History Preserved in Names

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History preserved in names: Delhi urbantoponyms of Perso-Arabic origin

Agnieszka Kuczkiewicz-Fra

Toponyms [from the Greek tpos () place and noma() name] are often treated merely as words, or simplesigns on geographical maps of various parts of the Earth. How-ever, it should be remembered that toponyms are also invaluableelements of a regions heritage, preserving and revealing differ-ent aspects of its history and culture, reflecting patterns of set-tlement, exploration, migration, etc. They are named points ofreference in the physical as well as civilisational landscape ofvarious areas.

Place-names are an important source of information regard-ing the people who have inhabited a given area. Such qualityresults mainly from the fact that the names attached to localitiestend to be extremely durable and usually resist replacement, evenwhen the language spoken in the area is itself replaced. The in-ternal system of toponyms which is unique for every city, whenanalysed may give first-rate results in understanding various

features, e.g. the original area of the city and its growth, the sizeand variety of its population, the complicated plan of its markets,


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AGNIESZKA KUCZKIEWICZ-FRA58

habitations, religious centres, educational and cultural institu-tions, cemeteries etc.

Toponyms are also very important land-marks of cultural

and linguistic contacts of different groups of people. In a citysuch as Delhi, which for centuries had been conquered and in-habited by populaces ethnically and linguistically different, thisphenomenon becomes clear with the first glance at the city map.Sanskrit, Hindi, Persian, Arabic and English words mix freely,creating a unique toponymical net of mutual connections andreferences.

Words of Perso-Arabic origin (henceforth: PA) started to be

used for naming places as soon as the first Muslim conquerorsseized the city of Delhi and made it their capital, i.e. in the lastdecade of the twelfth century. Since then the amount of PAplace-names was growing rapidly till the nineteenth century,when Muslim rulers in Delhi were replaced by the British gov-ernment. They became especially frequent in these parts of thecity which were one after another chosen by the Muslim rulers astheir capital seats and for this reason were predominately inhab-ited by Muslims. These were successively: Aibaks Qutb Minrcomplex, Tuluqbd and Jahnpanh all in southern Delhi,Frz h Kol and Purn Qilca on the eastern bank of Ya-muna and hjahnbd in the northern part of the city (presentOld Delhi).

All of the Delhi urban PA toponyms can be generally di-vided and characterised: 1. according to their etymological con-struction; 2. according to their semantic value.1

1. E t y m o l o g i c a l t y p o l o g y:a) toponyms created of one PA word (also compound word),

e.g. Karbal or Xvbgh (with a separate category of hybridcompounds built of two etymologically different lexical units,e.g. Salmgah);

1 Of course the two typologies presented here do not cover all the

possibilities of describing PA toponyms other important classificationscould be made, for example according to their grammatical structure oraccording to their primary/secondary evaluation.


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HISTORY PRESERVED IN NAMES 59

b) toponyms created of two or more words, of which at leastone is PA (the other can be PA, Sanskrit, Hindi or English) thisgroup might be divided further in two:

b-1) those in which a PA word designates the category ofthe named object, like masjidor darvza, e.g. MotMasjid (H +PA) or Sabz Burj (PA + PA);

b-2) those in which a PA word is a distinctive part of thewhole name, e.g. auX (PA + PA), Frz h Kol (PA +H) or zd Road (PA + E).

2. S e m a n t i c t y p o l o g y:a) toponyms connected with names:

a-1) of people, e.g. B-i B alma or Humyn kMaqbara;

a-2) of places, e.g. BegampurMasjid or LahaurDarvza;b) toponyms created from common nouns, like names of

colours (e.g. Nl Gunbad), precious stones (e.g. Hr Maal),real or wishful attributes of the named object (e.g. BaGunbador B-i ayt Bax) etc.;

c) toponyms created to commemorate:

c-1) historical events, e.g. Karbal or XnDarvza;c-2) legendary events, e.g. Pr yib or Qadam arf.

A detailed analysis of Delhi PA toponyms should probably re-quire many months of work and a voluminous study. It is alsohighly possible that some place-names could never be explained.In this article I shall discuss PA names of chosen historical ob-

jects, which are Delhis most significant land-marks and due tobeing often used for creating secondary toponyms, like names of

roads, squares, localities etc. have become pillars of Delhistoponymical framework.These historical places have been divided into several se-

mantic categories: 1. mosques; 2. tombs; 3. shrines; 4. forts; 5.water reservoirs; 6. towers; 7. gates; 8. palaces; 9. gardens; 10.other objects.

