidence for bell-casting followed in the form of two pits cut into the clay surface (5562) situated either side of wall 5089. The pit on the eastern si de of the wall (553 1) was rectangular in shape, measured 1 . 1 5 x 0.56 m and was 0.95 m deep. This was lined with clean, yellow clay (5540), which lipped over the upper edge of the pit and probably functioned initially as a water reservoir. On the west side of the wall, a small concentration of tiles was found to be part of the cut of a large, oval pit (5677). This was almost certainly used for the casting of the bell. The majority of the pit was hidden beneath a large, later (phase 5al/2) stair block, although it was possible to ascertain that the pit was at least 1 .5 m wide and at least 3 m deep, although the base was never excavated fully. The sides of the feature changed from a vertical to a sloping incline and contained a complex series of fills. The earliest fill was grey-green coloured clay (5792), used to line the sides of the pit. Pieces of carbonized wood were visible, pressed into the lining. Around the sides of the pit, embedded into the clay, were the remains of a second lining made of travertine, limestone and

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 49

tile fragments (5793). A large number of tiles was concentrated around the upper edges of the pit lining. Part of the clay lining was found burnt and slumped against the south side of the feature, containing an iron hook-like object (SF 1435), together with an upturned structure (5702), made from imbrex tiles and clay. This feature possibly represents the remains of a vaulted flue channel, similar to the one excavated at Santi Trinita of Venosa (Vidale et al. 1992). One final feature in this area associated with the bell-casting activity was a small stone feature located about l m southeast of pit 553 1 . This feature (5600) was built from limestone and travertine blocks with burnt tile, and was just one course high, measuring 0.5 x 0. 1 8 m. It was set into the clay (5662) and was heavily burnt, suggesting it was a small furnace.

Due to the difficulties in transporting a finished bell, casting often took place a short distance from where it was to be housed. It is understandable, therefore, that many bell-pits have been discovered below the naves and bell-towers of medieval churches (Neri 2006), such as the Italian examples of Santa Cornelia in Lazio (Christie and Daniels 1 99 1), San Paolo di Valdiponte in Umbria (Blagg 1974), Sant'Andrea di Sarzana in Liguria and Santi Giovanni e Reparata in Lucca (Neri 2006). The same consideration possibly applied at San Vincenzo, although the South Tower below which the bell-making pit was found was built some time after the bell-kilns had gone out of use. The excavations did not reveal clearly an earlier structure associated with the bell-kilns, although it could be thought that the bell they were casting was intended for a prototype of the South Tower that existed above or alongside the first Atrium (see Chapter 4, pp. 12 1-2).

The making of a bell involves three stages: the formation of the mould from clay ( comprising an inner and an outer shell containing a false bell), the pre-firing of the mould, and, finally, the casting of the bell itself. For the second and third stages, a large pit was required to contain the heat, and quite often the same pit was used for both processes. This was obviously the case at San Vincenzo with the larger of the two pits (5677), a clay-lined, oval hole that had been dug deep into the natural clay. The fills within the pit, which measured over 3 m deep, suggested that it functioned prirnarily as the firing-pit for the bell­moulds and immediately after for the actual casting using molten copper alloy. The methods used to make and fire the moulds and to cast the bell were probably similar to those described by Theophilus in De Diversis

I SO CHAPTER FNE

FIG. 5 . 24. The formation of a bell-mould using a lathe. (After Theophilus, D e D iver s is A rt i bu s , book /Il eh. 85, fig. 2 1

(Dodwe/1 1961 ))

Artibus (Dodwell 1 961 : 1 50-8; Neri 2004; Neri 2006). His detailed description is probably the earliest known, western account of bell-making. During the first stage, the inner part of the mould, called the core, was formed from well-kneaded clay around a wooden spindle set on a lathe (Fig. 5 .24). The actual form of the bell was then prepared around the core, using sheets of tallow applied with a hot iron. Any decoration required on the finished bell was inscribed into the tallow using sharp tools.

The San Vincenzo bell almost certainly was made using a false bell of wax or tallow (lost-wax casting) rather than of clay or loam (loam-pattern casting). The latter is probably a post-medieval technique that developed in response to the high price of tallow and that is described by the sixteenth-century writer Vanoccio Biringuccio (De la Pirotechnica VI: 203-1 3; Smith and Gnudi 1980). The method differs from that described by Theophilus in that it requires the separate firing of the inner and outer moulds, and a false beli made of clay rather than wax. 1 In an archaeo­logical context it is possible to assign bell-mould residues to one of the two methods on the basis of their colouration: the lost-wax method generally results in blacker mould fragments, particularly of the cope or outer mould, as a result of the greater reducing atmos­phere obtained during firing. A preliminary examination ofthe San Vincenzo bell-mould suggests that perhaps as many as 95% of the mould fragments were reduced, a quite clear indication of the use of the lost-wax

method, although a full analysis of the material has yet to take place.

To complete the first process described by Theo­philus, the outer mould or cope was formed around the wax bell, again using well-knead.�d clay. The wooden spindle was extracted from the centre of the mould and a U-shaped iron fitting for the clapper was inserted into the upper part of the structure. The canon moulds for hanging the bell were also formed at this time, and iron hoops were fitted around the outside of the cope, ' . . . so close together that there is not more than a handbreadth between them' (Theo­philus, De Diversis Artibus 3 . 85; Dodwell 196 1 : 1 52). Two further layers of clay were then applied to the cope to cover the hoops. When the mould was dry i t was turned on its side and the centre of the core was partially hollowed out in order to lighten the mould and to ensure that it would be fired thoroughly.

During the second operation to fire the moulds, the completed bell-mould, consisting of the inner core, the outer cope and the false wax bell, would have been lowered into a prepared firing pit (Fig. 5.25). Because of its weight, the mould had to be lowered slowly and carefully. This involved filling the pit with earth and using four wooden posts as guides to lower the mould, as it was tilted from side to side and the earth was removed :from under it. At the base of the pit was a stone and clay channel within which the fire was to burn. The fire channel \vas not located within the San Vincenzo pit due to the in situ staircase.

Smelting fuma ce

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 5 1

FIG. 5 .25 . Reconstruction of the prepared bell-mould within the fìring-pit. (After Theophilus, D e D iver s is Art i bu s , book /Il

eh. 85, fig. 23 (Dodwe/1 1961))

However, in one corner, an uptumed structure made :from imbrex tiles and clay was found, which possibly denotes the remains of a vaulted flue channel.

During the lost-wax process described by Theophilus, two holes were made within the base of the mould and the fire was set. Pots were placed below the holes to collect the tallow as the false bell melted and a stone fumace structure was quickly built around the mould. When the tallow had drained completely, the holes were plugged with clay, the pit was filled with wood and covered, and the mould was fired continually for a day and a night. Theophilus describes how, whilst the mould was being fired, the bronze-smelting furnaces were prepared on the ground, close to the firing pit (Neri 2006). These comprised iron vessels lined with clay, which were contained within stone and clay fumace structures. Bellows were then attached to the fumaces using wooden stakes. When the mould in the pit was red hot and the firing was nearing completion, the bell­metal was prepared using four parts copper, one part tin and a quantity of charcoal.

The next stage was crucial in terms of timing and involved the ripping out of the temporary furnace structure :from the pit, a job that ' . . . do es not require indolent workmen, but quick, keen ones, for fear the mould be broken by carelessness of any kind, or some one gets in the way of, or hurts another or makes him lose his temper' (Theophilus, De Diversis Artibus 3 .85; Dodwell 1 96 1 : 1 55). After the complete removal of the fire and fumace structure, the pit was refilled with earth, which was packed tightly around the glowing mould, in order to support it during the casting operation.

The casting of the bell would have followed immediately, and Theophilus relates how the smelting furnaces were quickly demolished and the molten bronze was poured into the mould by hand :from the iron crucibles. An alternative method, which involves channelling the molten metal directly into the mould from a single, large crucible, is also described by him. The evidence from San Vincenzo suggests that the metal was poured by hand from ceramic crucibles

1 52 CHAPTER FNE

rather than channelled into the mould - an incredible quantity, almost 2.5 kg, of crucible fragments was recovered from the two excavated bell-pits. Although the material has not been analysed, some of the pieces have been reconstructed to form small, bowl-type crucibles, many of which have traces of copper alloy on their inner surfaces.

The majority of the crucible fragments was contained within the second pit, located slightly to the east of the bell-casting pit. This pit, which was lined with thick yellow day, probably functioned initially as a day quarry and water reservoir during the making of the mould. The feature may have been utilized subsequently as part of the smelting fumace. The only visible remains of a possible furnace consisted of a burnt stone structure, located on the ground surface dose to the p i t. The presence of over l O kg of bell­mould fragments within the pit showed that it had been backfilled after the bell had been cast and that all associated structures had been destroyed. Theo­philus 's final passage recounts how, after the casting operation was complete, the bell was raised from the pit: the earth surrounding the mould was quickly removed and the cope allowed to coòl slightly. The w ho le structure was then raised from the pit by packing earth below it on alternate sides, the reverse of the process described previously. Once out of the pit, the mould was laid on its side and the core was quickly extracted to prevent it expanding and cracking the bell. The mould was placed upright and once again allowed to cool. Finally, the cope was broken away and the iron hoops were removed.

A large piece of the bell-mould core was recovered some 9 m away from the pit, where it had been left against an early ninth-century wall (491 5). A prelim­inary analysis of the residue suggests that the finished bell had a diameter of 0.4-0.5 m and would have weighed in the order of 50 kg. The mould appears to be made from fine, silty day with mica indusions and occasionai pieces of organic material: usually straw, horse dung and animai hair were added.

In summary, the San Vincenzo bell-casting pit bears dose comparison with the description of bell-making recorded by Theophilus. In terms of typology, two principal types of bell-pit are known: the horizontal draught furnace, where hot air passed below the platform on which the mould stood, and the circular updraught kiln, which was stoked from a hole on one side of the pit. Although the San Vincenzo bell-pit was not fully excavated, it seems more likely that it falls within the second category. The distinction

seems to be geographical rather than chronological, with most, although not all, of the circular bell-pits confined to Italy (cf. Neri 2006). The San Vincenzo bell-pit is probably one ofthe earliest circular examples known in Europe: a bell-pit of the horizontal type was excavated at Santa Cornelia (Christie and Daniels 1 99 1 : 24-6) dating to c. 875.

PHASES 4A6/7: THE BUILDERS' YARD AND THE ATRIUM CONSTRUCTION

The bell-pits represent the final phase of industriai activity in the Temporary Workshops before the construction of the Atrium began and the builders ' yard carne into operation (Fig. 5 .26). Both pits were backfilled with a series of tip deposits and generai demolition from the kiln structure itself. In pit 553 1 the main backfill was a thick deposit (5532), 0.9 m deep, comprised largely of stone and tile demolition, along with mortar lumps and non-local stone. This deposit �lso contained 350 g of crucible, 1 . 7 kg of bell-mould and l kg of broken pottery. The top fill of this pit (5527) consisted of a 0 . 1 m deep deposit rich in burnt day and charcoal, as well as 365 g of érucible and 6. 1 kg ofbell-mould. The larger bell-pit (5677) was backfilled with a succession of five mixed demolition deposits (57 1 8, 5725, 57 19, 5714, 5674) (Fig. 5 .27). These deposits were full of ash, burnt day, charcoal, copper slag and tile fragments, along with a large number of crucible and bell-mould fragments. After the refilling of the pits, the workshop area was levelled with building debris and day. The remains of the kilns and their waste products were spread over a wide area. In area FF /G excavation revealed three day levelling layers: 5579 was the first levelling layer followed by 5552 and 5553 . These layers all contained many bell­mould fragments, along with dumps of ash and char­coal. Similarly in FF IF a seri es of tipped levelling layers covered this area; 5657 appeared to be the initial levelling of the area, followed by a series of tip deposits, covered finally by 5727/5786. This last level­ling layer was cut by 5832, which was interpreted as the construction cut for the foundation wall (5547) of the east wall of the Atrium. This was dearly bonded to wall 5391 , which ran east-west creating the north wall of the Atrium. This north wall continued west below the final phase of the Atrium, wall 5 1 8 1 , as shown in the excavations in area FF/I (Fig. 5.28). The southern foundation wall of the phase 4 Atrium was found in FF/C- 1 as wal1 47 12. The relationship between

Wall 5 1 8 1

• • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • •

o 20m

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS 1 53

Foundations 5391

Foundations 4712

\

Area of the builders' yard

D Construction of the Atrium

FIG. 5 .26. The construction of the Atrium and the location of the builders' yard and mortar-mixer. (SL)

Phase 5 staìr block

South

!m

FIG. 5 .27. West-facing section through the deposits fìlling the bell­

pit (5677) below the phase 5 stair block (4650). (SL)

5547 and this south wall was not dear. However, the fact that it had been robbed and levelled, as 5391 had been on the north side, suggests they were contem­porary (cf. Chapter 4, pp. 96-7). The east wall (5547) was dearly butted by layer 5588; this was a mixed mortar, day and ash layer, trampled down to create a working surface - the so-called builders' yard (Fig. 5 .29). It is the sequence of features that were cut into this surface that suggests there were two phases to the construction of the Atrium. Post-holes, perhaps for scaffolding posts related to the continued building of the Atrium, were cut into this layer, along with a large mortar-mixer, dearly associated with the construction of the Atrium.

