CENTRE OF GRADUATE STUDIES

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

JANUARY 2013

HMEF5123

MODELS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

NAME OF STUDENT :JULIANA BT JUSOP@JAFFARMATRICULATION NO: CGS00593506IDENTITY CARD NO.: 780509035274TELEPHONE NO.: 012-9554695E-MAIL : julia_na95@yahoo.comNAME OF FACILITATOR :DR. SHARMINI GHANAGURULEARNING CENTRE: KUALA LUMPUR LEARNING CENTER

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTpg 2

TASK 1 : Extended Readingspg 3

TASK 2 : Planning & Designing A Teaching-Learning Modelpg 12

TASK 3 : Reflectionpg 18

APPENDIX

REFERENCES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I am grateful to The Almighty God for establishing me to complete this assignment. I wish to express my sincere thanks to En. Zulkipli Bin Sarbini, Headmaster of SK Kampong Soeharto, for providing me with all the neccessary facilities.I also thank Dr. Sharmini, Lecturer, Models of Teaching and Learning (HMEF5123) course. I am extremely grateful and indebted to her for her expert, sincere and valuable guidance and encouragement extended to me.I take this opportunity to record my sincere thanks to all my friends for their help and encouragement and support. I also thank my family for their unceasing encouragement and support.I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all who, directly or indirectly, have lent their helping hand in this venture.

TASK 1: Extended ReadingsI have choose the Behavioral Family of Models for the task 1. In this model, there are three learning strategies which are Mastery Learning, Direct Instruction and Learning from Simulations. Among these three strategies, I will focus on the Mastery Learning and Learning from Simulations. I have choose two articles about these two strategies. The articles are :1. Thomas R. Guskey (2005). A Historical Perspective on Closing Achievement Gaps. NASSP Bulletin. Vol. 89 No. 644 September 2005. pg 76-89 2. Bradford S. Bell, Adam M. Kanar, Steve W. J. Kozlowski (2008). Current Issues and Future Directions in Simulation-Based Training. Cornell University. pg 2-33

In these two articles, I have to highlight the key points raised in the articles and present the key points for each articles in the form of graphic organizer. Graphic organizers are a visual representation of the material a student is learning. The organizer assists the student in brainstorming and/or organizing information to make it easier to understand how ideas connect. Organizers create a connection between different ideas, allowing a student to grasp how large concepts work together. There are endless varieties of graphic organizers that can meet any classroom need. Organizers can be selected by the subject they are created for, such as Writing or English or by type and function, such as Compare/Contrast or Sequencing. Organizers give students the opportunity to see how concepts or ideas are connected. In doing so, this will assist the student in gaining a fuller grasp of the content. Research has demonstrated that the use of graphic organizers in the classroom helps students improve reading and comprehension skills, retention of information, and thinking and learning.

The Behavioral Systems Family ModelBehavioral Systems Family also known as social learning theory or behavior modification, behavior therapy and cybernetics. Human beings are self-correcting communication systems that modifybehavior in response to information about how successfully tasks are navigated. These models concentrate on observable behavior and clearly defined tasks and methods forcommunicating progress to the student and has a firm research foundation. Behavioral models include programs that are used for reducing phobias, learning to read and compute, developing social and athletic skills, replacing anxiety with relaxation and learning the complexes of intellectual, social and physical skills necessary to pilot an airplane or a space shuttle. This family has three models as describe below:

Mastery learning and programmed instructionMaterial to be learned is divided into units ranging from the simple to the complex. The material is presented to the students, generally working systematically as individuals, through appropriate media. They are tested and if they haven't mastered any given unit they can repeat it until they have mastered the material. Instructional systems based on this model have been used to provide instruction to students of all ages in areas ranging from thebasic skills to highly complex material.

Direct instructionDirect statements of objectives, sets of activities clearly related to the objectives, careful monitoring of progress and feedback about achievements and tactics forachieving more effectively are linked with sets of guidelines for facilitating learning.

