History of Plumbing

Plumbing Engineer Copyright © 2001 TMB Publishing, Inc. March 2001/Page 45

The History of Plumbing

We can study history and itwill show us what has beensuccessful and what has

been unsuccessful. When we look atthe history of plumbing systems weoften see many changes occurred aftercatastrophic fires, plagues or other epi-demics that related to health or safetyissues. As the saying goes, “those whodo not study history are bound torepeat it.” Therefore, by the knowingand studying the history of plumbing,we are less likely to repeat the unsafedesigns or installations that led to theuncontrollable fires, plagues and epi-demics in the past.

There have been plenty of signifi-cant plumbing events in the history ofplumbing. History provides us withknowledge and informative records ofpast plumbing performance andadverse experiences. Recognition ofthese past mistakes provides us withthe knowledge to move on and devel-op better plumbing systems that willhelp prevent illness and protect thehealth and safety of the public. Societyand the engineering community tendto react to disasters, plagues and epi-demics by first asking why they hap-pened and what could have been doneto prevent them from occurring.

Consider the space shuttle disaster.After studying the situation it wasfound that the rubber O-rings on thesolid fuel rocket boosters were leak-ing. Corrections were made to the o-rings and restrictions were placed onthe temperature at lift-off. Considerthe many boiler explosions that led tothe development of the temperatureand pressure relief valves. There werealso many cross connections and ill-nesses associated with the world’sfairs in Chicago and New York that ledto the implementation of backflowprevention requirements. T h eAmerican Society of Sanitary

Engineering, a standards writing orga-nization, carries this thought forwardin its motto, “Prevention Rather ThanCure.” We can learn from the past andprevent outbreaks of plagues and ill-ness rather than cure the ill effectsexperienced by persons exposed tounsanitary or unsafe plumbing sys-tems. This is where education plays avery important part in our future. Wemust strive to educate ourselves aboutthe proper ways to design and installplumbing systems. Only then can weprovide plumbing systems that aresafe.

The following is an effort to recordthe chronological events in the historyof plumbing and to help you under-stand why today’s codes may requireor not allow certain things. Often youmay find the codes are silent on anissue or a particular topic. If you seean area in the codes that needs to beaddressed, I encourage you to proposea code change to help prevent anunsafe plumbing system and help pro-tect the health of the world.

Ancient plumbing

4000-3000 B.C.: Indus RiverVa l l e y, India. Plumbing has beenaround for a long time. The firstknown evidence of ancient plumbingwas when archaeologists unearthedcopper water pipes in the palace ruinsin the Indus River valley. The waterpipe was estimated to be 5,500 yearsold. The palace site was excavated andfound to have individual apartments.Each bedroom apparently had beenprovided with a bathroom with elabo-rate plumbing systems for the time.This establishes the earliest knownplumbing systems almost 6,000 yearsago.

2500 B.C.: Copper P i p e s . T h eEgyptians built elaborate bathrooms

By Ronald L. George, CIPE

inside the pyramids for their dead touse on their journey to another life.Egyptians also developed copperpipes used for intricate irrigation andsewage systems.

2400-2150 B.C.: Ancient Babylonbetween Tigris and EuphratesR i v e r s . Greek writers wrote ofancient Babylonia where the scienceof hydraulic engineering seems tohave had its beginning. A network ofcanals all skillfully planned and regu-lated covered the area. They had largebrick drainage sewers with accessholes similar to today’s manholes.

Society and theengineering

community tend toreact to disasters,

plagues andepidemics by firstasking why theyhappened and

what could havebeen done to

prevent them fromoccurring.

The First Building Code. The firstreported building code came from

Continued on page 46

About the A u t h o rRon George, CIPE, is A S P E ’s Vi c e

P resident Education and a regular contrib -utor to Plumbing Engineer magazine, wherehis Designer’s Guide column appears eachmonth. He is employed by SmithGroup Inc.A rchitects, Engineers, Detro i t .

Part 1 — Learning from past experiences

standing model with an integral base,resembling in shape the cast-iron bath-tub-on-base widely installed inAmerica in the latter part of the 19thcentury. Another fixture was a watercloset, also of hard pottery. It showedevidence of having been equippedwith a water closet seat and a crudeflushing device. Found intact werelong sections of clay drainpipe of thebell-and-spigot type. Pipe lengthswere short, and branch fittings wereprovided with T and Y connectionsadjacent to the bells or hubs.

On Crete, evidencewas found of 3000-year-old plumbingfixtures, a watersupply system, asanitary drainage

system, and aheating system.