The mixer resembled the eleventh-century mortar­mixer found in the Garden by the South Church (Riddler 1 993a: 206-8). It consisted of a circular feature with a diameter of approximately 3 . 5 m and a depth of 0 .2 m (Fig. 5.30); and it had a square pivot­hole. The mixer had been cut in halfby the construction ofthe foundations (5831 ) for wal1 4603 . These founda­tions dearly butted the northern wall (539 1), showing a dear divide between the two principal construction phases of the Atrium (see Chapter 4, pp. 96-7). This later wall addition shows that the phase 4a7 Atrium was a large open area in front of the main Basilica, into which the phase 5 vaulted corridor was inserted when the elevated Eastwork was added.

l 54 CHAPTER FIVE

FIG. 5.28 . The standing remains of the north wall of the

Atrium (5 1 8 1 ) and its foundations (539 1 ). (RH)

FIG . 5.30. The mortar-mixer

(5436) cut in half by the phase Sa

Atrium wall (4603). (IWA)

FIG. 5.29. The builders' yard surface in area FF/F looking north,

showing the construction features cut through it. (IWA)

DISCUSSION

The sequence of activities associated with the con­struction of San Vincenzo Maggiore and the new phase 4 monastic city merits some consideration. The Temporary Workshops appear to have made first tiles, then fine metal objects of copper alloy, then glass in prodigious quantities, and then one or more bells, before the area was given over to construction activ­ities. W e assume that the tiles were for the roof of the church and perhaps other buildings. Interestingly, though, the manufacture of copper-alloy objects -possibly lamp-chains, decorative attachments and similai[ products - preceded the huge production of glass. \vas this because the metalsmith arrived at San Vincenzo before the glass-maker? Clearly, the bell-maker undertook his activities after the Glass Workshop had been demolished. The scheduling is certainly intriguing. Quite possibly the operations of the metalsmith and the glass-maker were transferred into the extant pisé buildings (making up the first Collective Workshops) to the south once their primary tasks had been :fulfilled, and that they remained to take up residency in the later second Collective Workshops. Continuity of these practices cannot be ruled out, though the operations in the later permanent phases of the Collective Workshops were probably more limited in output than those concentrated in the Temporary Workshops.

Of the sequence of skilled artisans w ho operated in the Temporary Workshops area, only the glass-maker merited a masonry structure. The other artisans occupied either post-built timber or pisé buildings. The masonry building, of course, may have been necessary because the glass-maker required substantial firing structures including a chimney. Certainly, the glass-maker's workshop was substantial, most of which, in fact, was occupied by a centrai kiln.

The pisé structures to the south may well have begun life in some cases as post-built structures and contained post-built features, notably in the case of the west room, a timber porch. Porches in this peri od are rare in peasant dwellings (Valenti 2004: 23, fig. 9 . l , 2) but are, of course,

' known from ecclesiastica! and élite buildings.

It is tempting, then, to assume that the skilled craftsmen who made the fine copper-alloy objects, the glassware and, above all, the bell(s) were recognized as special and accommodated accordingly. Clearly, the glass­maker and the bell-maker were early practitioners of arts that were to be much lauded by Theophilus in the twelfth century. These craftsmen were probably

TEMPORARY WORKSHOPS l 55

members of small international communities who, in the case of glass-making, had extensive mediterranean connections and, in the case of bell-making, belonged to the first generation to comprehend the di:fficult process of making bells (cf. Neri 2006: 10-12, 24-6). It seems equally likely that the tile-maker was of a similar standing (cf. Moran 2000: 176-83). Tile production on this scale required the confidence to assemble materials and fire the products effectively. Plainly this had not happened at San Vincenzo al Volturno in the eighth century. It is therefore likely that the artisan was one of the small group of specialists who enabled Abbot Joshua to realize his vaunting ambition. All ofthese specialists established procedures in their crafts that were to be followed on future occasions. So, in the case of the tile-maker, similar production technology was to be employed in making the New Abbey 300 years later (Bowden and Gruber 2006). In short, the discoveries under the Atrium provide a paradigmatic benchmark for the effective first use of many crafts that were to become the hall­marks of monastic life during the high Middle Ages.

The inscription above the door of San Vincenzo Maggiore, of course, mentions the involvement of the monks in the construction of the Basilica (cf. Chapter 2, p. 36). The intensity of artisanal activity generated by the demands of Abbot Joshua's plans for the monastery is likely to have provided some of the monks of San Vincenzo with a variety of activities to perform during the interludes between the o:ffices. Of course, it is by no means unlikely that within such a large community there were to be found individuals skilled in diverse crafts, such as smiths, masons and carpenters, and other craftsmen prepared to lend their expertise. Equally, monks may have been engaged to carry and fetch the materials needed in these industriai activities, especially water and wood. Despite the graduai elimination of obligatory manual work from the lives of later eighth- and ninth-century monks, numerous sources attest to the activity of members of monastic communities in the building sites and workshops that existed in Lombard and Carolingian abbeys at this time.

An emphasis on the preconception and planning of complex programmes characterizes the descriptions of Carolingian-period building projects. Of the construc­tion of the Carolingian imperial palace complex at Aachen, Notker the Stammerer, a monk of Saint Gall, wrote: 'He [Charlemagne] conceived the idea of constructing on his native soil and according to his own plan a cathedral which should be finer than the ancient buildings of the Romans . . . To help him in

156 CHAPTER FIVE

this building he summoned from all the lands beyond the seas architects and workmen skilled in every relevant art. He placed in charge of them all a certain ab bot w ho was most experienced in this sort of work' (Notker, De Carola Magno 1 .28; Thorpe 1969: 125). In this celebrated account, Notker appears to be describing a peculiar formula that was to characterize the organization ofbuilding projects in the Carolingian world. An initiative first took the form of a plan devised by a member of the secular or ecclesiastica! élite. The services of architects, masons and craftsmen were then acquired as an essential element of the plan, and they were placed under the supervision of an appointed and suitably experienced individuai also of élite status - in most cases an abbot.

With the gradual elimination of compulsory labour from the li ves of ninth-century monks, the role assumed by the monastic élite in the initiation and management of schemes involving the services of architects, masons and craftsmen is revealing. While we read of monks involved in the practice of diverse arts and crafts, of all the medieval craftsmen whose names are given in documents for the period from the ninth to the thir­teenth centuries, only a minority is in fact identifiable as either monks or churchmen. The vast majority of medieval craftsmen was laymen. Of those identifiable as ecclesiastics, such individuals appear to be patrons of élite status - abbots and bishops. So, Notker wrote of the building of the imperial Carolingian palace at Aachen that the services of masons and craftsmen were obtained under the orders of the emperor himself; the craftsmen were then placed in the charge of an ab bot. In the increasingly hierarchical society of early medieval Europe, the monastic élite assumed contro l of the services of the lower order of society in order to express its social position and cultural ambition. The status attributed to the lay craftsman is expressed by the description of Winihart: 'Such humility was in them, that such perfect men did not disdain to perform menial tasks in their own person' (as quoted by Mabillon (1723 : 42 1) and Swartwout ( 1932: 93)).

N oTES

l . As at San Vincenzo, one would not expect t o recover any baked

clay fragments derived from a false bell.

THE FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE W ORKSHOPS Richard Hodges and Sarah Leppard

INTRODUCTION

W hile ,Ue construction ofthe Atrium of San Vincenzo Maggiore and the range of structures that fom\ed its front proceeded across the area of the builders ' yard, preparations were made to

form a new workshop complex along the south side of the Basilica. By the first quarter of the ninth century a row ofbuildings had been erected, some ofwhich incorporated the former craftsmen's storerooms and lodgings described in Chapter 5 (Fig. 6.1 ). This line of buildings has been termed the first Collective Workshops, although, as we shall see, very little of it has survived.

The second Collective Workshops, which succeeded the first building complex, appear to have been intended as a permanent arrangement, where the monastery's skilled artisans would work to meet the long-term requirements of the ninth-century community. The structure can be compared broadly with the workshop complex delineated on the parchment drawing of the Plan of Saint Gall, c. 830 (Horn and Bom 1 979: I, xxiv, buildings 25--6). On this schematic plan, the collective workshop is subdivided into a number of separate but interdependent rooms occupied by practitioners of diverse crafts. The work­shop at San Vincenzo reveals a similar arrangement, with each of the excavated rooms in the building being devoted either to a specific craft or to administration. Like those depicted on the Plan of Saint Gall, the San Vincenzo buildings, though separate, are interconnected. And like those ofthe Carolingian monastery, the various craftsmen appear to have enjoyed a certain interdependence.

The Collective Workshops were excavated over many years ( 1982-4, 1989-93, 1 996-7) as the opportunity aro se to ex cavate the patchwork of parcels of land that occupi ed this p art of the si te. It is likely, however, that further rooms exist to the west (sealed below the eleventh-century cloister) and to the east, where the open field promises relatively simple excavation.

The complex archaeological conditions, further complicated by excavating in trenches over nearly fifteen years, has made the interpretation of these important buildings particularly diffìcult. However, the essential chronological character is as follows. First, the area south of the Atrium was occupied by pisé buildings (erected in phase 3c/4al to accommodate and serve the phases 4al--6 temporary artisanal activities, as described in Chapter 5, pp. 129-35). In phase 4a6, with the demolition of the Temporary Workshops and the levelling of the area to accommodate the Atrium, tips of refuse were spread out to the south of the Atrium, and, tellingly, to the east of the extant pisé buildings. These tips were the levelling on which not only the phase 4a7 Atrium was constructed but also the first Collective Workshops, a limited prototype of its second form. Soon afterwards, however, with the reconstruction of the east end of the Atrium and the making of the Eastwork with a vaulted corridor behind it, the second Collective Workshops were made, replacing the simpler prototype. A key feature ofthis second version was the alignment ofRoom B with the vaulted corridor to the yard on the south side ofthe second Col­lective Workshops, thus extending the passageway. In other words, we have associated the making ofthe line ofworkshops A-D with the insertion ofthe vaulted corridor below the Atrium in phase Sal .

The excavations also brought to light three further episodes in the history of the second Collective Workshops: modifications in phase 5a2; a fire in the second half of the ninth century (phase 5b l ); and the cataclysmic destruction of the complex as a result ofbeing set alight by fire-bearing arrows in 881 (T ab le 6.1 ) .

THE FIRST COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS

The Collective Workshops appear to have been conceived as an integral part of Abbot Joshua's building programme. The evidence suggests that the construction of the complex took place

I S8 CHAPTER SIX

Phase 4al -S

Phase 4a7 /Sa

Phase Sal

o o o o o o o o o

r:-r .. __ _ / - - ' L�'" ! � � ����� . . . -- '<

o

Construction of the Basilica & Atrium Pisé buildings

GT-J;:�JJ Demolished Room B Construction of the Atrium pisé wall

. . . . . . . . .

Builders' yard

O 20m ---=::::11--==· Second Collective Workshop

FIG . 6. l. The Collective Workshops in phases 4a i -Sa l . (SL)

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS I S9

T ABLE 6. l . The construction sequences related to the Col lective Workshops.

First Collective Workshops Phases 4a6-7 to Sa Pisé buildings (E and F) with an associated walled enclosure, and industriai activity in the new Room B

Second Collective Workshops Phase Sa l Line of buildings (A to F); A-D constructed of rubble and mortar; E and F in pisé with timber details

Phase Sa2 Line of buildings modifìed to include two apartments (Rooms C and F) and a granary (Room D); timber partitions; cocciopesto floors; formation of the associated midden in the vaulted corridor

Phase Sb l Room D destroyed by localized fire; Rooms D, E and F used for temporary storage

Phase Se Rooms A and B in use as metal workshops; Room C used for accommodation; Rooms D, E and F used for temporary storage

Phase 6 Some looting of the workshops for building materials

Phase 7 Levelled and sealed by the new eleventh-century cloisters, lying to the south of San Vincenzo Maggiore

during the construction of the Atrium. In preparation for the construction, the area was landscaped in phase 4a6 with demolition material containing industriai debris and the smashed remains of kilns, derived from the Temporary Workshops. This also involved the partial demolition of the clay-bonded builders ' complex (associated with the Temporary Workshops; Chapter S), and the subsequent realignment of this range (to align with the Basilica of San Vincenzo Maggiore) to fonn part of the fìrst Collective Work-

shops (Fig. 6.2). The excavations across the area showed several deposits were laid above the natural clays and early surfaces associated with the pisé build­ings. However, at the far eastem end, deposits S l91 and S226 appeared to be the working beaten-earth surfaces used during the systematic demolition of the pisé walls and the construction of the realigned work­shop walls. Wall S649 appears to be the earliest built wall in the realignment phase, as its construction trench cuts into the beaten earth layers mentioned

4809 S l 44 S396

o._�===--��lOm

@:R ilii'$!!11\LJ-_-_���:r :�---_-_u ____c__r_u___--"'--t,+

Enclosure

�7�- =2 · ·· · · Wall 3330 4306 demolished

4722

A

S649

FIG. 6 .2. Making the fìrst Collective Workshop in phase 4a6. (SL)

493 1

1 60 CHAPTER SIX

above. This wall, built from travertine blocks and bonded with yellow-beige mortar, was distinctly different from the pisé walls of the earlier buildings; running east-west, it formed the southern limit of what was to become Room A of the Collective Workshops. The next wall to be constructed was 575 1/493 1 (hereafter described as 493 1 ), which clearly butted up against wall 5649 and its construction trench cut into the beaten earth surfaces. This wall was similar in construction to 5649 and ran north-south, forming the eastern limit of Room A. The clay­bonded form of what later became Room D was completely demolished apart from the west wall, as shown by

FiG. 6 . 3 . The rough limestone and quartz cobbled surface in the enclosure of the fìrst

Collective Workshops. (IWA)

the discovery of the pisé wall 3330 below the later workshop surfaces, and rebuilt as a much larger, rectangular structure with mortar-bonded walls. Wall 3228 remained intact as the western limit of the area and was extended by just over 3 m to the south with the addition of wall 3229. This wall, built from rough travertine blocks and bonded with off-white mortar, formed a doorway out to the west with the southern limit wall (4306). This southern wall appeared to run east for nearly 25 m, to butt up against wall 4 722, though the last 5 m at its east end was robbed away in a later phase of the workshop occupation, so its relationship to wall 5649 can only be assumed. Contemporary with this southern wall was the construction of wall 4809, forming the northern limit of this large rectangular structure. This wall, again built from travertine blocks and hard mortar, was built over the earlier wall of the pisé phase building, though p art of this earlier wall ( 5 144) appeared to have been kept standing at its eastern end to form the northern wall of what later became Room B, where, as with the southern wall, it was later robbed away. At the eastern end what remained of the wall was seen to be bonded with a north-south wall of the pisé phase. This wall was built over by wall 4 722, defining the eastern limi t of the large rectangular structure, and divided the area from the far eastern room. The north wall may have carried on to the east, creating the northern limit of the easternmost room, the line of which is now represented by the slightly later built wall (491 5) . The east-west running wall (5396) that was seen below the later wall may have been the continuation of wall 5 144, though not much of it was

left to determine the relationships, due to later wall 491 5 and the eleventh-century wall (4033), which was also built across this earlier wall.