SimulationTheory-to-practice model mixes information about a skill with demonstrations, practice, feedback and coaching until the skill is mastered. Simulations are constructed from descriptions of real life situations. A less than real life situation is created for the instructional situation. The student engages in activity to achieve the goal of the simulation and has to do with realistic factors until the goal is mastered.Article 1Blooms Mastery Learning

The Mastery-Learning Instructional Process

Enrichment ActivitiesFormative Assessment BUnit 2CorrectivesFormative Assessment AUnit 1

Summary of Article 1Bloom (1968) outlined a specific instructional strategy to make use of this feedback and corrective procedure, labelling it "learning for mastery," and later shortening the name to simply "mastery learning" (Bloom, 1971a). teachers first organize the concepts and skills they want students to learn into instructional units that typically involve about a week or two of instructional time. teachers administer a brief formative assessment based on the unit's learning goals. This formative assessment's purpose is to give students information, or feedback, on their learning. Paired with each formative assessment are specific corrective activities for students to use in correcting their learning difficulties. In other words, the correctives are individualized. With the feedback and corrective information gained from a formative assessment, each student has a detailed prescription of what more needs to be done to master the concepts or skills from the unit. It gives teachers a practical means to vary and differentiate their instruction to better meet students' individual learning needs. students learn well, master the important learning goals in each unit, and gain the necessary prerequisites for success in subsequent units. Bloom recommended they take a second formative assessment. This second, parallel assessment covers the same concepts and skills as the first, but is composed of slightly different problems or questions, and serves two important purposes. First, it verifies whether or not the correctives were successful in helping students overcome their individual learning difficulties. Second, it offers students a second chance at success and, hence, has powerful motivational value. Some students, of course, will perform well on the first assessment, demonstrating that they have mastered the unit concepts and skills. The teacher's initial instruction was highly appropriate for these students and they have no need of corrective work. To ensure their continued learning progress, teachers provide these students with special enrichment or extension activities to broaden their learning experiences. Enrichment activities are often self-selected by students and might involve special projects or reports, academic games, or a variety of complex, problem-solving tasks. Through the process of formative classroom assessment, combined with systematic correction of individual learning difficulties, all students could be provided with a more appropriate quality of instruction than is possible under more traditional approaches to teaching. As a result, nearly all might be expected to learn well and truly master the unit concepts or learning goals. This, in turn, would drastically reduce the variation in students' achievement levels, eliminate achievement gaps, and yield a distribution of achievement. Teachers who use mastery learning provide students with frequent and specific feedback on their learning progress, typically through regular, formative classroom assessments. This feedback is both diagnostic and prescriptive. It reinforces precisely what students were expected to learn, identifies what was learned well, and describes what needs to be learned better. Providing feedback, correctives, and enrichments, and ensuring instructional alignment takes little time and effort, especially if tasks are shared collaboratively among teaching colleagues. the systematic use of these elements helps many more students learn well, significantly reduces variation in student learning outcomes, and closes gaps in the achievement of different groups of students at any level of education (Walberg, 1986). The positive effects of mastery learning are not limited to cognitive outcomes. The process also yields improvements in students' confidence in learning situations, school attendance rates, involvement in class lessons, attitudes toward learning, and a host of other affective measures.

Article 2Instructional Features and Potential Benefits of Simulation-Based TrainingInformationRichnessDistributed Learning System FeaturesSpecific Instructional Benefits ofSimulation-Based TrainingRelevant Technologies Employed inSimulation Design

Low

HighContent:TextStill images/graphicsImages in motionSound: voice, music, special effects Simulations typically include severalmulti-media features which canoptimize learners ability to makesense of material Video-game quality graphics Supplementary training materialsonline or in CDROM (e.g., casestudies) Stories/narratives Customized content

Low

HighImmersionPsychological fidelityConstructive forcesStimulus space or scopeFidelity of context/opsMotion and actionReal timeAdaptive to trainees Prompt psychological processesrelevant to performance in real-worldsettings. Enable emotional arousal. Knowledge integration. Enhance feelings of presence andengagement. Safe practice environment Real-time interactions Motion and action Realism of environment

Low

HighInteractivitySingle participantsIndividual orientedMultiple participantsTeam oriented Simulations have potential to offerhigh degree of interactivity with otherusers or the system Use of characters or agents tosimulate competitors, colleagues, orcustomers Decision trees Virtual agents Pre-programmed Artificial intelligence

Low

HighCommunicationOne- way communicationsTwo-way communicationsAsynchronous communicationsSynchronous communicationsAudio onlyAudio & video At high bandwidth trainees caninteract in real-time. Communication with the system Natural language processing. Voice recognition technology.