1. Mosques. As places of worship for followers of Islam

mosques are the most obvious and crucial component of Muslimtradition. The number of Delhi mosques is difficult to estimate


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but certainly, there are more than sixty (Maulvi Zafar Hasanenumerates 69, some of them of no name), with a number stillbeing used for everyday namz (prayers). Mosques are quite

often called after their founders names but the essential part ofevery name of a mosque is P (A) masjid, masjad a mosque,temple, place of worship [St. 1236].

Auliy Masjid [Mosque of Saints] < P auliy (pl. ofvaly)friends (of God), saints, prophets, fathers [St. 122]. Located inthe south-eastern corner of the auz -i ams, this mosque is con-sidered the most sacred by the Muslims. It is probable that theoriginal structure, now obliterated, was built by ams ud-Dn

Iltutmi, c. 1191.BegampurMasjid [Begumpur Mosque] < P (T) begam a

lady of rank [St. 224]; H purfortified town, castle, city, town;village [Pl. 234]. This magnificent mosque constructed c.1375 is most probably one of the seven mosques built by Xn-iJahn, the prime minister (vazr) of Frz h Tuluq (r. 1351--88) and named after Begumpur a historical village situated inSouth Delhi District.

auburj Masjid [Four-domed Mosque] < H cau- four(used only in comp.) [Pl. 331]; P (A) burj a tower [St. 170].The mosque, built in the fourteenth century by Frz h Tuluq,derives its name from its architectural features of having fourdomes, which it once had.

FataprMasjid [Fatehpuris Mosque]. The mosque wasbuilt in 1650 by one of h Jahns wives, Fatapr Begam(coming from the city of Fatehpur), after which it has taken itsname.

JamlKamlMasjid [Mosque and Tomb of Jamali] < Pjamlamiable, lovable [St. 370]; P (A) kaml being complete,entire, perfect; perfection, excellence; completion, conclusion;integrity; punctuality [St. 1047]. The name of the place comesfrom the two marble graves located there, one of which is that ofJaml, which was nom de plume of aix mid bin FalullahKanbo (d. 1536), a traveller and an eminent poet, known to haveserved the court of Sikandar Lod (r. 1489-1517). Who Kaml

was remains a mystery.


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Jmic Masjid [Congregational Mosque] < P (A)jmic whoor what collects, () cathedral mosque, where the xutba is re-peated on Fridays [St. 351]. One of the largest mosques in India,

built by h Jahn in 1650, sometimes called Masjid-i JahnNum [World-reflecting Mosque] < Pjahn,jihn the world; anage; worldly possessions [St. 380]; P -nam, -num (incomp.) showing, pointing out; an index [St. 1425].

KhikMasjid [Mosque of Windows] < H khika privateor back-door; postern-gate, wicket, sally-port; a window, case-ment [Pl. 876]. It is located in the settlement of Jahnpanh,the fourth city of Delhi and was founded by Moammad bin

Tuluq (r. 1325-51). The mosques name comes from the perfo-rated windows (khik-s), that decorate the upper floors.Maxdm SabzvrMasjid [Mosque of Priest of Sabzvar]

< P (A) maxdm a lord, master; the son of the house, the younggentleman, the heir; a Muhammadan priest; an abbot [St. 1195];P sabzvr name of a country in Persian Irk; also of a townthere [St. 648]. Built in the fifteenth century, during the Tmrinvasion of India. Nothing is known of thefsaint buried there.

Moh kMasjid [Lentil Mosque] < H moh a kind of vetch,or pulse, Phaseolus aconitifolius [Pl. 1086]. This mosque wasbuilt during the rule of Sikandar Lodand has a legend attachedto its origin. It is believed that one day Sikandar Lodsaw a grainofmoh lying in the Jmic mosque which he held up and handedover to his wise and sagacious vazr. The vazr thought that asthe grain had had the honour of being touched by the emperor, heshould so arrange as to give it everlasting fame. He planted theseed and gradually, year after year, the seed multiplied so much,

that it brought the vazra large sum of money, enough to build animposing mosque, which thereafter was known as Moh kMasjid.

MotMasjid [Pearl Mosque] < H mot a pearl [Pl. 1086].It was built in the Ll Qilca complex by Aurangzeb in 1659-70and was used by the emperor as his personal chapel. MotMasjidderives its name from the pearl white colour of the mosque.Apart from this, a pearl (like other gemstones) designates an

apparent preciousness of the religious structure. Therefore, nam-


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ing mosques after generic names of precious stones was quite apopular practise in Mughal times.

PahVlMasjid [Mosque on the Hillock] < Hpaha

small hill a hillock [Pl. 282]. As indicated in its name, themosque (of the late Mughal period) stands on a piece of hillyground.