The new structure, which extended for a total of 28 m from east to west and was 1 1 m wide, formed an initial yard or enclosure, with a separate room at the eastern end. Inside, the yard was roughly paved with limestone and quartz cobbles (Fig. 6.3). At the western end of the main enclosure structure the surface (3366) associated with the pisé buildings appeared to be reused and another hard-packed clay deposit was laid between the demolished pisé wall (3330) and the new southern wall ( 4306) to leve l this small area up. Laid across the east end of the area was a large levelling deposit (5 1 94); a similar level occurred in the eastern room, where a thick deposit (5 1 57) was found.

It appeared that the land sloped sharply down to the east, towards the river Volturno, necessitating the need for thick levelling deposits at this end. The surfaces laid on these levelling layers were hard-wearing limestone and quartz cobbles (5882, 5086, 5 1 35); these surfaces appeared to have been used during the construction phase and were then levelled over with thick deposits, preparing the area for the actual workshop phase of the structures . These levelling deposits (5 194, 5837) contained heaps of ash and charcoal containing great quantities of glass, crucibles, semiprecious stones and metal objects, which were dumped above the cobbled floor. The contents of the ash dumps show that the deposits were derived from the Temporary Workshops in the Atrium area (çf. Chapter 5). It is likely that they were deposited here during the clearing ofthe builders' yard for the construction of the Atrium in phase 4a6.

The surfaces of the large enclosure structure suggest they were used for storing building materials and the generai working of the materia! needed for the construction.

No similar industriai deposits were recovered from the western side of the yard during this phase. The two westernmost rooms of the clay-bonded range (Rooms E and F) were retained in their entirety, and it is possible that they continued to be used as accom­modation during the construction of the Atrium.

The Atrium appears to have been completed at this time. The mortar surface (3347) located in the area north of the enclosure building and Room E was seen to butt against the northern wali of the enclosure ( 4809); i t was then cut by a construction trench (3352) for the phase 4a7 south Atrium wali (46 1 8). The construction of the first Atrium and the Collective Workshops enclosure essentialiy created a narro w east­west corridor separating the two structures, which presumably formed part of Abbot Joshua's pian.

ROOMS A AND B (PHASE 4A7)

It appears that, during the construction of the first Atrium, another room was created in the new aligned enclosure building with the insertion of a new wali (Fig. 6.4). This wali (4742) was inserted just over 4 m to the west of 4722; its construction trench (5 1 52) clearly cut through the earlier cobble surface (5086), dividing the large enclosure structure and creating a narrow room (from now on referred to as Room B). 1

This room, the narrowest of ali the workshops, measured 5 m east-west by 1 1 m north-south. The east wali ( 4 722), which i t shared with Room A, and the west wali (4742), which stili survives to a height of 0.7 m in places, were constructed of limestone blocks and yeliow mortar. A narrow doorway was visible in the southern end of the western wali (4742), providing access to the open room to the west that later became Rooms C and D; this doorway appeared to have been blocked during phase 5a, when the room was divided into two workshops and in Room C a kiln ( 43 17) was built against i t. There was no evidence of a doorway in the east wali ( 4 722) providing access from Room B into Room A, and it is possible that the only access to Room A was from the north and south sides. It appears that in this phase the north and south walls of Room B were stili intact, making it a complete (four-walled) room initially. The cobble fioor (5086) that was laid in the originai construction phase of the workshops was covered

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTNE WORKSHOPS 1 6 1

with a yeliow clay make-up layer ( 40 1 7), and served as the working surface of the workshop ( 40 18/5085). A few pieces of bone, glass and pottery, as well as severa! copper-alloy objects, including a pin, were found trampled into this surface, along with many tiny copper-alloy droplets from the smelting. Further clues to the function of the room during this phase are provided by the discovery of a number of smali clay hearths, containing fragments of glass and crucibles, located close to the east and west walls.

In the earliest excavations carried out in the southern part of Room B two hearths were uncovered. Hearth 4058 was a shallow depression close to the eastern wall of the room near its southem end. This depression was cut into the yellow make-up ( 40 17) and was refilled with the underlying green-grey clay leveliing from the earlier levels. Set into this clay were several large lime­stone rocks that were then covered with the working floor surface ofthe room (401 8/5085). It was after this that the burning in the hearth took piace. A concentration of metal objects was found around this hearth, trampled into the floor surface, including iron keys, and cut lead and copper-alloy objects. Nearby was found a smali wheel-thrown nearly-complete crucible (SF 0680) made from a coarse fabric an d heavily fired, with residue adhering to the sides (Fig. 6.5). A second hearth ( 4052) was uncovered to the southwest of the first one. This hearth was set against the western wali of the room; although it was not excavated, lots of bumt mussel and hazelnut shelis were found concentrated around it, possibly suggesting a domestic use rather than an indus­triai one. Further bumt patches were found in these earlier excavations to the north of the hearths. Although these patches were not excavated, they may have been either other hearths or dumped bumt deposits from the two working hearths (Moreland 1 985: 40). The later excavations in the northern part of this room uncovered o ne further hearth ( 5094) set against the western w ali just over 1 .6 m south of the north wall. This hearth was similar to 4058 insofar as it was a bumt deposit set into a shallow depression in the floor surface. The three ash deposits that were associated with this hearth (5 143, 5 148, 5 149) ali contained charcoal and frequent bumt and broken tiles, as weli as lots of fragments of glass waste, metal slag and crucible fragments. Also associated with this hearth were four worked flints -three waste flakes and one worked biade (see Chapter 9, Cat. 46--9). One final patch of buming associated with this phase of activity was found just north of Room B in the east-west corridor between the Atrium and the workshops. This dump of charcoal and ash

1 62 CHAPTER SIX

5121

o 05123

5127'0 [)Y5125

t:ir\::=-��c-r---�L_ _ _ _ _ 5JA1 _ _

Room B Rooin A

4058

C)

0..._-====---====-_.Sm

FIG. 6.4. Room B in phase 4a7 with associated features in the corridor to the north. (SL)

(514115142) was cut by the later robber trench removing the northem wall of Room B, suggesting that originally this deposit would have butted up against this wall. This dump was not a hearth itself but most likely associated with the cleaning out of the hearths in Room B. The

ash contained plentiful amounts of glass waste, metal waste and crucible fragments like the other hearths.

Excavations immediately north of Room B revealed several post-holes of this phase associated with the construction of three large stone pier bases that may

/ l

FIG. 6.5 . Copper-alloy crucible (SF 0680) recovered from Room B. (JBB)

represent the remains of a wooden staircase leading up to the southeast corner of the first Atrium and possibly to a small bell-tower (possibly a prototype for the later South Tower; see Chapter 4, p. 121): These post-holes (5119, 5121, 5123, 5125, 5127, 5137) and two of the three pier bases (5098, 5167) all cut through the fioor surface (5097) associated with the first industriai activity in the new Room B.

THE SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS

After the surfaces of the first, large enclosure structure were covered aver with the thick levelling deposits of material from the Temporary Workshops, it appears that another division wall was inserted before the industriai use of the workshops began (Fig.' 6.6). This second division wall (4305) was built dividing the remaining part of the large enclosure structure into two rooms. It is not clear if this second division wall was contemporary with wall 4742, but it seems likely now that it was constructed sometime after Room B was created. This new division wall (4305) was inserted another 6.5 m to the west of 4742, stopping 1.2 m away from the south wall to create a doorway between two rooms, the smaller, Room C, measuring 6.5 m in width and the larger, Room D, measuring l O m wide. The resulting complex comprised at least four rectangular and square units. Progressing from east to west these are referred to as Rooms A, B, C, and D. Together with the pisé buildings (Rooms E and F), located immediately to the west, they formed the nucleus of a range of workshops situated along

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 63

the south side of the new monastery (Fig. 6.6). Additional buildings may have existed to the east and west, suggested by glimpses of walls and more floor surfaces continuing into the trench edges, but these were not excav­ated. The formation of these individuai workshop buildings belongs to the period after the first Atrium was completed and, probably, when the East­work was made and the vaulted corridor connected the Upper Thoroughfare to the rear of Room B. The Collective Workshops, of course, could have been constructed at any time after the first Atrium, or, indeed, after the making of the Eastwork with its vaulted corridor (cf Fig. 4. 1 ).

Two main phàses of activity were identified within each room of the Collective Workshops complex. Relatively little is known of the specific activities that took place within the individuai rooms during the first phase, before the extensive changes to the rooms in phase 5à2. The principal information for the earlier ninth century comes from tip layers that represent the removal of tons of working refuse and debris from these early workshops. The midden tips, we surmise, were created when the buildings were cleared to facilitate major structural changes, probably in the 840s. The second phase of activity within the Col­lective Workshops, which relates to the period between c. 840/850 and 881, began with structural alterations that included the introduction of timber partitions and the laying of fine cocciopesto floor surfaces. Changes in access were also made, including the closing of entrances that had existed between and through the separate rooms. Emphasis instead was placed on directing access to and from the south of the workshop range. This was accomplished by the introduction of large doorways, wide enough for carts in some cases, in the south walls. The changes differ for each room and are discussed individually below.

ROOM A

PHASE 5Al Room A measured 7 m east-west by 11 m north-south and was poorly preserved on its eastem side, its walls surviving to just above floor level (Fig. 6.7). Signs of robber trenches show that the eastem wall was partially removed before it finally collapsed sometime after the

1 64 CHAPTER SIX

D c

o-.....-===--==lOm

FIG. 6 .6 . The second Collective Workshops in phase Sa l . (SL)

Phase Sal Phase 5a2

Floor 5260

Wall 5649

o 5m

FIG. 6 .7 . Room A in phases Sa l and Sa2. (SL)

r :

B

Wall 49 1 5

\'J Do

A

te n 1\ Tile floor

4993/5 1 87

Wall 493 1

subsequent eleventh-century occupation of the area, when this area was covered by the east side of the new cloisters. During the :first phase, narrow doors may have existed at the west ends of the south (5649) and north (49 1 5) walls, providing access north to the Atrium and Eastwork, and south to potentially further workshops beyond this known complex. The eleventh-century wall (4033) appeared to be built through these doorways, slightly obscuring them. The quartz and tile cobbled floor (5 1 58) that had been laid during the use of the large enclosure appeared to have been used for the construction work of this room. A :fine silt (5341) was removed during the excavations to reveal this surface and may represent a short period of disuse while the rest of the workshops were being constructed. Above this silt deposit was a compact, heavily trampled surface of crushed tile fragments and sandy clay (5260), which was between 0 . 1 and 0.2 m thick and covered the entire area of the room. This surface may represent the actual working floor of the :first industriai use of this room, as i t was littered with glass waste materia! and crucible fragments, and ash and charcoal were trampled into it. This surface was covered by a series of ash dumps (5 198, 5200, 5259), which were laid to level the earlier surface of the room. These ash dumps contained a rich assemblage of industriai waste that appeared to have come from the Temporary Workshops. In particular, over 1 ,500 fragments of glass were recovered, including gilded sherds similar to those found in the phase 4a4 Glass Workshop (Chapter 5, pp. 141-7). A large quantity of crucible fragments, glass tesserae and beads were also found, together with a silver­plated gem-setting, copper-alloy strips, an iron knife biade or tool and a bell-mould, including part of the inner cast of a bell. The presence of so much of this earlier industriai waste in these dumps lying on the working surface may represent the disturbance after the earthquake in 848 of terrace levelling deposits taken from the earlier Temporary Workshops.

Evidence of rebuilding was also present in Room A: the north wall (491 5) appeared to be constructed through t"Qe ash levelling layers mentioned above; excavation revealed the earlier wall (5396) from the :first construction phase beneath 491 5 . The difference in the earlier deposits either si de of this wall provides evidence that there was always a dividing wall here and that 49 1 5 must have been a rebuild of an earlier wall. The last series of ashy levelling deposits (5200, 5214, 5745) was laid for the preparation of the next phase of industriai use in Room A. A small collection

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 65

of objects was recovered from these layers, including a silver denier of Prince Sico of Benevento (8 1 7-32) (Cat. 1 0.2; Fig. 7. 1 1 7). This coin, which was one of two silver deniers found in Room A, may have been intended to provide silver for the silvering of :fine­metalwork. It provides a reasonably secure date for the :first phase of activity in the room in either the 820s or early 830s. The presence of further gilded glass fragments found within these ash deposits as well as glass beads again may be due to the disturbance of deposits from the Temporary Workshops and the glass-kiln activity. Small fragments of materia! relating to metalworking, in particular a copper-alloy gemstone setting (SF 1 009) with silver-plating, were also found within these layers and may have come from the potential metal workshop in Room B (see below, pp. 1 69, 1 7 1 ).