Costs and Challenges Associated with Simulation-Based TrainingChallengeSummary of challengeImplications for learningIndustry trendsResearch needs

Managing developmentcostsSimulation-based traininghas large fixed costs.Simulations areunderutilized in practice,especially for smallerbusinesses.Canned simulations arebecoming more easilycustomizable which canreduce fixed costs.Understanding keyelements of design thatmust be customized.

Leveraging learner controlGreater learner controlplaces responsibility forlearning decisions on thetrainee.Learners do notaccurately assess theircurrent knowledge levelsand often make poorlearning decisions.On-demand models aremaking learner controlmore pervasive.Effects of incorporatingguidance and support insimulation design

Understanding individualdifferencesSimulations often do notconsider individualdifferences in learningstyles.A one-size fits allapproach results in lesseffectivetraining designs.A one-size fits all model isstill the dominant industrymodel.Examining whichindividual differences areimportant andunderstanding howsimulations can beadapted to learners.

Shaping the socialenvironmentSocial interaction isconsidered a key elementfor learning butsimulations often fail totake advantage ofpossibilities.

Feedback, sense oflearning community arelacking in solitarysimulation designs.Communicationtechnologies are beingincorporated morefrequently in simulations.Understand how socialenvironment andtechnology jointly shapeinstructional experience.

Summary of Article 2Simulations are generally defined as artificial environments that are carefully created to manage individuals experiences of reality. Cannon-Bowers and Bowers (in press) note that an essential feature of simulations and other synthetic learning environments (e.g., virtual reality) is, the ability to augment, replace, create, and/or manage a learners actual experience with the world by providing realistic content and embedded instructional features. Simulations can serve as effective training tools. The use of simulations improved learning. Simulations have been shown to be effective in a variety of contexts, including the training of pilots, clinicians, military personnel, fireman, and survey interviewers. Individuals generally report positive reactions (e.g., satisfaction) to the use of simulations in training and education (e.g., Mitchell, 2004; Romme, 2004). Simulations promote experiential, discovery learning, they may create knowledge that is more implicit than explicit and, therefore, difficult to measure using traditional knowledge tests. Simulations possess unique instructional capabilities that have the potential to enhance training effectiveness. It is important to understand how the instructional capabilities of simulations in the areas of content, immersion, interactivity, and communication can be leveraged to deliver the instructional experiences necessary to accomplish different types of training objectives. It provides greater insight into the technological components that influence learning in distributed environments. This approach can aid instructional designers and trainers in developing or selecting a training system that integrates the technology components essential to achieve desired learning outcomes. Recent research by Bell and Kozlowski (in press) suggests that active or experiential learning approaches impact learning and performance through three relatively distinct process pathways. The first pathway is cognitive in nature and concerns how trainees focus their attention during learning. The second pathway focuses on important motivational processes, such as goal orientation, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy. These processes influence the orientation (e.g., focus on learning or performance) individuals take toward a training task, the amount of effort they devote to learning, and the extent to which they persist through challenges and failure (Bell & Kozlowski, in press). The final pathway focuses on the extent to which trainees use self-regulatory processes to control their emotions during training. Since active learning can often be a difficult or stressful process, it is important for trainees to control negative emotions, such as anxiety or frustration, so that they can focus their attention and effort on learning (Kanfer, Ackerman, & Heggestad, 1996). It is important to identify effective guidance and support strategies that can be embedded in the design of simulation based training. It is important to understand how much and what type of support trainees need to leverage the learner control offered by simulation learning environments. Three types of support in simulations that provide them with an exploratory or discovery learning environment. The first is interpretive support, which helps learners analyze the problem and activate relevant, prior knowledge. The second, experimental support, helps learners engage in meaningful discovery learning activities. scaffolds learners in the systematic design of experiments, prediction and observation of outcomes, and the drawing of reasonable conclusions. Finally, reflective support increases learners self-awareness of the discovery processes and helps them integrate the discovered rules and principles. Bell and Kozlowski (2002a), for example, provided learners in a simulation-based training environment with adaptive guidance, which provided diagnostic feedback and personalized study and practice recommendations based on trainees performance improvement across practice sessions. adaptive guidance had a positive effect on the nature of trainees study and practice, quality of their self-regulatory processes, knowledge acquired, performance, and performance adaptation. Adopting a learner-centered perspective. It is important to recognize that even the most well designed training simulation will not be effective for all trainees. There exist a number of individual differences that have the potential to moderate the effectiveness of simulation-based training.