Qilca-i Kuhna Masjid [Mosque of the Old Fort] < P (A)qalca, qilca a castle, fort (especially on the top of a moun-tain) [St. 984]; P kuhna old, ancient [St. 1067] is a grandmosque constructed by er h in 1541 within the Delhi PurnQilca [Old Fort] complex (the Persian and less used name of

which is Qilc

a-i Kuhna).Quvvat ul-Islm Masjid [Might of Islam Mosque] < P (A)quvvat being strong, powerful; excelling in strength; power,force, vigour, strength, firmness; virtue, faculty, quality; author-ity [St. 993]; P (A) islm yielding obedience to the will of God,resigning oneself to the divine disposal; () Islamism, Muham-madism; orthodoxy [St. 59]. The oldest extant mosque in India;its construction was started in 1193 by Qutb ud-Dn Aibak, thefounder of the Mamlk dynasty and completed in 1197. It is alsocalled Masjid-i dna [Friday Mosque] < P dna Friday [St.30] or DillMasjid-i Jmic [Delhi Congregational Mosque] < P(A) jmic who or what collects, () cathedral mosque, wherethexutba is repeated on Fridays [St. 351].

SunahrMasjid [Golden Mosque] < H sunahr of gold,golden; gilded; gold-coloured [Pl. 689]. In Delhi there are twomosques of this name. One is located outside the south-westerncorner of the Ll Qilca, and was built by Navb QudsBegam in

1751. The other, situated near the Kotvl in hjahnbd, wasbuilt by a noble Rauan ud-Daula afar Xn in 1721. The domesof both the mosques were originally covered with copper giltplates, from which they derive their names.

Znat-ul Masjid curf Gha Masjid [Mosque of Zinat,known as Cloud Mosque] < P (A) curf being known, public,notorious; known [St. 844]; H gha gathering of the clouds;mass of clouds, dense black clouds (on the horizon); cloudiness

[Pl. 930]. Built at the beginning of the eighteenth century byZnat un-Nis Begam, the daughter of Emperor Aurangzeb, after


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whom the mosque has its name (cf. P (A)znatornament, deco-ration, dress, beauty, elegance [St. 635]). The popular name ofthe sanctuary is Gha Masjid [Cloud Mosque], because it was

painted white with black stripes. This name may also come fromits two extremely high (cloud-touching) minarets, which are themain features of this beautiful structure.

2. Tombs. Delhi, often called a city of graves andmosques, is full of scattered tombs of emperors and saints,whose names appear in almost all toponyms of this class. Theessential part of a name of a tomb is usually one of the following

designations of this semantic category: P (A) maqbara a bury-ing-ground, burial-place, sepulchre, graveyard [St. 1290] theword most often used to design a tomb, usually when we think ofa room or small covered building (maybe a pavilion) which con-tains the grave; P (A) mazr visiting; a place of visitation; ashrine, sepulchre, tomb, grave; visitation, a visit [St. 1221] usually it means the particular building (maybe a pillared pavil-ion only) of the dargh (shrine) containing the grave of a saint; ithas religious rather than architectural significance; P (A) qabrburying; a grave, tomb, sepulchre, mausoleum, monument inhonour of the dead [St. 951] a term usually applied to a gravewith or without a tombstone over it; P gunbad an arch, vault,cupola, dome, tower; an arched gateway; a triumphal arch [St.1098] although the word itself does not have a meaning of atomb, it is often used in this sense, being applied to the domedtomb structures. P (A) turbat earth, ground; a grave; a tomb; amausoleum [St. 292] might be used instead ofqabr.

Atga Xnk Maqbara [Tomb of Atgah Khan]. ams ud-Dn Muammad Atga Xn was a general and a prime minister(vaql) in the Akbars court. Killed by Adham Xn in 1562.2

Ba Gunbad [Big Dome] < H ba large, great, big, vast,immense, huge [Pl. 151]. Ba Gunbad (built in 1490), locatedin Lodi Gardens, is a square domed tomb of an unknown but

2

Cf. Ab l-Fal

c

Allm, The

n-i Akbar, vol. I, tr. H. Bloch-mann, ed. D.C. Phillott, Calcutta:The Asiatic Society, 1873; repr. 1993,pp. 337-8.


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probably important person from the Lodi period, grouped to-gether with the Friday mosque of Sikandar Lod (Ba GunbadMasjid) and a mihmn-xna (guesthouse for pilgrims).

cs Xn k Maqbara [Isa Khans Tomb]. cs Xn Nyz,an Afghan noble who served er h Sr and then his sonIslm h Sr, is buried in this tomb, built during his lifetime in1547-8.

ud-Dn k Maqbara [Ghaziuddins Tomb]. This is amausoleum built for himself by ud-Dn Xn (died in mid-1700), a nobleman and a general during the reign of Aurangzeband his successors, and the father of the first Niz m of Hydara-

bad. iys ud-Dn Tuluqk Maqbara [Tomb of GhiyasuddinTughlaq]. This is a tomb and mausoleum of iys ud-DnTuluq (r. 1321-5), the founder of the Tuluq dynasty in India,which he built for himself.