PHASES 5A2 AND Se A second phase of activity concerned the rebuilding of the north wall and the levelling of the room with the disturbed deposits from the Temporary Workshops. A bench (5692) was constructed along the east wall ( 493 1) (Fig. 6. 7). This bench was constructed with travertine and water-worn limestone boulders, bonded with a pink-beige soft mortar. It survived only in a single course of stones and was constructed through the levelling layers covering the :first phase floors. A thick layer of yellow mortar ( 4992/5698) was laid abutting the bench, as mortar bedding for the tile floor (4993/5 1 87) that was to be the working surface for the second phase of industriai activity in this room. The second silver denier of Prince Sico of Benevento (8 17-32) (Cat. 1 0. 1 ; Fig. 7. 1 1 7) was found in the bedding layer, just above the levelling layer in which the :first coin was found, showing the levelling and the laying of the bedding for the tile floor as being contemporary. Traces of plaster found adhering to the side of the bench show that the room was decorated and probably painted. The :fine tiled pave­ment ( 4993/5 1 87) was evident from surviving frag­ments and, where absent, from distinct impressions visible in the mortar foundation (Fig. 6.8). A second, silty occupation layer (5 171 /5693), which had formed above the remains of the floor, showed that the room had fallen into a state of disrepair by the time of the Arab attack. This silty deposit covered most of the area of Room A and was up to 20 mm thick in p laces. Some clues as to the function of the room during the last years of its use are provided by a number of remarkable objects found within it. The artefacts

166 CHAPTER SIX

FIG. 6.8. The tiled pavement (4993/

5 1 87) in Room A looking

northeast. (IWA)

carne from thr ee significant deposits. The fir st was the occupation layer above the tiled floor (5 1 7 1/5693), wher e a number of copper -alloy objects, including an open-ended r ing (SF 1448), a small tack (Cat. 1 .84), sheet fragments and pieces of beaded wir e, was r ecover ed. A small ir on chisel (Cat. 2.29) was aiso found. The second deposit (5676/4941 ) consisted of a r ich, biack Iayer of char coai and vitr ified mater ial, which r eiates to the fir e sustained in 88 1 . In this deposit, ar tefacts such as SF 1453, a small damaged celi of cloisonné enamel measur ing 490 x l O x 3 .5 mm (Cat. 5 .3 ; Fig. 7.37 and Plate 7.4), heips to deter mine the use of the r oom. The thir d deposit (5029) was a burnt silty sand deposit that was between 50 and l 00 mm in depth. This deposi t for med p ar t of the demolition deposits after the Sar acen attack; significantiy, it contained an ir on arr owhead (Cat. 2 .39; Fig. 7.25).

Although the finds from Room A ar e too numer ous to Iist individually, they include many fragments of copper -alloy sheet, strips, beaded wir e, tacks, ir on r ods, hooks and fittings; glass :fragments, cr ucible sher ds and glass cabochons. Mor e significantly, the damaged tray of enamel (Cat. 5 .3 ; Fig. 7.37 and Plate 7.4) depicting a Iong-stemmed flower on a gr een back­gr ound, and a Roman gemstone (Cat. 4.2; Fig. 7.35) wer e r ecover ed. The latter, a white chalcedony, was fineiy engr aved with the figur e of Bonus Eventus (Fig. 7.35). Finally, a second small and spectacuiar tray of cloisonné enamel (Cat. 5 .2; Fig. 7.37 and Plate 7.5) was discover ed her e. Though this enamel, which

has a foliate design executed in blue and yellow on a gr een backgr ound and a multicoiour ed disc at its centr e, was found in the disturbed eleventh-century deposits above the r oom, in design, constr uction and execution it is r elated dir ectly to other enamels manu­factur ed in Italy in the ninth centur y (Mitchell 2001c; below, pp. 257-9).

The assemblage of finds strongiy points to Room A being the wor kshop of a fine-metalwor ker and enameller . Notwithstanding the finds of glass and other debr is from the Tempor ar y Wor kshops that became mixed into the surfaces of this r oom, the pr incipal objects suggest that the specialist was making the tr ays and beading for such objects as r eliquar ies, book cover s and pr ocessionai cr osses.

ROOM B

PHASE 5Al As discussed above, Room B appear ed to have had an ear iier industr iai use than the other wor kshops her e. In phase 5a the r oom was aiter ed r adically: the most significant al ter ation was the r emovai of the nor thern and southern walls, cr eating a passage thr ough the wor kshops to the Atrium (Fig. 6.9). The tr ench cut (5 129) r eveaied the r emoval of the nor thern wall, which cut the floor sur face (5097) and the ash deposit (5 141/5 142). Above this cut and the ear iier floor sur faces a Ievelling Iayer was Iaid (5077/5076/5078). This deposit cover ed the corridor ar ea and spr ead into Room B. This ashy layer contained al most 2,500

Phase Sal

Floor 4927

Floor 4939

o 5m

FIG. 6.9. Room B in phases Sa l and Sa2. (SL)

fragments of giass and giass-pr oduction waste, together with fragments of cr ucibies and potter y. Sever al pieces offlint wer e found, such as a r e-touched flake (Chapter 9, Cat. 54) and the br oken end of a wor ked tooi (Chapter 9, Cat. 55), alongside an ir on knife biade (Cat. 2.21 ). Ther e w er e also :fragments of beads, shell and a semipr ecious lapis lazuii gemstone (SF 0678). This deposit appear ed simiiar to the Ievellin g deposits found in and ar ound Room A and is inter pr eted best as r esuiting from disturbed deposits from the Tempor ar y Workshops, r emoved dur ing the construction ofthe East­wor k. A t the southern end of the r oom a wide door way was cr eated by the r emovai of the earlier south wall. The linteis of this . door way wer e suppor ted by two Iar ge r eused Roman marble door -blocks (401 1, 4012), which wer e set into the western and eastern walls of the r oom (Fig. 6.1 0). The western door -biock ( 401 1 ) was a Iarge squar e biock measur ing 0 .88 x 0.88 m, in good condition, and with a cir cular doorpost hole and squar e door -jamb hole clear ly visibie in the southwest corner of the biock. The eastern door -biock (4012) was not in as good condition as the western. It was wor ked cr udeiy, and r ectanguiar r ather than squar e,

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 167

Phase 5a2

Beam 4922

though the door post hole and door -jamb hole wer e both clear iy visibie in its southeastern corner . The new door was almost the width of the r oom, wide enough for a car t or wagon to enter . Tr aces of a Iar ge wooden door (5042/5043) wer e found fallen and burnt in situ dur ing the excavations inside Room B (Fig. 6.1 l ).

Inside the r oom, the walls wer e plaster ed and modestiy painted, judgin g by the tr aces of piaster stili adher ing to the walls and from the fragments found in the burnt r ubble (5025/5026) that collapsed in from the walls after the Sar acen attack. It was pr obabiy paved with tiies. In common with the floor in Room A, this sur face was clear ly in a state of disr epair by 881, showing it had been used thr oughout the differ ent activities of this r oom and no t r enewed at any time. A new mor tar floor was laid also in the corr idor to the nor th (4927), set onto a tiie make-up (5068). As in Room A, a compact yellow mor tar floor was Iaid in the ar ea of Room B (4939), cover ing the fir st phase of industriai activity.

Room B in this phase appear s to have been a south extension of the vaulted corr idor, connecting the claustrum to the Collective Wor kshops. Decor ated

1 68 CHAPTER SIX

FIG . 6 . 1 O. Two large reused

Roman marble door-blocks (40 I l ,

40 1 2), in the south entrance of

Room B in phase Sa l . (IWA)

and floored, it belongs to the time when the Eastwork was constructed.

PHASES 5A2 AND Se The use of Room B as a passageway became unneces­sary once the vaulted corridor beneath the Atrium went out ofuse and was steadily filled with a midden. At this time Room B was altered to become a workshop. The north, wide entrance to the room was narrowed with

FIG . 6. l l . Carbonized remains of

the south door (5042/5043) lying

in situ above the mortar floor of

Room B. (IWA)

the insertion of a threshold beam (4922), creating a new entrance above the remains of the earlier, remo v ed northem wall (5 144) (Fig. 6.12).

The main feature associated with this phase ofRoom B was an oval kiln or hearth ( 4641) measuring 1 .6 x 0.5 m (Fig. 6. 1 3). The outer wall of the kiln was constructed with travertine boulders. Four inscribed ninth-century roof-tiles, with their flanges removed, had been placed within it to create a level working

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 69

platform. The kiln showed signs of intense buming, particularly in the centre, where the tiles were cracked and bumt to a deep blue-purple colour.

The evidence from Room B, particu­larly in terms of the finds recovered, suggests that the building was in use until the moment of the Saracen attack. The room appears to have been aban­doned quickly and subsequently destroyed, as a result of a fierce fire. The carbonized remains of the south door (5042/5043) provide the most vivid testimony of the event, lying where it had fallen above the mortar floor. Part of a lock mechanism, hinges, bolts, nails and two keys were found within the bumt remains (More-

FIG . 6 .12.. Burnt remains of the threshold beam (4922) at the north entrance to Room

B in phase Sa2. (IWA)

land 1985 : 44). The most telling find was the discovery of seventeen arrowheads, some of which were still embedded within the bumt remains of the door (Fig. 6. 1 4). Within the room, the evidence for the fire was substantial: the painted walls and mortar :floors were heavily scorched; the wooden door-lintel and the possible shelves or benches along the walls had been destroyed completely; a deep, black deposit of charcoal and silt (5027), containing the remains of the tiled roof, covered the :floor, with two :further deposits (5025, 5026) ofheavily bumt lime­stone, mortar and plaster fragments, lying against the west and east walls respectively. These deposits appeared to represent the collapse of the walls after the fire. A wealth of scattered and broken objects was found within the blackened remains, which, once again, allow us to reconstruct vividly the layout and organization, as well as the messy condition of the room prior to the fire. Many of the objects were recov­ered from within the bumt remains of the shelves or benches on which they had been stored. In particular, the pottery, which comprised a number of fine, red­painted jugs and bowls (Fig. 6. l 5), seems to have been shelved on the western side of the room, close to the door. On the shelves opposite was kept a lathe­tumed soapstone jar that may have been used as a crucible (Patterson 2001b: figs 1 1 :2, 1 1 :5, 1 1 :6). The jar appears to have been stored together with a number of miscellaneous metal objects that included an iron spike, a knife, a ring and a rein-shackle. A few pieces of copper sheet and strip were found, together with a hammered copper-alloy rod with a soldered handle. A few fragments of crucibles for the

l l

bumt tiles

travertine boulders

l l

FIG . 6.13. Detail of the hearth (464 1 ) at the north end of Room

B. (SL)

1 70 CHAPTER SIX

FIG. 6. 14. Location of the burnt remains

of the south door (5042/5043) and the

Saracen arrowheads found embedded in

it. (KFISL)

• Saracen arrowheads

Partition

Bumt timbers

5042/5043

o 2m

FIG. 6. 15 . Small, painted jug found dose to the door in Room B.

()55)

working of glass and copper-alloy, pieces of lead and window-glass complete the list of finds stored by the door. In the northem half of the room, the objects were all confined to the eastem shelves, dose to the kiln. They include two iron spikes, possibly the two halves of a calliper-type tool, a cut-throat razor, part of a metal sheath, lumps and fragments of copper-alloy and iron, and a little imported pottery. A concentration of pottery found alongside the walls within the bumt timbers of the fallen door may suggest that there were shelves or

o 2m

Midden deposit

4617

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTNE WORKSHOPS 1 7 1

FIG. 6 . 1 7 . Cerami c cooking pot found in the phase 5a2 midden to

the north of Room B, in the vaulted corridor. ()55)

workbenches along the walls of this room from which this pottery fell.

The function of Room B during its final phase is rather hard to determine due to the diversity of the finds. However, to judge from the large, oval kiln, the copper-working crucible and the soapstone jar, it is likely that the room was utilized for small-scale metal­working, perhaps for the intricate finishing or repair of objects. The same activity is suggested by the iron tools, by the metal objects and by the discovery of copper lumps found trampled into the floor. The presence of possible shelving or workbenches, and, particularly, of a lock on the door, bears witness to the importance of the activity that went on in the

s

FIG . 6. 1 6 . West-facing section across the corridor area north of Room B, showing the midden deposit (46 1 7). (SL)

172 CHAPTER SIX

room, and of the value of the objects stored there. As importantly, we gain a fascinating and almost full image of a late ninth-century workshop with its array of objects and its organization of space.

THE MIDDEN

Perhaps the most signifìcant evidence associated with Room B (and possibly the adjacent room) was the large black, charcoal-rich midden ( 46 17) excavated in the corridor area immediately north of the room and in the southern half of the vaulted corridor in FF IF (48 1 1) (Fig. 6. 1 6) . The midden appears to show an episode of clearance, probably when Room C was made into a dwelling for an o:fficial. It also may have contained midden material that had accumulated in the corridor between Rooms C, D, E and F, being a mixture of workshop material and domestic debris. Clearance of this corridor permitted the making of the south staircase attached to the Atrium, part of which was found collapsed into the excavations (see pp. 1 1 8-20).