TASK 2 : Planning & Designing A Teaching-Learning Model(a) Description of the learnersIm teaching English Language at SK Kampong Soeharto in Kuala Kubu Bharu area. The school are located in the FELDA area. I teach English year 2, 4 and 6. For this task, I choose the year 2 pupils. It consists of 31 pupils in the classroom (15 boys and 16 girls). These pupils are in the advanced level. Their proficiency in English is good. They are quite active in the classroom especially the boys. They love to do the Total Physical Response (TPR) activities in the classroom. I choose the topic Around Us and I use the picture of a school environment.

(b) Description of the selected modelI choose the Picture-Word Inductive Model in the Information-Processing Family. I beliefs that,this model is suitable for my pupils. Using picture for these learners is the effective way to deliver the knowledge to them. Picture is very good in capturing their attention in the classroom. The Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM) is an instructional approach for the teaching of reading that uses pictures containing familiar objects, actions and scenes, to draw out familiar words from students listening and speaking vocabularies. This strategy helps students add words to their sight reading vocabulary, as well as their writing vocabulary, and to examine and categorize phonetic and structural principles present in those words.The purpose of using PWIM is to develop students vocabulary, concepts about words, and sentence and paragraph structures through reading and content areas such as math, science, social studies, and health. As an inductive instructional strategy, it has been researched and proven to be highly successful with both beginning readers and over-aged beginning readers. Words are shaken out or listed by a photograph by the students. The words are then categorized by students and read as a class over a series of days. Each class writes and reads sentences using the words. Then, depending on the grade level, the sentences are categorized and formed into paragraphs.

The Picture Word Inductive Model is a complex strategy that takes much study and training on the part of the teacher. It is through training, coaching with colleagues, and practice that teachers learn how to select the best photographs that will draw out appropriate vocabulary that will then lead to the study of the appropriate structural principles and increased reading proficiency.The following list of advantages of the Picture Word Inductive Model is drawn from Calhoun (1999). The strategy emphasizes phonics, grammar, mechanics, and usage of Standard English. Pictures provide concrete visuals for the learning of new words, phrases, and sentences. Because students are using pictures related to content material under study, they feel a part of the classroom community and can participate in class activities. The picture word chart serves as an immediate reference, or picture dictionary, that enables students to eventually add the words to their own sight vocabulary. The teacher can choose to emphasize almost any sound and symbol relationship (introduced or taken to mastery). Students are assisted in seeing the patterns and relationships of the English language, enabling them to apply this learning to newly encountered words. Students hear and see words spelled correctly and participate in correct spelling and writing. Learners benefit from the teacher modelling of the key words and concepts. With extensive practice, students begin to learn how to create sentences and paragraphs related to the subject under study.

The strategy can be used with a whole class, small groups, pairs, or individually to lead students to inquiry about words and adding them to their vocabularies, discovering phonetic and structural principles, and engaging in other reading and writing activities. Skills are taught explicitly using PWIM. The strategy is designed to capitalize on a students ability to think inductively.

Steps of the PWIM1. Select a picture.2. Ask students to identify what they see in the picture.3. Label the picture parts identified. (Draw a line from the identified object or area, say the word, write the word; ask students to spell the word aloud and then to pronounce it.)4. Read and review the picture word chart aloud.5. Ask students to read the words (using the lines on the chart if necessary) and to classify the words into a variety of groups. Identify common concepts (e.g., beginning consonants, rhyming words) to emphasize with the whole class.6. Read and review the picture word chart (say the word, spell it, say it again).7. Add words, if desired, to the picture word chart and to the word banks.8. Lead students into creating a title for the picture word chart. Ask students to think about the information on the chart and what they want to say about it.9. Ask students to generate a sentence, sentences, or a paragraph about the picture word chart. Ask students to classify sentences; model putting the sentences into a good paragraph.10. Read and review the sentences and paragraphs.