Humyn k Maqbara [Humayuns Tomb] has taken itsname from the Mughal Emperor Nar ud-Dn MuammadHumyn, and was built for him by his wife amda BnBegam in 1565-72.

Iltutmi k Maqbara [Iltutmishs Tomb]. This tomb wasbuilt in the Qutb Mnr complex by ams ud-Dn Iltutmi him-self, in 1235.

Imm mn k Maqbara [Tomb of Imam Zamin].Muammad cAlof Mahad, known also as Imm mn, was aMuslim saint from Turkestan who came to Delhi during the reignof Sikandar Lod. He built this mausoleum in his life time andwas burried there after his death in 1539. His name could be

translated as the protectingImm or ones guardian saint (< Pimm a head, chief, leader, especially in religious matters,antistes or reader in a mosque; prelate, patriarch, priest; akhalif [St. 97], min a surety, sponsor, security, bondsman,bail [St. 798]; cf. Pl. 80).

Ll Bagla [Red Bungalow] < P ll a ruby; red [St.1112]; H (< E) bagl a thatched house, a bungalow [Pl.172]. It is the name of an extentive enclosure, containing two

small graves, supposedly being the resting place of Ll Kunvr,


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the mother of h clam II (after whom the place is called), andher daughter Begam Jn.

Mazr-e alb [Ghalibs Grave]. It is also called Mirz

alb k Maqbara [Mirza Ghalibs Tomb] and is a resting placeof Mirz Asadullh Xn alb (1797-1869) a great poet ofDelhi, who wrote in Urdu and Persian.

Mubrak h k Maqbara [Tomb ofMubarak Shah]. Thistomb is considered to be one of the finest examples of octagonalSayyid tombs. Built around 1434, after the death of Mubarak hSayyid, the second ruler of the Sayyid dynasty.

Mubrak Xn k Gunbad [Mubarak Khans Dome]. It is

the tomb of Muammad h (d. 1445/6), the third king of Sayyiddynasty and the nephew and successor of Mubrak h Sayyid.Nl Gunbad [Blue Dome] < H nl dark blue; blue; livid

[Pl. 1168]. The monument (built in 1624-5), locally known asNl Gunbad, due to the blue coloured dome, contains the re-mains of Fahm Xn, the attendant ofcAbd ur-Ram Xnxnn,who lived during the reign of Jahngr.

Paik k Maqbara [Tomb of a Messenger] < Ppaika run-ning footman; a carrier, messenger; a guard; a watchman; a foot-man, lacquey [St. 268]. It is a Lodi period octagonal monu-ment of the fifteenth century. Nothing is known about Paik butthe word literary means a messenger.

Qabr-e afdarjang [Safdarjangs Tomb]. This splendidmausoleum was built in 1753-4 for Mirz Muqm cAblmanrXn, given a title ofafdarjang, the viceroy of Avadh during thereign of Mughal emperor Muammad h, by his son Navvbuj ud-Daula.

Sikandar Lodk Maqbara (Sikandar Lodis Tomb). Thetomb of Sikandar Lod, second ruler of the Afghan Loddynasty,supposedly was built by his son and successor Ibrhm in theyear of Sikandars death.

h clamk Maqbara [Tomb of Shah Alam]. h clamwas a saint who lived during the reign ofFrz h Tuluq, butnothing is known of him.

Gunbad [Glazed Dome] < P a a glass, bottle, flask,

phial, cup, caraff, decanter; glass; a looking-glass; a cupping-glass [St. 775] (cf. H - glass [McG. 952]). This is a typi-


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cal Lodi-period tomb, but none of the many people buried in ithave been identified. The exterior of the structure is ornamentedwith blue glazed tiles in two shades, which gave the tomb its

name.Turbat-e Najaf Xn [Tomb of Najaf Khan]. Najaf Xn (d.

1782) was a Persian noble in the court of Mughal emperor hclam II. For his admirable deeds the king made him Amrul-umar3 with the title of Zlfikr ud-Daula.

Xn-i Xnn k Maqbara [Tomb of Khan-i Khanan]. cAbdur-Ram Xn, also given a title ofXn-i Xnn (d. 1626-7), wasthe son of Akbars prime minister Bairm Xn and an influential

person in the courts of Akbar and Jahngr. He was also a knownpoet, the author of popular Urd couplets, which he wrote underthe pen name Ram.