In the old phase 4a7 /Sal corridor between Room B and the vaulted corridor the tips were almost a metre high. As best we could tell the tips were piled in the southern reaches of the vaulted corridor and sloped down across this earlier corridor to the new wooden partition that formed the rear wall ofRoom B in phase 5a2.

The most remarkable aspect of the midden was the quantity and nature of the finds contained within it: literally thousands of objects, including the debris of both daily domestic activities and skilled craft pro­duction, were recovered from the corridor and the thoroughfare.

The majority of the midden material comes from the assemblages of domestic refuse: over 12,000 fragments of animai bone were recovered, including those of pig, sheep, goat and cattle (see Chapter 8). Small numbers of horse, dog, cat, deer, hare/rabbit, beaver, bird and fish bones were also found. Some of the species may have been exploited for their craftworking materials of bone, horn and skin, an interpretation sustained by the discovery of tools and production waste including worked bone. Other finds from the midden included 55 kg of pottery in the form of jugs, jars and bowls (Fig. 6. 1 7) and over l 00 iron objects, such as nails, rods, tacks, buckles, horseshoes and knives. These finds obviously represent both domestic and artisanal refuse. Rather more isolated or unexplained objects include a small quantity of soapstone, fragments of glass vessels and mille.jleurs glass, glass beads, glass

stoppers, spindle-whorls, pestles and whetstones. Stran­gely, a considerable number of prehistoric stone tools, including a miniature green-schist axe, was recovered from the midden (see pp. 400, 403-4, Cat. 19-24, 58-64).

Craft production is indicated by the recovery from the midden of over l 00 pieces of worked bone, including combs, decorated trial-pieces and needles (see pp. 271-5, Cat. 7 . 1 1-20, 7 .29-50). Ivory also appears to have been worked: a small latch (Cat. 7 . l (Fig. 7.41 )) and the finely carved head of a saint with blue and violet glass eyes were found (Cat. 7.2 (Fig. 7.42 and Plate 7.9). Within the workshops, worked bone was recovered only from Rooms A and B, suggesting that these, perhaps, are the most likely locations of the first phase bone workshop. Evidence for the working of copper dating to the first phase of the Collective Workshops is provided by the discovery of l kg of crucibles, including a complete example of a copper-working crucible (Fig. 6.5). A range of copper­alloy objects, including strips, a gilded ring setting containing a large chalcedony (Cat. 4.3 (Piate 7.1 )) and five penannular brooches, were also found. Finally, although finds of window-glass were rare, 68 lead objects, including several window cames as well as lattice-work ventilating screens and strips, were retrieved (see Chapter 7, pp. 247-53).

ROOM C

PHASE SAl Room C, which measured 7 x 1 1 m, was probably the best preserved of the Collective Workshop buildings (Fig. 6. 1 8). There were two narrow doorways into the room during its initial phase. One of these was located in the southern end of the west wall (4305), giving access to the adjacent Room D. A second door situated in the northwest corner of the room, in wall 4809, permitted passage into an east-west corridor. The cobbled floor of the enclosure (5072), probably a con­tinuation of the earlier surface 5086, set within yellow mortar ( 4996), was also evident beneath this room. An orange clay (501 7), containing a little glass, crucible fragments, pottery and animai bones, represented the first phase occupation levels. In the southeast corner of the room was a small, square hearth or kiln ( 43 1 7), which had a single, heavy tile measuring about l x l m as a base: it may have been the base of a chimney (Fig. 6.19). A small bench-like structure (43 1 9), built of tiles and mortar, standing six courses high, stood to the east of the hearth, bonded onto the wall of the workshop along with a large squared

Phase 5al

Cobble floor 5072

Surface 4387

o

FIG. 6. 1 8 . Room C in phases Sa l and Sa2. (SL)

5m

block set to the north of the large tile, which, given its position, . is likely to have been the base of a chimney. This large block had two circular holes cut into its side, and it is possible that, along with the short wall (43 19), this block formed a base for the arched dome of the furnace (cf. Moreland 1 985 : 42). The large tile base was surrounded by smaller broken tiles. Few finds were associated with it - a few fragments of pottery, animai bone and glass. However, a feature to the north of this kiln held some interesting clues as to

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 73

Phase 5a2

Surface 3288

Surface 4460

o

Surface 3322

its use. In the northeast corner of the room was a large, deep pit (5 1 14) containing distinct layers of lime and organic materia! (5001) . This mixed fill contained ampie amounts of wall-plaster, charred wood and animai bone, two concentrations of pottery fragments and one concentration of glass fragments. The pit, which partially underlay the walls of the room, was probably either a lavatory or waste pit asso­ciated with the craftsmen's lodgings. Various objects were recovered from the pit, including an almost

1 7 4 CHAPTER SIX

FIG. 6. 1 9 . The small hearth or kiln

(43 1 7) in the southeast corner of

Room C. (IWA)

complete, early ninth-century ceramic jar (Fig. 6.20) and an extremely fine, globular blue-green glass-vessel with brown decorative swirls (SF 0671/0672). The pit appears to have continued in use a:fter the reconstruc­tion of Room C. A corner surround ( 48 1 6), built of tiles laid horizontally in mortar, with large upright stones bounding the edges of the feature, was built around the northern edges of the pit and bonded onto the northern and eastern walls in the corner of the room. The large stones had worked notches running from top to bottom on their outer face, and the whole feature had fragments of plaster adhering to its face near the base. This feature had a small amount of scorching on its southern edge from the attack in 881 , but was mostly protected by the standing walls.

Excavations to the south of this room revealed strong evidence that there were other rooms or work areas associated with the Collective Workshops beyond the excavations (Fig. 6. 1 8) . Just more than l m south of wall 4306 were two further features associated with glass production. These features were different in size and construction to the kiln ( 43 17), and their function was presumably different. The fonns of these features were not obviously related to a kiln structure such as 4 3 17; there w ere two shallow hollows ( 440 l ) an d a larger less defined hollow ( 4402) cut into the orange­brown clay working surface (4387). The two shallow hollows both measured 0.8 m long (east to west) and 0.5 m wide, and were between 50 and l OO mm deep. The orange-brown clay that separated the hollows

was heavily fired, showing that these features were used for an industriai activity rather than as waste pits. The larger hollow (4402), located 0.6 m east of the two other hollows, measured 0.9 m long and

FIG . 6.20. The early ninth-century ceramic jar found in pit 5 1 1 4 in

Room C. (PK)

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 75

order for the partition to stand it would have required wattle or wooden posts positioned at intervals along its length. An area of carbonized wood (3363) at the southern end of the partition slot may represent one of these support posts. A narrow, raised corridor, 1 .65 m wide at its southern end widening to 1 . 8 m at its northern end, was fonned by this partition, and gave direct access between the northern and southern doors (Fig. 6.22).

FIG . 6.2 1 . The base of a large crucible with deep blue glass remaining inside, from the

area to the south of Room C. (PK) The surface in the narrow corridor

running along the western side of the room was a cocciopesto surface (3288). This was laid on two separate

0.6 m wide, running north to south. From within the burnt fills of these features many crucible fragments, small filigree glass rods and fragments of decorated and plain vessel-glass were uncovered, as well as the base of a large crucible with about 20 mm of deep blue glass remaining inside (Moreland 1985 : 46) (Fig. 6.21 ). Considering the difference in structure and size of the different kilns in and around Room C, i t is possible to suggest that the areas were used for a range of different glass-working activities. The heavily-fired hollows to the south of the main room may well have been for glass production, while the kiln within the room was perhaps used for working the glass into vessels.

PHASES 5A2 AND Se During its second phase, Room C appears to have been remodelled lavishly into a dwelling. The western entrance was closed off and a new, small doorway was inserted into the south wall ( 4306), with a threshold stone laid (43 13). A cream-coloured hard mortar surface ( 4460) was laid across the area south of Room C, covering features associated with glass production, and possibly represented a pathway leading up to the new door. Inside the room, a wattle and plaster partition wall (3355) was placed along the western side ofthe builQ.ing. The construction trench (3337) for this partition wall cut into the earlier :floor layers. The parti­tion itself, of which a small section stili remained standing up to 0.3 m in height, appeared to be made from a rough burnt plaster that was covered in a lime­wash and painted. In one piace the construction trench was packed with tile to support the partition. No organic materia! was found in the samples of this burnt plaster to suggest it was made with daub, but in

bedding and make-up layers, which appeared to be an intentional attempt to raise the :floor in the corridor to a higher level than the :floors in the rooms. The bedding layer (3360) was a pale yellow-brown so:ft sandy mortar that had a ra:ft of stones set into it (3359). This ra:ft of tightly-packed stones fonned the compact make-up layer for the cocciopesto :floor surface. At the northern end ofthis corridor a threshold beam (3305) was laid in the doorway, above the coccio­pesto :floor. The beam was found burnt in situ -

another sign of the destructive fire that devastated the workshops. The walls were plastered and painted along their lower parts with a simple design of narrow coloured bands in red, blue and white. The remainder of the building was transfonned into two rooms by the addition of another timber partition joining the north-south partition to the eastern wall of the room ( 4 7 42). This possible partition was discovered only when the burnt destruction deposit (3353) was removed from above the workshop's :floor layers to reveal a strip of the mortar :floor that, strikingly, was not burnt. This may suggest some sort of partition wall was resting on the surface here, which protected the :floor from being burnt in the fire that destroyed the workshops. The southern room created by this parti­tion measured 5.4 m north-south by 4. 7 m east-west. It had a fine cocciopesto :floor (3322) that appears to have covered the small corner hearth/kiln/chimney base. This surface was laid on a rubble hardcore bedding (3361) of travertine stones set in a matrix of off-white mortar that covered the cobble and mortar surface of the earlier glass workshop. The east wall was plastered and painted. Of this decoration, a simple skirting survived along the base of the wall, consisting of two narrow bands of colour, grey-blue and red. The

1 7 6 CHAPTER SIX

FIG . 6.22. Room C looking south,

showing the floor surfaces and the

li ne of the partition dividing the

two small rooms from the

passageway along its west side.

(The left-hand wall (4735) belongs

to the later eleventh-century

cloister.) (IWA)

northem room created by the east-west part1t10n measured 4.5 x 4.5 m; it was covered by the same cocciopesto surface (3322). The corner pit, stili apparently in use, appears to have been isolated by a wicker screen. A large piece of plaster (5096), found face down in the pit (5 1 14), had grooves on its surface in p laces, showing something had been embedded in it. Another piece of this plaster showed the interlaced nature of lathing, suggesting it had been plastered onto a wicker screen, rather than a stone structure.

Distinctive charcoal levels relating to the attack of 881 were located across the entire room above the mortar floors. Deposit 3321 covered the surface in the two rooms on the east side of the building and contained many objects related to the use of the rooms. A thick demolition deposit (3293) consisted of bumt timbers and tiles mixed with bumt travertine blocks and scorched wall-plaster. The tiles represented the collapsed roof of the building.

A number of :finds was recovered from Room C. With the exception of a single discovery from the southem room of a large iron pickaxe (Fig. 6.23), all the objects were recovered from the northem room of the building. There, a considerable assemblage was found, including copper-alloy and lead sheets, lead and iron strips, and iron hooks and nails. The room also contained a large number of tools, including awls, chisels and an enormous pair of iron forging­tongs (SF 3486) that had been heavily bumt to a pink-red colour. One end of the tongs was bent around the other so they could grip narrow objects

l t::_��

O 4cm

FIG. 6.23 . The large iron pickaxe found in the southern part of

Room C. (J))

FIG . 6 .24. The iron forging-tongs found in Room C. (IWA)

easily (Fig. 6.24). Fifty-four iron points found grouped together (SF 3484) represent the decayed remains of a linen heckle, a comb used in the preparation of wool or flax (Fig. 6.25) (Brodribb, Hands and Walker 2005 : 375-7). Finally, the discovery in the northem room of a door-lock mechanism and a key (SF 3543), similar to the ones found in Room B, highlights the importance of the building and its contents (see pp. 237-.8).

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 77

Bom 1 979: I, xxiv, buildings 25-6). The chamberlain was responsible for the monks' clothing and bedding, and for all the monastery's tools and uten­sils. Given the nature of Room C and its contents, we have interpreted this as the house of San Vincenzo's chamber­lain. An official overseeing the craft workshops is described at the Lombard monastery of Bobbio; there he was named as the camerarius primus. H e worked with the camerarius abbatis and a iunior prepositus (Destefanis 2002: 5 1).

As noted in Chapter 4 (pp. 1 19-20), a corridor existed between the back walls of Rooms C, D, E and F and the

south wall of the Atrium. The rear door of Room C, probably created in phase 5a2, led to this corridor and then directly to an archway (3243) in a wall enclosing a staircase ascending the south side of the Atrium (see pp. 1 1 8-20). The wall collapsed in the later ninth century, and was found preserved in the excavations

Room C was obviously divided into a reception area or living room in the front (south) part of the building, and a room with a possible lavatory isolated by a wicker screen and a tool store at the rear. A wooden fence may have surrounded a yard outside, represented by a linear carbonized feature (4524) uncovered 7 m to the south of wall 4306 (Fig. 6.18), and the front of the building, below the eaves, may have been decorated with elaborate terracotta corbels (Fig. 6.26). The decoration and form of the building indicate that the person who occupied it was someone of status within the monastery. It seems likely that it was designed to house one of the master craftsmen or officials closely associated with the Collective Workshops. Strikingly, the Plan of Saint Gall depicts just such an apartment in the collective workshops at the centre of the complex for the monastery's chamberlain (Horn and

FIG. 6 . 25 . Reconstruction of a linen heckle. (SDG, after Brodribb, Hands and Wa/ker

2005 : fig. /V.67, p. 377)

1 78 CHAPTER SIX

FIG. 6.26. One of the terracotta corbels used to decorate the

south elevation of Room C. (PK)

with most of its arched doorway intact, as well as a square window in the wall itself.