Strengths of the PWIM.The basic steps of the PWIM stress these components of phonics, grammar, mechanics, and usage: Students hear the words pronounced correctly many times and the picture word chart is an immediate reference as they add these words to their sight vocabulary. The teacher can choose to emphasize almost any sound and symbol relationship (introduced or taken to mastery). Students hear and see letters identified and written correctly many times. Students hear the words spelled correctly many times and participate in spelling them correctly. In writing the sentences, the teacher uses standard English (transforming student sentences if necessary) and uses correct punctuation and mechanics (e.g., commas, capital letters). As different mechanical and grammatical devices are used, the teacher describes why the device is used. After several lessons and experience with the teacher modeling the devices, the students learn how to use them, too.

The instructional environment created by the teacher through the PWIM is probably closest to the position articulated by Ramey and Ramey (1998). These professors and researchers offer six developmental priming mechanisms repeatedly associated with positive cognitive, social, and emotional outcomes of children (Ramey & Ramey, 1998, p. 115) (and probably also with the continuing development of adults): Encouragement of exploration, Mentoring in basic cognitive and social skills, Celebrating new skills, Guided rehearsal and extension of new skills, Protection from inappropriate punishment or ridicule for developmental advances, and Stimulation in language and symbolic communication. (Ramey & Ramey, 1998, p. 115)

Class : Year 2Level : AdvancedNo. Of Pupils : 31Subject : English LanguageTime : 8.45 9.45 amTopic : Around Us ( School Environment )Theme : World of KnowledgeLesson Objective : 1. To identify the features of a school environment 2. To construct sentences with correct word order 3. To construct complete sentencesActivities : 1. Teacher views an image onto the board. Pupils take time to view the picture of the school. 2. Pupils think of 3-4 words that they see in the image that they want to share. Pupils raise their hands when ready to share with the class. 3. Pupils stay seated and direct the teacher to the word using verbal directions (up, down, left, right, etc). Draw a line from the identified object or area, say the word, write the word; ask pupils to spell the word aloud and then to pronounce it. 4. Every few words, read and review the picture word chart aloud. 5. Teacher directs pupils to find something interesting about the words: plural words, number of letters, compound words, nouns, vowel patterns etc, then compare the words to others in the picture. 6. Teacher asks pupils to read the words (using the lines on the chart if necessary) and to classify the words into a variety of groups. Identify common concepts (e.g., beginning consonants, rhyming words) to emphasize with the whole class. Pupils may classify according to content, structure, phonetic or other similarities. Allow pupils 5 minutes to quietly create categories. 7. Teacher asks a pupil to share one of their created categories with the class. Write the category on the board. 8. Teacher asks a pupil to come to the board and drag appropriate words into the category heading. 9. Pupils read and review the picture word chart (say the word, spell it, say it again). 10. Teacher adds words, if desired, to the picture word chart and to the word banks. 11. Teacher leads the pupils into creating a complete sentence that describes the entire picture. Ask pupils to think about the information on the chart and what they want to say about it. 12. Teacher asks pupils to create sentences using the words from the picture word chart. 13. Teacher asks pupils to generate sentences using words from the word banks14. Read and review the sentences. 15. Teacher gives a few examples of an incomplete sentence and have pupils to re-write completed versions on board. 16. Teacher gives a few examples of sentences with incorrect word order. Pupils come to the board and make corrections. 17. Independent Practice: Pupils construct 2 complete correct sentences on their own using words from picture and word banks.