3. Shrines. Shrines, usually built over the grave of a reveredreligious figure (often a fsaint), are typical manifestations ofSouth Indian Muslim culture. They are most often called dargh-s,as many believe that these shrines are portals through which thedeceased saints intercession and blessing can be invoked (< Pdargh the kings court; a port, portal, gate, door; the lowerthreshold; a court before a palace or great house; a large bench orplace for reclining upon; a mosque [St. 513] > H dargh portal,door; threshold; a royal court, a palace; a mosque; shrine or tomb(of some reputed saint, which is the object of worship and pil-grimage) [Pl. 513]).Dargh-s are often associated with meetingrooms and hostels, known as xnqh4 < P xnagh (xngh),

xnagah (xngah) a monastery for Sofs or Darwshes; a con-

vent, chapel; a hospice [Pl. 443], and also usually include amosque, schools (madrasa-s), residences for teachers or caretak-ers, hospitals, and other buildings for community purposes. An-other term for a shrine is naryator naaryat, meaning verbatima place of devotion; a place of offering


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warning, inspiring dread of an enemy; a vow, promise made toGod; a gift, anything offered or dedicated; a present or offeringfrom an inferior to a superior [St. 1394] + -yat, which is an

Arabic suffix of abstract substantives. A specific category of holyplaces, very common in India, attributed to various saints andheld sacred by the general public, are so called illagh-s, usu-ally secluded and lonely places where the Muslim saints indulgein prayer and meditation. The term comes from P illa, ila aquadragesimal fast, the forty days of Lent, during which the reli-gious fraternities of the East shut themselves up in their cells, orremain at home [St. 398] + P gh place (always in composi-

tion) [St. 1074].Toponyms denoting shrines, similarly to those namingtombs, usually comprise the name of a particular saint.

Bhre h kDargh [Shrine of Bhoore Shah] < H bhrbrown; auburn (hair) [Pl. 195] (cf. light brown, brownish;greyish [McG. 772]); P h a king (); a title assumed byfakrs [St. 726]. Xvja Sadr ud-Dn h, who lived during theJahngrs reign and is buried here, got his nickname because of

his fair (H bhr) complexion.5

illa Nizm ud-Dn [Nizamuddins Residence]. The resi-dence of thirteenth-century fsaint arat Xvja Niz m ud-DnAuliy, which is said to be the site where he used to fast andmeditate (illa), resembling the architecture of Frz h Tuluq.Called also illagh-e arf[Saints Residence]


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Naryat-e Pr ciq Allah [Pir Ashiq Allahs Shrine] wasbuilt in 1317 by Sult n Qutb ud-Dn Mubrak h Xalj for arenowned Chishtiyya saint ams ud-Dn ciq Allah. Apart from

his tomb in the dargh there is a hill on which the illagh ofBb Fard, twelfth-century f preacher and saint of the sameChishti order, is situated. It is a place of meditation for many fmystics and saints.

Niz m ud-Dn k Dargh [Nizamuddins Shrine] is themausoleum ofarat Xvja Niz m ud-Dn Auliy, the world-famous Muslim f mystic and saint of the Chishti order. Thevillage that during the centuries sprang up around the shrine is

also named after the saint (Niz muddn).Qutb ud-Dn Baxtiyr Kk kDargh [Shrine of Qutb-uddin Bakhtiyar Kaki]. Khwja Baxtiyr Kk (d. 1235) was arenowned Muslim f mystic, saint and scholar of the Chishtiorder. His shrine is the oldest dargh in Delhi.

h-i MardnkDargh [Shrine of Shahi Mardan] < P ha king, sovereign, emperor, monarch, prince [St. 726]; mardn(pl. ofmard) heroes, warriors [St. 1212]. This shrine derives itsname from h-i Mardn [King of Heroes], which is a title ofcAl (cf. P shh-i mardn king of valour, Al [St. 726]). Thename has been given to the enclosure of Qadam arf, a structurewhich is believed to contain a footprint ofcAl.

Xanqa-i h ulm cAl[Convent of Shah Ghulam cAli].The whole enclosure contains a mosque, a house, a Tasb Xna(< P tasb-xna a chapel, oratory [St. 300]), a few apartmentsand four graves among them there is that of h ulm cAl, awell known thirteenth-centuryfsaint of Naqshbandi order.

4. Forts. Impressive Delhi forts stand as silent sentinels tothe former glory of the mighty emperors who have ruled the city.Although some of them are now forgotten and partly ruined,once they marked the dawn of a new capital, portraying the de-sire of establishing a new kingdom. The names of the forts oftenrefer to the names of their builders as well as contain a worddenoting fort, being an exponent of this category. For this pur-

pose one of the following is used: P qalc

a, qilc

a a fort (esp. oneon a mountain or an eminence), a fortress, castle, citadel, fortifi-


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cation [Pl. 794]


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the fort as ergah [Shers Fort] (or Tigers Fort, as his nameer in Persian means a lion; a tiger [cf. St. 772]).