ROOM D

PHASE 5Al Room D, measuring 1 0 m square, was the largest building of the Collective Workshops complex (Figs 6.1 and 6.27), created by the insertion of dividing wall 4305 . The northern wall (4809), constructed of limestone and mortar, abutted the clay-bonded east wall of Room E (3228), while at the south end of 3228 a short stretch of wall (3229) was added to square the room off, with wall 4306 forming the southern extent of the room. In order to support the roof, the new building was completed by the insertion of two centrai posts set onto large stone post-pads (3300, 3341) (Fig. 6.28). These post-pads were constructed through the floor level (3366) associated with the earlier enclosure building; the construction trench (3320) of the centrai wall (4305) also cut through this level. Both post-pads were constructed of a large roughly square limestone slab placed within a construction pit and packed around with smaller lime­stone and travertine blocks. These large slabs were well bonded with white lumpy mortar, and both

measured just under 0.5 m square. During the first phase there were three entrances into the building: two narrow doors were located in the southern ends of the east and west walls, allowing access into Room C and round to the southern entrance of Room E. A third, wider doorway was placed in the north wall of the building, close to the eastern wall.

The floor of the building during the first phase consisted of makeshift cobbles of small travertine boulders and tile fragments compacted into yellow clay (3365). The surface had been placed around the edges of the room and within the three doorways; it covered the two surfaces associated with the earlier phases of the room (3366, 3367) and sealed the construction cut for the division wall ( 4305). This deposit only remained in patches, so its relationship to the centrai post-pads was not known, though it is most likely that they also were sealed by this deposit since 3320 was sealed by it. Although the function of Room D during its first phase is not yet clear, a wide range of objects, including iron buckles, pottery, hone, painted plaster, glass and crucibles, was found trampled into the cobbled floor.

PHASE 5A2 During its second phase, Room D appears to have been transformed extensively. The first alteration involved a change of access: the three narrow doors were sealed using travertine rubble and hard, rough mortar. The narrow doorway in the southwest corner of the room was blocked (33 14), then plastered on its eastern face. The second blocking was in the doorway in the northern wall (33 1 6). Both blockings showed signs of buming, suggesting that they were done before a fire destroyed the buildings. The blocking (33 1 5) in the narrow doorway leading to Room C did not show any signs of scorching on the stones, though due to the transformation of the use of Room C it makes sense that this doorway also was blocked in this phase. A new entrance, approximately 1 .6 m wide, was then opened in the centre of the south wall.

In the centrai part of the room, the floor was fur­nished with a crushed travertine and mortar surface (3299). This was a solid, durable surface, laid over the cobble floor (3365). Although only isolated patches of the surface remained, i t was apparent that some kind of division had existed within the floor space. Around the sides of the room was a layer of fine, trampled earth (3329), which could only be contemporary with the hard mortar surface (3299) though it was com­pletely different in form. Within this, on the west side

Phase Sal

Cobble surface Dom 33�

Early surface 3366

�------ - - - Q Door

� - - -� Wall 4306 o

FIG . 6 . 27. Room D in phases Sa l and 5a2. (SL)

5m

of the newly-opened south door, were the remains of timber features. These consisted of the burnt remains ot,a post (3344) and three beams (3342, 3343, 3345), which seemed to demarcate the southwest quarter of the room. The timbers appear to represent a wooden box or low platform structure, burnt in situ. Identica! structures may have existed in all four corners. On the western side of the room ( and within the area defined by the beams ), against the wall, was a rectangular pit (33 1 7) measuring 1 . 1 5 m in length and 0.4 m wide, cut into the earth surface (3329), beside

o--===--==-•5m

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 79

Phase 5a2

which were found the charred remains of a container of grain, possibly a small wooden bucket (33 1 9) and a pile of burnt grain.

The positioning of the timber structures and the mortar fioor, combined with the presence of grain and two quern-stones (Fig. 6.29), which were found outside the door, suggest that Room D functioned as a granary during this phase. A small copper-alloy weight (SF 3289), with an inscribed cross and weighing 27 g, was discovered trampled into the earth surface (3329), and could have been used for weighing out

Atrium

FIG . 6.28. Reconstruction of the

east-facing elevation of Room D.

(SG)

180 CHAPTER SIX

O I Ocm - - -

- - - - - - - - -

FIG . 6.29. One of the quern-stones associateci with the Room D

granary. ()V )

and distributing the grain. The interi or of the building, we sunnise, would have comprised four corner bays, built oftimber, in which the grain was stored. Between these, two mortared threshing lanes would have

A

o

intersected each other at right angles to fonn a cross­shaped floor. A similar building to the one proposed here can be seen in the fonn of the Brewers' Granary of the Plan of Saint Gall (Fig. 6.30).

PHASE 5B At some time prior to the Saracen attack the granary was destroyed by fire. The evidence is unequivocal: the mortar and earth :floor was reddened and contained the charred remains ofthe timber bays and the container of grain. The burnt timbers were then covered by a trampled clay surface (3324), which was later buried beneath the 881 destruction levels (3278, 33 1 1 ). The fire may have begun accidentally and spread quickly through the roof ofthe complex, which almost certainly was thatched. Room E, in which remains of the same event were discemible, and Room F were also probably roofed with thatch.

Though it is not clear what caused the fire, it is evident from the laying of the trampled clay surface that Room D was reused a:fter this event, perhaps as a storeroom or byre, up until the attack in 88 1 .

PHASE 5c The trampled clay (3324), which was heavily compacted with fragments oftile and travertine crushed into the surface, contained over l kg of pottery,

B

5m

FIG . 6.30. Comparative plans of granaries: (A) at San Vincenzo, Room D; (B) on the Pian of Saint Gal l. (KF ofter Horn an d Bom l 979: Il, fig. 436)

including a colander or cheese-strainer, together with fragments of glass, an iron buckle (Cat. 2. 1 ), and an iron clapper (Cat. 2 .6 1 ; Fig. 7.26) from a small bell. Curiously, a second, similar iron bell-clapper (Cat. 2.60) was discovered in the black destruction deposit (3278) that covered the room a:fter the attack in 88 1 . Four large wooden posts appear to have been inserted into the walls in order to support the damaged roof. The excavations revealed a number of masonry cuts with post-shaped mortar inners, one each located in walls 4809 and 4305, with two more cuts located in the south wall ( 4306). The front of the building may have been re-roofed with tiles, as one ofthe destruction levels (33 1 1 ), which appeared to be the first collapse a:fter the attack, consisted mostly of broken bumt tile fragments and appeared to be confined to the southem third of the room. The final destruction of Room D in 881 was discemible in the fonn of the collapsed roof and the destruction layer (3278) that contained the bumt remains of the workshop door. Contained within the remains of the door were eleven identical round-headed bolts, three iron dome-headed nails and

Phase 5al

Wall 3 1 59

Are h

Atrium wall 461 8

Post-pad

�iJP· Pit

3295

o.._-===-�==-rii5m FIG . 6.31. Room E in phases Sal and Sa2. (SL)

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 8 1

a number of iron nail fragments, along with pierced iron strips (Cat. 2.69) that may have been part of the door furniture. There was also a lock mechanism (Cat. 2.66). All the pieces were situated on the eastem si de of the new south doorway. A prehistoric stone axe (Chapter 9, Cat. 70) of igneous rock, reddened and broken as a result of the fire, was discovered on the west side of the door. The discovery of this axe in this position and its significance will be discussed further in Chapter 9 (p. 398).

ROOM E

Room E, together with Room F, was one of the oldest surviving buildings in the whole workshop complex. The phase 3c or 4a building, which measured 6.0 x 9.5 m, was integrated into the Collective Work­shops during the ninth century (Fig. 6.3 1 ) (see pp. 129-35). The originai walls of the building were built randomly of stone and tile, bonded with clay. The unique alignment on which Room E and its partner, Room F, were constructed, meant that the

Phase 5a2 � -���-�

Atrium wall 461 8

182 CHAPTER SIX

FIG . 6.32. Room E in the foreground and Room D behind, showing the different alignments of the two rooms. (IWA)

two structures encroached westwards towards the south wall of San Vincenzo Maggiore (Fig. 6.1 ). T o the east, they converged at an angle with Room D (Fig. 6.32).

PHASE 5A1 During the :first phase of the Collective Workshops, Room E was largely retained in its originai form, although the originai south wall (3208) was demolished to fioor level and a new wall was built (3 1 88) to the immediate south of the earlier one. This wall was built of random, un-coursed travertine rubble and occasionai tile fragments bonded with a grey-white mortar. This rebuilding of the southern wall of the room may have been the result of weakness caused by the alterations made to Room D and the demolition of the pisé wall (3330) to the east.

Room E retained its two originai entrances during the :first phase: one located at the east end of the north wall (3237), measuring 1 .3 m in width, led into the thoroughfare; a second, l m wide, led from the southern end of the west wall (3091) into Room F. The charred remains of a wooden threshold were visible in the north doorway. The roof of the building was supported by a centrai post set on a mortar post-pad (3294) that was inserted in the earlier phase ofthe room in pit 3295 (Fig. 6.33). This pit measured 0.75 x 0.8 m, and the possible remains of the post-support were

found in the shape of an irregularly-shaped mortar base (3394). As the excavation in Room E was not completed, little is known of the building during its :first phase. The earliest fioor reached in the excavations (3364), consisting of a layer of brown silty clay containing occasionai travertine and tile fragments and fiecks of mortar and plaster, was exposed partially in a narrow slot measuring 1 .3 m in width excavated on the eastern side ofthe room against wall 3228. A slight depression in this surface just 1 . 1 m south of the doorway in wall 3237 suggests the area was heavily worn. As the excavations did not uncover more of this room at this earlier level, the relationship of this surface to the other walls is not known. It is unclear, therefore, to which phase this fioor belongs, though as the layers above can be assigned to the second phase of the Collective Workshops, i t can be assumed that this surface was in use during the :first phase.

Excavations to the north of Room E, in the corridor between the Atrium and the workshops, provided more insight into the construction of the Atrium and the overall plan of the monastery. The construction of the Atrium on its new alignment caused the Room E and Room F sections of the east-west corridor to narrow considerably: the area to the north of Room E was 2.9 m wide, while that to the north ofRoom F measured only l . 7 m. This formed a new corridor to allo w access

O 5m ---===--====-.....

to and from these western rooms to the other work­shops. Two new arches created the entrances to this new corridor (Fig. 6.34). The foundations ofthe western arch comprised two well-dressed travertine blocks (3 157) that were placed against the Atrium wall (461 8); the opposing footing was provided by similar stone blocks mortared onto the northern end of wall 3091 . The eastern arch utilized part of wall 3005, used later for the stairway to the raised Atrium, as its northern foundation; the stairway wall (3076) was built abutting this. The southern foundation for this

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 183

Atrium

Thoroughfare

FIG . 6 .33 . Reconstruction of the

east-facing elevation of Room E.

(SG)

arch comprised a dressed travertine block situated at the junction of walls 3228 and 3237. Both arches would have been approximately 1 .6 m wide.

PHASE 5A2 During the second phase, a third doorway, 1 . 1 m wide, was created in the southwest corner of the room with the partial removal of the western end of the southern wall (3 1 88). The east-facing terminus of the new walls in Room F formed the opposing door-jamb for this doorway. The internai surfaces of the walls had

FIG . 6 .34. The piers of the western

arch in the corridor to the north

of Room E. (IWA)

1 84 CHAPTER SIX

FIG. 6 . 3 5 . Tile steps against wall 309 1 on the west side of Room

E. (IWA)

remains of plaster rendering adhering to them that may have been applied in this phase. The excavations uncovered four similar features (3346) set against the eastern wall (3228). These remained only as yellow­brown patches on the surface (3301), measuring roughly 1 .05 m in length and 0.5 m in width out :from the wall, and placed roughly 1 .3 m apart from each other. These may be the remains ofworlebenches along­side the wall. The floor of the building was refurbished above the earlier floor (3364) with cocciopesto and tiles (3301 , 3 1 17). At the southern end of the room the cocciopesto surface (3 1 1 7) was laid over a rubb1e platform (33 1 0). This platform, made of small lime­stone and travertine rubble in a darle red-brown silty day matrix, raised the surface and formed the base for a set of well-constructed tile steps (3098) :from the floor (3 1 1 7) to the southern doorway (Fig. 6.35). The platform (33 1 0), which measured 0.2 m high, 4. 7 m long and 1 . 1 m wide, was constructed against the east

face of wall 309 1 , directly opposite the southern entrance, and covering the earliest wall (3208). On the north and east sides, the platform was retained by a lo w single-coursed wall (3 164) built of limestone and travertine masonry. The remains of plaster rendering were visible on the outer faces of the wall, which stood to a height of 0.2 m. The stairway built on the rubble platform consisted of three steps constructed :from well-dressed travertine blocles with tiled treads. The uppermost step comprised a small plat­form 0.9 m square. The complete structure measured 0.2 m long, 0.9 m wide and rose to a height of O. 72 m. A partition wall may ha ve existed between the southern door and the steps: a few burnt timber features were noticed within the floor, although there was no opportunity to investigate them. Within the southwest doorway of the room were the remains of a tiled surface (3 1 78) measuring 0.68 x 0.58 m. This tiled surface was bedded on a layer of cocciopesto and overlay part of the stairway platform (3 1 17) and part ofthe southern wall (3 188). Originally this surface may have extended across the platform from the doorway to the stairway. Similar surfaces were revealed in the excavations in Room F, and were probably contemporary.