Picture of a school

TASK 3 : ReflectionThis course introduces me in the field of education to a variety of models and strategies of teaching. Essentially, three families of teaching models are introduced in this course: information-processing models, social learning models and behaviourist models. It gives me an exposure to research that helps me to develop professional teaching practice in the classroom. After completing this course, I will be able to do the following:1. Compare and contrast a variety of models and strategies of teaching 2. Design and develop lesson plans and instructional units for a particular subject using appropriate models and strategies3. Develop a personal understandings of best practice in teaching by exploring and evaluating the effects of a number of models and strategies of teaching4. Engage in reflective practice and enquiry before, during and after an instructional eventI realize that all these models and strategies I have use it in the classroom and still using it until now but I do not know the specific names for each of the strategies that I used. Now, I can clearly differentiates each of the models and strategies. Based on the readings, I know the effects of the models and when I used it in the classroom, I realized that I also experience the same effect. There are many benefits that I get when I complete this course : Improves the quality of instruction Systematic approach to planning for instruction Facilitates awareness about students learning needs. Assess impact of instruction Offers alternative ways of representing content/skills Develop learning experiences that yield successful outcomes. Facilitates student engagement in more meaningful ways

When I implement these models and strategies in the classroom, I can see the changes experience in the classroom. The pupils also gain the benefits such as : Increases aptitude for learning and retention Learn more rapidly. Facilitates different kinds of learning Builds academic self-esteem. Acknowledges characteristics and aptitudes. Promotes student awareness of how they will be taught and what changes are sought.The challenges that I may face if I want to implement the models in my classroom are: Behavior management Planning and programming new learning experience Report writing assessment on students performance Selecting assessment tools Differentiation in students interest, abilities, skills and knowledge

Classroom management is a challenge that all teachers face. Implementing effective strategies such as building quality relationships with students, making learning more student-based, and maintaining consistent classroom expectations helps one overcome this challenge. Making the decision to integrate these strategies in my own teaching will increase the day-to-day efficiency of my classroom and allow my students learning to become more deeply enriched.

Developing lesson plans for students is very challenging. Teachers not only have to think about what their state department of education requires of them, but they also have to think about the learning needs and abilities of their students. Finding a balancing point between all of these factors is not easy to do, but there are ways of overcoming the most common problems associated with the modern classroom.

One problem that a lot of teachers face, particularly teachers who have diverse student populations with varying skill levels, is trying to find a way to deliver the required curriculum in a manner that will make it accessible to all of the student skill levels in the classroom. This problem develops when students in a classroom do not all have the same abilities to process information that the teacher is delivering. This difference in skill level can be caused by teaching a classroom made up of students of different grade levels or teaching a classroom of students that may not all be at grade level in terms of reading and writing.The solution that I use to overcome this problem is needs to be innovative. I design educational activities that incorporate elements that can help those with lower skill levels understand and complete their lessons is one option. For example, written words can be paired with graphics that represent the word. Other elements can be included in the main lesson to also provide learning opportunities and challenges for those students that may be more advanced than their peers. For example, I include a challenge question or project for those students that get done early or who have already mastered the basic concepts of the activity.Keeping students interested in what is being taught is another common problem that teachers face. When students lose interest in what the teacher is talking about they engage in disruptive behavior or they stop paying attention all together. This limits both how much they are learning and how much other students in the class are learning.To correct this problem I need to find ways to engage students in what they are teaching. For example, when I teach science I developlesson plans to teach science fair projects. Active learning projects keep students focused and actively engaged while they are learning basic skills and concepts.

APPENDIX

REFERENCESJoyce, B., Weil, M. and Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of Teaching, Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon

Lang, H. & D. Evans (2005). Models, Strategies and Method for Effective Teaching, NY, USA:Allyn & Bacon

Thomas R. Guskey (2005). A Historical Perspective on Closing Achievement Gaps. NASSP Bulletin. Vol. 89 No. 644 September 2005. pg 76-89

Bradford S. Bell, Adam M. Kanar, Steve W. J. Kozlowski (2008). Current Issues and Future Directions in Simulation-Based Training. Cornell University. pg 2-33

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). The Picture Word Inductive Model: Developing Literacy across the Curriculum Models of Teaching (pp. 125-157): Pearson Education, Inc.

Swartzendruber, K. (2007). The Picture Word Inductive Model and Vocabulary Acquisition. Retrieved from Wichita State University, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual GRASP Symposium: http://soar.wichita.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/10057/850/1/grasp+178.pdf

Wood, K. D., & Tinajero, J. (2002). Using Pictures to Teach Content to Second Language Learners. Research into Practice. Middle School Journal, 33(5), 47-51.

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