Salmgah [Salims Fort]. The fort was built by Islm h

Sr, also known as Salm h (after whom the fort is named),son and successor ofer h Sr, in 1546. It was constructed onan island of the river Yamun. By the time of Salm hs deathonly the walls were completed, then the construction was aban-doned. Later it was also called Nrgah [Fort of Noor], whenNr ud-Dn Jahngr built a bridge in front of its gateway (cf. Pnrlight, rays of light [St. 1432]).

Tuluqbd [Tughlaqs Fort]. The fort situated on a hillock

is a huge (stretching across 6.5 km), but dilapidated construction,built by iys ud-Dn Tuluq, the founder of the Tughlaq dy-nasty. The construction began in 1321 and was completed in twoyears, but the fort was abandoned soon after its founders deathin 1325.

5. Water reservoirs. The large water tanks or reservoirs,built to supply water to the inhabitants of the city, are known asau-es < P (A) aua large reservoir of water, basin of a foun-tain, pond, tank, vat, cistern [St. 434].

au-i cAl [Alas Tank]. It is a large tank, excavated bycAl ud-Dn Xalj (r. 1296-1316) in Sir, the second city of me-dieval India, and named after him. In the fourteenth century itwas renamed au X by Frz h Tuluq.

au -i ams [Shamss Tank] is a water storage reservoirbuilt in 1230 by ams ud-Dn Iltutmi, the third ruler of the Sul-tanate of Delhi and named after him. As the legend narrates, a

location for the reservoir was revealed to Iltutmi by the ProphetMuammad in a dream. When the Sultan inspected the site theday after his dream, he reported to have found a hoof print ofMuammads horse. He then erected a pavilion to mark the sa-cred location and excavated a large tank around the pavilion toharvest rain water.

au X [Royal Tank]. P (A) x, x choice, select,excellent, noble [St. 439]. In the fourteenth century Frz h

Tuluq re-excavated the old silted au-i

c

Al

and raised sev-eral buildings on its banks. Since then, the tank and surrounding


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area is known as au X, which can be translated as RoyalTank.

6. Towers. A minaret, from which five times each day thevoice of the muain calls thousands of followers to fulfil theirreligious duty, is the necessary component of every mosque, andas such one of the most essential symbols of Islam. However, itrarely happens that minarets possess their individual names. Still,in Muslim times towers were quite frequently built, either asparts of fortifications or as separate constructions. There are twoterms denoting tower which appear in toponyms of this cate-

gory: P mnra tower, turret, steeple, spire, minaret; an obelisk[St. 1364] and P (A) burj a tower [St. 170]cAl-i Mnr [Alas Tower] < P (A) cal being superior

to, above [St. 860]. The unfinished tower in the Qutb Mnrcomplex is named after its founder, Sultan cAl ud-Dn Xaljwho had started the construction of the tower twice the size ofQutb Mnr. It could not be completed because of the sultansdeath.

Asad Burj [Lions Tower] < P (A) asada lion [St. 57].Asad Burj is a part of the Ll Qilca fortification wall located inthe south-eastern corner of the fort. It was damaged during theUprising of 1857.

or Mnr [Tower of Thieves] < H cora thief, a robber, apilferer [Pl. 450]. Built in the times ofcAl ud-Dn Xalj, thistower has circular holes on the outside and it is believed that theymight have been used for displaying severed heads of thieves, asa deterrent to robbers which gave the tower its name.

Kos Mnr [Milestone Tower] < H kos a measure of lengthequal to approximately two English miles (but varying in differ-ent parts of India), a league; a mile-stone [Pl. 862]. The KosMnr-s, which are several in Delhi and numerous along the mainroutes of northern India, were the milestones erected by theMughal emperors between 1556 and 1707. They measure over30 ft and the inspiration to build them was probably derived bythe Mughals from er h.

Mus amman Burj [Octagonal Tower] < P (A) mus ammanoctangular, eight-sided, eight-fold; an octagon [St. 1173]. This


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octagon is one of the structures of Ll Qilca, known also as Burj-iTila [Golden Tower] < P tila drawn gold [St. 322], becauseits walls, built of white marble, as well as its cupola have been

covered with gilded copper. This structure was used as jharokhor showing place (< Hjharokh loop-hole, eyelet-hole, lattice,window, casement, skylight [Pl. 403]), wherein the emperorappeared daily to his subjects.