The steps may have provided access to a second storey or 1oft, perhaps by way of a ladder :from the platform at the top of the steps. The dose proxirnity of the steps to a large feature, situated in the northwest corner of the building, suggests that the two were related in some way. A less lileely interpretation, which was considered on excavation, is that the platform at the top of the steps represents a reader's pulpit, giving access, via a window in wall 309 1 , to Room F (Mitchell 1996a: 1 54).

The (unexcavated) feature consisted of a rectangular depression measuring 2.5 x 1 .6 m, probably repre­senting a tank or cistern; its depth is unlenown. A large, hollowed blocle of stone was found dose by, and together the two are provisionally interpreted as the tank and counter-weight of an olive press. In form, the tank is almost identica! to a number of Roman olive-pressing tanks found in Volubilis, Morocco (Fig. 6.36) (Behel 1 996). Alternatively, this might have been a grain silage bin, associated with the granary.

PHASES SB AND Se At some time prior to 881 the tank was filled with rubble. The dosure of the tank may be associated with evidence in the room for an earlier fire, as

A

B

O 2m - - l

FIG. 6 . 3 6 . Comparative plans of olive-pressing tanks from: (A) San

Vincenzo, Room E (SL); (B) Volubilis, Morocco (SL after Behel /996:

observed, in the adjacent rooms. A blacle deposit of in situ bumt material (3269) surrounded the rectangular feature in the northwest corner, and covered the floor surface (3301) to a depth of 0. 1 5 m. This deposit extended north :from the bacle of the steps for 3 . 8 m alongside wall 309 1 ; it then turned to extend for 2.5 m alongside wall 3237. There were obvious signs of burnt timbers within the deposit, which may represent two further benches in this corner of the

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTNE WORKSHOPS 1 85

room, associated with the use of the tank feature (Fig. 6.37) . An iron slide-leey (Cat. 2.64) was found within this deposit, together with several pieces of burnt pottery, :from pots that may have been standing on the benches at the time of the fire. Traces of the attacle in 881 were dearly evident :from the debris covering the room: two deposits of darle grey-blacle burnt day and silt (3099, 3 1 20) overlay the stairway and the floor in the s0uthern half of the room; these deposits, between 0.2 m and 0.3 m in depth, contained tile, mortar, charcoal and plaster :fragments along with burnt broleen pottery. The floor (3301) in the remainder of the room showed signs of scorching and burning, and it was covered by the fallen debris :from the walls of the room destroyed by the fire.

Room E appears to have been revisited after 8 8 1 : a mixed context (323 7) above the floor probably represents a somewhat failed attempt to salvage lost or valuable items. This appeared to be made up of disturbed burnt ash and charcoal deposits mixed with day and fragments of tile and mortar. These deposits did not appear to be burnt in situ, suggesting that this was just a layer of disturbed material, redeposited as the salvaging occurred. This was covered with the rubble collapse of the walls (such as 3228, 3235 and 3239) across the eastern half of the room. The many objects recovered :from the room induded a first­century Roman coin, :fragments of gilded glass (SF 3452) and glass vessels, a 1oom weight, a copper­alloy ring and melted lead. A large number of iron objects was also found, induding a well-preserved hinge from a chest (Cat. 2.70) with two nails still attached, a slide-leey (Cat. 2.64), a drill-bit (Cat. 2.33), a ring (Cat. 2 .80), the blade of a knife (Cat. 2.25), a strap-slide (Cat. 2 . 12), three large-headed tacles and a bolt (Cat. 2 .90-3) (see Chapter 7). As the objects are so wide-ranging, it is difficult to place any secure interpretation on the use of the room at the time of its destruction. Once again, the evidence points to the expedient use of a poorly maintained building in the later ninth century.

ROOM F

PHASE SAl Room F is the second of two rooms created from the large western end room of the pisé buildings (cf. Chapter 5, pp. 132-5). Three of the originai walls of the room survived to be integrated in the first phase of the Collective Worleshops. The main room appears to have been retained mostly in its originai form, but

1 86 CHAPTER SIX

FIG . 6 .37. Room E looking to the south with the tank feature in the northwest corner (bottom right). (IWA)

with a modifìcation involving the removal of its south wall and the addition of two smaller rooms extending to the south (Fig. 6.38). The modifìcations made to create these southem rooms must be associated with the removal of wall 3208 in Room E, as this wall was the southem wall of the large western room of the originai pisé building. In Room F, 2. 6 m of this wall was retained (3 1 59) to create the division wall between the southeastem room and the main room, with a shorter part of it (3220) left standing to form the north end of the new centrai division wall of the two southern rooms (3 160) and the · door-jamb for the northeast entrance to the southwest room. The rest of the demolished southern wall (3221) of the pisé building was observed in the excavations below the floor immediately west of the remaining wall (3 1 59). The new pian consisted of one main room, measuring 8.5 x 9.5 m, with clay-bonded walls and a centrai supporting post mounted on a heavy mortar post-pad that was inserted in the earlier phase of the room. The north entrance :from the pisé phase into the main room was retained, as was the southeast entrance into Room E. Both of the southern rooms had an entrance into the main room: the entrance to the southeastern room was created by the removal of just over l m of the old southern wall, while the entrance to the south­western room was located in the north end of its east

wall. This latter room had one more doorway in the south end of the west wall, possibly inserted in phase 5a2 of the occupation. This suggests that there were more workshops or yards associated with the Collective Workshops further to the west

The small southwestern room measured 4 x 4.5 m and was formed by the construction of wall 3 1 70 as its southern wall, 3 17 1 as part of its western wall, and 3 1 65 as its northern wall (Fig. 6.38). Its east wall (3 1 60) was shared with the second small room. The rest of its west wall was formed by the insertion of a thinner tapering wall (3 1 92) that may have been a blocking wall filling in a doorway. All the walls were built :from travertine blocks with occasional limestone inclusions. Most were bonded with a hard white mortar, though wall 3 160 was bonded with a yellow mortar. This room was constructed over and beyond the line of the originai pisé southem wall of Room F. The smaller eastern room measured 2.5 x 3 m. Its north wall was part of the old pisé wall (3 1 59), with a short stretch of wall 3 150 built butting the south side of 3 1 59. This part is probably the continuation of wall 3 1 88, the new southern wall of Room E. Its east wall (3 1 5 1) was built :from travertine blocks bonded with hard yellow mortar, while its southern wall (3 1 7 6) was bonded with hard white mortar. The three large post-holes, :from the potential timber porch feature

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 87

Wall 3149

Centrai

3181

tJp

Surface

3166

FIG. 6 .38 . Room F in phases Sa l and 5a2. (SL)

Wall 3176

in its earliest phase, appeared to be part of the construc­tion of these walls, suggesting that the posts of the porch were stili standing and were incorporated into the walls at each corner junction along the southern side of these two small rooms. The floor surfaces of these first phase rooms may have been just beaten

Surface

3162

o

Wall 3159

3150

5m

earth, judging :from the pit cut (3 1 79) against the east side of wall 3 1 60, and the comparable evidence observed beneath the hearth or oven (3 1 63) in the southwest room and beneath the tile surfaces in the main room. Pit 3 179 revealed a sterile day beneath the later finer floor surface ( discussed below, in phase

188 CHAPTER SIX

5a2) that may have been used as a surface in the first phase of the room, though so little of i t was seen that this is not conclusive. Similarly, in the southwestern room a firm clay deposit was seen below the later floor surface where it was cut by the insertion of a hearth or oven. Lastly, in Room F itself the entire area was covered with a yeliow-brown sandy silt deposit (3 1 1 5/3 1 82) that was later covered by a tile floor. This silty deposit may have been used during the first phase of occupation of the room. These layers were not excavated.

PHASE 5A2 In the smali southwestern room the excavation stopped at the fine cocciopesto floor surface that covered the room. This surface (3 166) was laid for the last occupa­tion of this room and was made from a pinkish white mortar set with crushed pot and tile :fragments. It was a very hard durable surface that undulated only where the demolished pisé wali ran beneath i t. In the southeast corner of this room a tiled feature (3 1 63) was uncovered that appeared to have been truncated by the construction of the eleventh-century wali that was built across this end of the si te. This tiled feature was built into the corner of the room against walis 3 1 60 and 3 1 70, and consisted of a travertine block and irregular broken bits of inscribed ninth-century tiles set into a hard yeliow mortar, ali set in a semicircular shape surrounding a holiow of burnt clay, suggesting an oven or hearth (Fig. 6.39). This caused some destruc­tion to the cocciopesto floor, so it may be a later add­ition to the room although stili pre-dating 88 1 . Opposi te this feature, against the western wali (3 17 1 ), was a step made from travertine blocks and cocciopesto roughly bonded to the w ali. This step (3 1 7 5) was O .2 m high and was a later addition to the room, as it sat on floor surface 3 1 66. It must have led out through the entrance in the western wali suggested by the remains of a carbonized plank (3222) covering part of the western wali at this point.

FIG. 6 .39 . The phase Sa2 tile hearth feature in the small southwest

room of Room F. (IWA)

layer (3 1 15/3 1 82). The patches of tile floor were located just south of the northern doorway, by the entrances to the southern rooms and just west of the centre of the main room (Fig. 6.40). They, too, were ali heavily worn and showed signs of burning from the fire that destroyed the workshops.

The smalier room to the east had a similar cocciopesto surface (3 1 62), which covered the entire room. It was heavily abraded in the areas by the doorway and in the southeastern corner, an indication of frequent use. The main room appeared to have been surfaced with a tile and cocciopesto floor, shown by three remaining patches

(3 1 14, 3 1 74, 3 1 81 ) laid over a silty FIG. 6.40. One of the remaining patches of the phase Sa2 tile floor in Room F. (IWA)

The walis ofthe two south rooms were plastered and painted. The corners of the rooms w ere marked with a broad red band extending some 90 mm along each wali; this was bordered by a 30 mm vertical band of grey, and the remainder of the wali was covered with a pale grey wash. Given the extensive use of painted decoration to articulate the social hierarchy of spaces throughout the complex at San Vincenzo, it seems likely that these simple decorative schemes were designed to mark these rooms off :from the other sections of the workshop range as domestic spaces of some distinction. The main room of the building also appears to have been plastered during this second phase.

PHASE Se The destruction of the workshops in 881 is evident in the southwestern room and the main room, where thick black burnt deposits (3 1 68, 3 1 67, 3 158) covered the floor surfaces. These deposits contained smashed burnt tiles, though not of the concentration that would suggest the coliapse of a tiled roof. Strangely, the smali southeastern room, although there were some signs of buming on the floor surface itself, contained no burnt1�destruction materia!. Deposit 3 161 , overlying the floor, contained plenty of broken tile and mortar :fragments, but no charcoal or ash. Very few objects were recovered from these destruction levels; indeed, the smali southeastern room was completely devoid of finds and the large room to the north contained only two or three scraps of iron and copper-alioy, although :fragments of pottery were found that may have had an industriai use. The most complete evidence carne :from the southwestern room, where the distinct­ive black destruction layer (3 1 67) contained a single arrowhead. A large iron ring, a quantity of pottery and animai hone and a bumt fragment of a marble funerary inscription (Cat. 9 .29) were also discovered h ere.

In summary, the smali number of finds recovered from Room F makes it impossible to associate the building with any specific craft activity, during either the first or second phases ofthe Coliective Workshops. The lack of finds in itself may be a significant factor. The presence of the fine tile and mortar floors and of the decorateci walis suggest that the room may have had some kind of domestic/residential function in its latest phase. The insertion of the fireplace and its location near Rooms D and E, each with evidence of agrarian use, may suggest its occupant was involved in the organization and administration of the monas­tery's agricultural sector. Alternatively, the possible

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 189

association of the potential pulpit steps in Room E suggest that the main room may have been used as a refectory for the artisans working in the rest of the workshops (Mitcheli 1996a: 1 53-5). It does bear some similarity to the main Refectory in the claustrum (Hodges et al. 1995).

CONCLUSIONS

The first Coliective Workshops were probably estab­lished in phase 4a7 and their successor, the second Coliective Workshops, w ere erected in phase 5a1 ; the latter comprised two principal phases, once the range was connected by the vaulted corridor to the nucleus of the monastery. The first phase of the second Coliective Workshops dates approxirnately to the second quarter of the ninth century, when the permanent workshop range was constructed above the partialiy demolished remains of the clay-bonded builders ' yard complex. Little is known of the function of the indi­viduai buildings at this time. The rooms, which were interconnected, appear to have been furnished sparsely, with clay and cobbled floors. Each room was utilized for a variety of smali-scale activities, rather than for a single, particular craft. Deposits containing a mixture of glass, hone, pottery and metals occur throughout the complex. This initial, light-industrial phase contrasts greatly with the heavy-industrial production that took piace in the preceding Temporary Workshops (see Chapter 5). Nevertheless, the vaulted corridor joining this area to the claustrum strongly suggests that the products were made principaliy for the monas­tery itself.

During the second phase, significant alterations were made to the whole of the workshop complex, probably in the 840s (see above, p. 1 59). The changes involved the making of either one or two dweliings in the range, as weli as associateci weli-furnished workshops. The reorganization suggests a strong impetus towards organized production, particularly within the monas­tery's craft and agricultural sectors, which seem to have been located respectively on the east and west sides of the Coliective Workshops range. In particular, an official - a chamberlain or camerarius (Schwind 1 984: 1 1 3) - may have been instalied within Room C to contro! production within the craft workshops and to ensure the replenishment and maintenance of the monastery's materia! supplies and tools. Similarly, a high-status individuai may have been based in Room F, to oversee the agricultural range that may have been established on the west side ofthe Coliective

1 90 CHAPTER SIX

T ABLE 6 .2 . The workshop activities in the Collective Workshops.