QutbMnr [Tower of Qutb]. This tallest brick minaret inthe world (72.5 m) was constructed c. 1200 under the orders ofIndias first Muslim ruler Qutb ud-Dn Aibak, after whom it hasbeen named. The topmost storey of the minaret was completed in

1386 by Frz h Tuluq.Sabz Burj [Green Dome] < P sabz green [St. 647]. Thename of this late sixteenth century octagonal tomb comes fromthe green tiles which originally covered it. During restoration inthe 1980s the construction was re-tiled by the ArchaeologicalSurvey of India in a vivid blue colour and, for this reason, it isalso known as NlChatr< H nl dark blue; blue; livid [Pl.1168]; H chatr a small ornamental pavilion generally builtover a place of interment, or a cenotaph in honour of a Hindchief, or afaqr [Pl. 458]. It is not known who built this monu-ment or whose tomb it is.

Sohan Burj [Brilliant Tower] < H sohan beautiful, hand-some, graceful, pleasing, charming [Pl. 703]. Probably built atthe turn of the fifteenth century, the building does not resemble atower at all. It could have been used as an assembly hall or aschool (madrasa). It looks very much like a mosque, but is fac-ing the wrong direction to be one.

h Burj [Kings Tower] < P h a king [St. 726]. It isan octagonal, three-storey building in the Ll Qilca complex, apavilion rather than a typical tower. In this building h Jahnheld secret meetings with princes and leading nobles.

7. Gates. Delhi for centuries was famous for its gates, al-though from the fifty two mentioned by William Finch6 in his

6 William Finch was an agent of the East India Company who trav-elled in India in the years 1608-11. Cf. R. Nath,India as Seen by William


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description of the city, only 13 still exist and can be identified. Ausual practice was to call them according to the name of a placeof destination they were facing. A regular element of the name of

each gate is P darvza a door; a gate [St. 514].cAl-i Darvza [Alas Gate] < P (A) cal being superior

to, above [St. 860]. It is the main gateway from the southernside of the Quvvat ul-Islm Mosque, built by Sultan cAl ud-DnXaljin 1311 and named after him.

DillDarvza [Delhi Gate] known also as Alexandra Gate(named so after Queen Alexandra of Denmark), in the south wallof the Ll Qilca, acquired its name as it faces the sites of the older

cities of Delhi.LahaurDarvza [Lahore Gate]. Also known as Victoria

Gate (named so after Queen Victoria), it is the most importantand the most frequently used gate of Ll Qilca, in the centre ofthe West wall of the fort. The gate is named so because it facestowards the city of Lahaur.

XnDarvza [Bloodstained Gateway] < Pxn bloody; amurderer [St. 489]. Built by er h Srin sixteenth century, it

was one of the gates of his city ergah, then called KbulDar-vza, as it opened on the road to Kabul. Because of the predomi-nant use of red stone it was also called LlDarvza< P ll aruby; red [St. 1112]. Its present name the gate acquired afterthe Uprising of 1857 since it was here that Captain W. Hodsonshot two remaining sons of the last Mughal emperor Bahdur hZ afar, imprisoned after the siege of Delhi by British soldiers.Local legend has it that during the rainy season blood drips fromthe ceiling (most probably it is rainwater that becomes slightlyreddish after contact with the rusted iron joints of the gatewaysceiling).

8. Palaces. This category comprises residences of variouskind, belonging usually to a royal personage or to a high digni-tary, often large and splendid, used either for living or for enter-tainment, known generally as maal-s < P maall, maal de-

Finch (1608-11), Jaipur: The Historical Research Documentation Pro-gramme, 1990.


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scending, lighting off a journey, staying, dwelling; place ofabode; a building, house, mansion; a palace; a place, post, dig-nity, degree of honour, high station [St. 1189].

BhulBhaiyrk Maal [Palace of Bu-cAli Bhatti]. It isone of the four hunting palaces (ikrgh) built by Frz hTuluq. According to popular belief, its name comes from a mannamed B-cAlBha, who is said to have occupied the buildinglong ago. The name has gone through many variations over theyears, hence its present corrupted form.7 The other explanation ofthe name might be according to the word-for-word translation:Palace of Fair Woman Innkeeper < H bhr brown; auburn

(hair) [Pl. 195] (cf. light brown, brownish; greyish [McG.772]); bhaiyr, bhahiyr woman who carries on the businessof an inn-keeper; wife of a bhahiyr [Pl. 183]. The mysteriousinnkeeper might have been a particular favourite of Frz hTuluq.

Hr Maal [Diamond Palace] < H hr diamond; ada-mant [Pl. 1244]. A small marble pavilion in the Ll Qilca com-plex, built by Bahdur h II who used to sit there and watch the

river.Jahz Maal [Ship Palace] < P (A)jahz a ship [St.380]. Built during the Lodi dynasty period (1452-1526) probablyas a pleasure resort or an inn (sary) for pilgrims. It is calledShip Palace because, located on the banks ofau-i ams, itappears as if it was floating on the surface of the lake.

Kk-i ikrgh [Hunting Palace] < P kka palace, villa;a castle, citadel [St. 1062]; P ikrprey, game; the chase, hunt-ing [St. 751]; P gh place (always in composition) [St.1074]. It is another hunting lodge built by Frz h Tuluq. Theother name of the place is Kk-i Jahn Num [World-reflecting Palace] < P jahn, jihn the world; an age; worldlypossessions [St. 380]; P -nam, -num (in comp.) showing,

7 Such explanation of this name has been given by Sayyid Amad

Xn in s r us-andd, cf. R. Nath,Monuments of Delhi. Historical Study,Indian Institute of Islamic Studies, New Delhi: Ambika Publications, 1979,p. 38.


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pointing out; an index [St. 1425]. The palace was probably sonamed because of the astronomical observatory built in it.

LlMaal [Red Palce] < P ll a ruby; red [St. 1112].

Presumably it is the other name for the Kuk-i Ll (< P kkapalace, villa; a castle, citadel [St. 1062]), a palace built by iys ud-Dn Balban before he ascended the throne. It is built of redsandstone which gave the palace its name. In the fourteenth cen-tury the famous Moroccan traveller Ibn Bat t ta stayed here dur-ing his visit to Delhi.

Mumtz Maal [Palace of the Eminent] < P mumtz cho-sen, distinguished, select, choice; eminent, excellent, illustrious;

separate, distinct [St. 1313]. It is the former harem of the LlQilca. According to popular belief, this palace was built by hJahn for his wife Arjumand Bn Begam, also famously knownas Mumtz Maal.

Pr yib [Vanished Saint] < Ppran old man; a founderor chief of any religious body or sect [St. 264]; P ib absent,latent, concealed, invisible [St. 880]. Supposedly it was origi-nally a part of Kk-i ikrgh, built by Frz h Tuluq in thefourteenth century. There are various interpretations whether itwas used as a hunting lodge, or as an astronomical observatory.According to tradition, one of the rooms of the building was aillagh or the worshipping place of a saint, who suddenly andmysteriously disappeared. There is a cenotaph constructed in hismemory and the whole building is known after him as Pr yib.

Rang Maal [Palace of Colours] < P rang colour, hue [St.588]. The building is known also as Imtiyz Maal [Palace ofDistinction] < P (A) imtiyz separation, distinction, discrimina-

tion [St. 98]. The building, located within the Ll Qilca complex,was the largest of the apartments of the imperial seraglio.X Maal [Private Palace] < P (A) x, x private,

for private use, personal, own, proper [St. 439]. Known alsounder the name ho Rang Maal [Lesser Palace of Colours]


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Z afar Maal [Palace of Zafar]. It stands in the centre ofB-i ayt Bax, a garden in the Ll Qilca complex and isnamed after the nom de plume of Bahdur h II, by whom it

was built in about 1842 (cf. P (A)zafaraccomplishing, succeed-ing in ones wishes, overcoming, conquering; victory, triumph[St. 825]).

9. Gardens. The construction of gardens since Baburs rule(1526-30) was one of the preferred imperial activities, becominguncommonly popular during the times of the Mughal Empire.Some of them are kept well preserved and can still be admired in

Delhi, although a traditional Persian word ba garden; a vine-yard [St. 148] in their names is more and more often replacedby the English word garden.

B-i B alma [Garden of Bu Halima]. Not much isknown about B alma and the origin of the garden locallynamed after the lady. Architecturally the enclosure-walls and thegateway of the garden by its style could be datable to the earlyMughal period (sixteenth century). There is a dilapidated struc-

ture in the garden, containing a grave said to be of Balma.B-i ayt Bax [Life-giving Garden] < P (A) aytlife;life-time [St. 434]; bax(in comp., as part. ofbaxdan) a giver,donor; a distributor, or divider; a pardoner [St. 159]. The gardenwithin the Ll Qilca complex, once a beautiful retreat and a fa-vourite resting-place of the forts inhabitants.

B-iRauanr [Roshanaras Garden]. This is one of thebiggest gardens of Delhi, laid in 1650 by Rauanr Begam, theyoungest daughter of h Jahn and named after her. Her tomb(Qabr-e Rauanr), in which the princess was buried in 1671, issituated in the centre of the garden.

10. Other objects. This class comprises a range oftoponyms which cannot be grouped under any of the above de-scribed categories, but are still commonly known and used forconstructing secondary place-names.

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