First Co/lective Workshops Phases 4a6-7/5a Rooms E and F, and an enclosure; no production debris

Second Co/lective Workshops Phase Sa l A (enamels and fìne-metalwork), B (fìne-metalwork), C (glass-working), D (unknown: worked bone and

ivory?), E and F (accommodation)

Phase 5a2 A (enamels and fìne-metalwork), B (fìne-metalwork), C (chamberlain's apartment), D (granary), E (olive press?), F (accommodation)

Phase Sb A (enamels and fìne-metalwork), B (fìne-metalwork), C (chamberlain's apartment), D (out of use), E and F (accommodation)

Workshops complex. The signifìcance ofthe two dwell­ings and their occupants is highlighted by the presence ofthe adjacent enamel and metal workshops within the craft sector, and ofthe granary and possible olive press as part of the agricultural range. The wealth of craft and domestic material recovered from the midden deposits in the corridor is an exceptional legacy to the skill, craftsmanship and organization in this complex during the third quarter of the ninth century. However, before the cataclysmic destruction wreaked in the Collective Workshops in 881 , several rooms were in a state of disrepair.

Like the better-known shops found at Sardis, apparently destroyed in a Persian attack dated to 6 1 3 (Crawford 1 990; Ellis 2007: 296-9), the 881 sack levels from these buildings at San Vincenzo provide a 'Pompeian premise' snapshot of the buildings and their activities on the eve of the catastrophe (Binford 1981 ; Murray 1 999). In addition, the palimpsest of levels dating back to the late eighth century throws much light on the building history.

The best parallel for a ninth-century building of this type is the so-called collective workshop depicted on the drawing of the Carolingian monastery of Saint Gall dated to c. 830. On this plan, the collective work­shop is a roughly square structure, subdivided into a number of separate but interdependent rooms occupi ed by diverse craftsmen: shield-makers, sword-grinders, saddlers, shoemakers, curriers, turners, fullers, black­smiths and goldsmiths (Horn and Born 1979: II, 1 89-99; Schwind 1 984: 106-12). The plan is a controversia! document; nevertheless, some corroboration for the existence of monastic buildings of this kind comes from the author ofthe Chronica Monasterii Casinensis, the late eleventh-century chronicle of San Vincenzo's sister abbey, Monte Cassino, which refers to the work­shops that once stood either side of the ninth-century

church of San Salvatore, in the borgo below the monastery (Citarella and Willard 1983 : 42).

On the basis of the industriai waste from the three entirely different complexes, the workshop activities are summarized in Table 6.2.

Turning to the architecture of these buildings, post­built structures, with the exception of the porch added to Room F, are largely absent, although most of the buildings had timber features. Post-built construction was very much the vernacular norm at this time in the countryside; indeed, most of the buildings in San Vincenzo's borgo were post-built (Bowden and Gruber 2006: 159-62, 1 70-3). Instead, two types of structures occur here: mortared rubble structures, similar to most of the monastic buildings erected in phases 4 and 5, and simple variations of pisé structures with conspicuous use of rubble in the lower reaches of the walls as well as timber detailing. The promiscuous use of lime mortar in the construction of the phase 4a4 Glass Workshop is reminiscent of the lavish lime mortar rendering used in San Vincenzo Minore phase 3c, following the re-introduction of lime mortar to the site in the later eighth century (Hodges and Mithen 1 993 : 1 34). After this, lime mortar was used sparingly.

Rooms E and F, built in a variant of pisé, merit special attention. Common in classical construction - even in great villas such as Settefìnestre (Carandini 1 985 : 65) pisé is unknown elsewhere at San Vincenzo. Possibly this is because these are the oldest buildings from this sector of the monastic si te. Origin­ating in either phase 3c or 4a, the proposed line of fìve rooms, including E and F, beg many questions. In the wet upland climate of San Vincenzo, pisé was an unusual construction method, whicn needed to be protected by a good roof. Given the later ninth-century evidence of tile and mortar surfaces in E and F, and the presence of painted plaster in Room F (possibly

T l l j l belonging to phase 4), it is tempting to interpret these two and the last three rooms as accommodation for the craftsmen involved in the construction and furnishing of Abbot Joshua's new monastery. More­aver, being a construction form largely alien to the upper Volturno valley, it is no less tempting to interpret them as the work of an architect who, like the craftsmen, was not from the immediate area.

Turning to the details, reused Roman pieces were used to make the south door of Room A from the 840s onwards, just as terracotta corbels (modillions) - features hitherto associated with church ornamenta­tion - were employed to decorate the south-facing elevation of Room C, the room of an official, perhaps a chamberlain (Mitchell 2001b: 1 1 7-19, cat. 126-9, fìgs 3 :229-32). Spolia, it should be noted, were commonly employed in the main monastic rooms and churches in phases 4 and 5 ; if anything, the absence of spolia, in the workshops is noteworthy (Castellani 2000). M�dillions, on the other hand, were found elsewhere at San Vincenzo only in the Refectory. In his study of the modillions, Mitchell (2001b: 1 1 7) described them as 'extremely simplifìed versions of antique marble acanthus modillions and consoles ' . Ninth-century parallels are known from San Salvatore in Brescia, though the concept is best illustrated by the reused consoles deployed to decorate the crown of the apse of San Martino ai Monti in Rome. These embellishments may have been made because appro­priate spolia were not available. That said, although the modillions and painted walls of Room C merit our attention, the overall décor of the room was modest by comparison with the grandiosity of the decoration in the fìrst-floor palatial hall of the South Church at San Vincenzo (Hodges and Mithen 1 993: 1 86-9) or indeed the putative Abbot's House found in area W/A ofthe Suor Orsola Benincasa excavations (Marazzi et al. 2002: 263-4, pl. 1 7, fig. 35)_2

The painted decoration from Room C belongs to the moment when the workshop was altered to accommodate an o:fficial. If it dates, as we argue elsewhere in this volume (p. 429), to the 840s, it is some of the latest ninth-centufY painting found at San Vincenzo, showing the continuity of the tradition of decorating important spaces. The traces of decoration in Room E probably belong to the same phase, but could be earlier. Here, the decorated room was smaller, but none the less the painting would seem to establish some spatial hierarchy, distin­guishing the room from other parts of this complex.

With the changes made in the 840s, timber partitions as well as makeshift timber uprights and even a timber

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTNE WORKSHOPS 1 9 1

threshold (in Room F) were ubiquitous throughout the Collective Workshops. All the signs are that the monastery could no longer maintain its buildings as before, and expedient measures were necessary.

The floors are no less interesting. Ninth-century San Vincenzo boasted a range offlooring, including marble, opus sectile, terracotta tiled floors, cocciopesto, simple mortar surfaces, cobbles and earthen surfaces. Room A, the enameller's workshnp, had a tiled floor. Traces of tiling were found also in Rooms B, E and F. Like the well-used corridors and rooms of San Vincenzo, these were places that, perhaps because they were visited by San Vincenzo's patrons, were afforded good flooring. Equally, the cocciopesto flooring in Room C, the administrator or chamberlain's apartment, is surely an index of status - an index that in the case of Rooms E and F suggests that the craftsmen, import­aut individuals in the rhythm of the monastery's life, were accommodated here. Elsewhere, cobbling or earthen floors, as in the undercrofts of the distinguished guests' quarters (in the South Church), were perfectly normal (Hodges and Mithen 1 993: 1 85).

The fumishing of the rooms evidently was varied. Traces of possible chimneys were found in Rooms C and F. The use of chimneys is understood poorly at this time, and further research is necessary as usually hearths were located, like braziers, away from the wall? The possible chimney in the northwest corner of the phase 4a4 Glass Workshop may have been a proto­type for the features found in Rooms C and F. The possible latrine in Room C, like the one found in the Distinguished Guests' Refectory, was simply constructed with tile, rubble and mortar, yet can be interpreted as an index of the private status of this building (Riddler 1993b: 2 1 1-12, 2 15; cf. Ellis 2007: 297).

Rooms A, B and C were probably single storeyed with low-pitched roofs.4 Room D had a higher pitched roof of thatch supported by uprights set on post-pads ­a common feature in modern Molisano vernacular architecture (Marino, Guerrizio and Libertucci 2001). Room E almost certainly had a fìrst-floor 1oft platform (Fig. 6.33). The roofs are no less interesting. Rooms A, B and C were tiled; D was certainly thatched, while E and F were possibly roofed with either thatch or, less probably, reeds or shingle. Tile production appears to have been revived in Italy during the later eighth century, as the élite began to build in stone once more with the re-introduction of lime mortar.5 Thatching was undoubtedly the vernacular norm. Indeed, the monks' Refectory was thatched, even though i t was paved with tiles. Clearly, tiling most of the Collective

1 92 CHAPTER SIX

Workshops, just as the principal monastic buildings were tiled, signalled their particular significance. Equally, the thatching of Room D shows that the room was remodelled from being a workshop with kilns or braziers into a granary at least for part of its life.

Room C, the accommodation for a prominent member of the monastery, merits comparison with known élite dwellings of the age. It was clearly not comparable to the ninth-century stone-built, porticoed hall house with an associated storage building as found in the Forum of Nerva in Rome (Meneghini and Santangeli Valenziani 2004: 34-40) or Naples (Skinner 1 994: 285-9). Nor does it resemble the ninth-century Poggibonsi 1onghouse, with its curved sides, measuring 1 7 m long by 8 m wide (Francovich and Valenti 1996; Valenti 2004). This, though, had two rooms, and associated with it was a post-built granary. Like the dwelling in the Forum of Nerva, the longhouse at Poggibonsi (Tuscany) had a simple timber porch resembling the south porch of Room F. A closer parallel for Room C is perhaps a town house in Ferrara, which, like Rooms C, E and F, consisted of spaces subdivided by timber partition walls (Gadd and Ward-Perkins 1991) . The association with the granary is particularly noteworthy, as it is not at ali unique. The ninth-century grain silos associated with the main dwelling at Santa Maria in Civita (Molise) illustrate a simple variant of this arrangement (Bowes and Hodges 2002). A closer parallel is the longhouse and granary at Poggibonsi, and the ninth-century granary found in the seigneurial nucleus at Montarrenti (Tuscany) (Cantini 2003). In each case the granary has been interpreted as evidence of a curtis settlement, a proto-feudal manor, receiving grain from its dependent estates (cf. Francovich and Hodges 2003 : 76-105). Perhaps an even closer parallel is the tufa-built south­east complex in the ninth-century papal farm at Santa Cornelia (Lazio). The three rooms there had mortar floors, and a Roman threshold lay at the entry to room 2. Neil Christie and Charles Daniels, in their report on the excavations, ventured as follows: 'Though the evidence is scanty, one can tentatively hypothesize that this zone formed the administrative centre of the domusculta, and that areas for workshops, storage and for accommodation of the estate workers lay close by' (Christie and Daniels 199 1 : 1 85).

The debris associated with the Collective Workshops shows that their occupants w ere making prestige goods that are found rarely in archaeological excavations, but are listed in the inventories of church and monastic treasuries. The artisans who constructed the Temporary

Workshops were probably skilled craftsmen attracted to San Vincenzo by its growing status. The later Collect­ive Workshops may have housed those who chose to remain at San Vincenzo, producing enamels, ivories, fine-metalwork and glassware. After the earthquake of 848, notwithstanding the high-quality enamel and metalworking in Rooms A and B, production clearly declined, and the creation h ere of what amounted to a manorial complex in the west half ofthe range tellingly reveals the changing conditions of the age. The further deterioration of the complex by 881 baldly illustrates the decline of San Vincenzo as a successful player in a regional and interregional economy.

No m

l . The new wall had several context numbers assigned to it during the years of excavation: for ease it will be referred to as 4742 in this report.

2. See Chapter l O for a discussion of this building (p. 4 1 6). 3. Marco Valenti (1996: fig. 67) described an example at

Poggibonsi; and Gian Pietro Brogiolo and Sauro Gelichi (1997: figs 27, 35) discussed examples found at Piadena and Ferrara.

4. Cf. the reconstruction of the Forum of Nerva buildings by Roberto Meneghini and Riccardo Santangeli Valenzani (2004: fig. 25).

5 . On tile production, see: Gelichi and Novara 2000; on mortar­mixers: Gutscher 198 1 .

FIRST AND SECOND COLLECTIVE WORKSHOPS 1 93

458 APPENDIX l

ASTRAGALUS, greatest length of the latera! half (GLI)

phase number of cases range me an midden 6 S2.S-66.3 S9.9

Sb l 7 1 .S

Se l S8.6

8 s S8.4-64.2 60.6

METATARSAL, breath of the proximal end (Bp)

phase number of cases range me an midden 7 42.3-S0.2 46. 1

Sb s 38.3-49.S 46. 1

Se 2 44.4-47. 1 4S.8

6a l 48.0

8 4 43.2-47.7 44.S

METATARSAL, greatest breadth at the distai fusion point

phase number of cases range me an midden I O 43.3-S6.7 49.4

Sa2 l S0.6

Sb 4 46.8-S3.S 49.3

6a l S4.4

8 4 4S.3-SS.8 49.6

standard deviation variance 4.SS6 20.7S9

- -

- -

2.S9 1 6.7 1 2

standard deviation varia n ce 3. 1 93 1 0. 1 93

4.626 2 1 .402

1 .909 3.64S

- -

2. 1 2S 4.S I 6

standard deviation variance 3.S03 1 2.269

- -

3.028 9. 1 69

- -

4.436 1 9.683

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