500 B.C. - A.D. 455: The RomanEmpire. Of all the ancient peoples, theRomans carried sanitation to the high-est and broadest degree of develop-ment. From their language, Latin, havecome such words as sanitation andplumber, the latter being derived fromartifex plumbarius , meaning a workerin lead. Roman aqueducts still gracethe Italian countryside and rankamong the world’s engineering tri-umphs. Extensive underground sewersystems, public and private baths, leadand bronze water piping systems, andmarble fixtures with gold and silverfittings have come to be symbolic ofthe civilization of Ancient Rome.

An especially significant feature ofprogress may be cited as the fact thatmuch of the underground public watersupply system was constructed ofstandardized cast lead sections. It isinteresting to note that the lead pipesthat were so convenient to work withat the time made vast improvements in

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ancient Babylon. It was called the“Code of Hammurabi,” written byHammurabi, the sixth king of theAmorite Dynasty of Old Babylon.

This compilation of laws includedspecial provisions for construction andmaintenance of the canals that werevery important to that desert region.One of the clauses in this code dealswith construction of a building. Theclause struck terror in the heart ofunethical contractors. The clause said,“If a builder build a house for someone, and does not construct it properly,and the house which he built fall inand kill its owner, then that buildershall be put to death. If it kill the sonof the owner, the son of that buildershall be put to death. If it kill a slave ofthe owner, then he shall give a newslave to the owner of the house.”

The Hammurabi Code is bestknown from a beautifully engraveddiorite stela, now in the LouvreMuseum, which also depicts the kingreceiving the law from Shamash, thegod of justice. This copy was madelong after Hammurabi’s time, and it isclear that his was a long-lasting contri-bution to Mesopotamian civilization.It encodes many laws which had prob-ably evolved over a long period oftime, but is interesting to the generalreader because of what it tells us aboutthe attitudes and daily lives of theancient Babylonians.

1500 B.C.: Rainwater C i s t e r n s .On the island of Crete, fresh water sys-tems, sewage systems and flushing toi-lets were used regularly. Rainwaterwas utilized and cisterns were used forstorage of rainwater until it was need-ed for drinking, washing, bathing andcooking uses.

1000 B.C.: The Island of Crete.On the island of Crete, the remains ofa plumbing system at least 3000 yearsold were unearthed in excavations onthe site of an ancient palace ofKnossos. Evidence was found ofplumbing fixtures, a water supply sys-tem, a sanitary drainage system, and aheating system. One of the fixtureswas a bathtub made of hard potteryand five feet in length. It was a floor-

The History of PlumbingContinued from page 45

sanitary conditions. Today we aremoving away from lead in piping sys-tems for health reasons — one morelesson learned from our experiences.

The Roman Baths. Public bathingcolonies dotted the Roman Empire.One of them, the baths of Diocletian,reportedly accommodated 3,200bathers. Baths and bathing pools werelined with ceramic glazed tile. In resi-dences, bathtubs often occupied anentire room and were supplied withboth hot and cold water. Hot water wasprovided by means of lead or bronzepiping which conveyed water acrossopen fires. Bathtubs often were carvedfrom solid marble or lined with ceram-ic glazed tile and equipped with goldor silver fittings.

Of all the leisure activities, bathingwas surely the most important for thegreatest number of Romans, because itwas part of the daily regimen for menof all classes, and many women aswell. We think of bathing as a very pri-vate activity conducted in the home,but bathing in Rome was a communalactivity, conducted for the most part inpublic facilities that in some waysresembled modern spas or health clubs(although they were far less expen-sive). A modern scholar, Fikret Yegül,sums up the significance of Romanbaths in the following way:

“The universal acceptance ofbathing as a central event in dailylife belongs to the Roman worldand it is hardly an exaggeration tosay that at the height of the empire,the baths embodied the idealRoman way of urban life. Apartfrom their normal hygienic func -tions, they provided facilities forsports and recreation. Their publicnature created the proper environ -ment — much like a city club orcommunity center — for socialintercourse varying from neighbor -hood gossip to business discus -sions. There was even a culturaland intellectual side to the baths,since they were truly grand estab -lishments, the bathhouses (ther -mae) incorporated libraries, lec -ture halls, colonnades, and prome -

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nades and assumed a characterlike the Greek gymnasium.”

(Baths and Bathing in ClassicalAntiquity. Cambridge: MIT, 1992)

The Hypocaust: Roman engineersdevised an ingenious system of heat-ing the baths called the hypocaust. Thefloor was raised off the ground by pil-lars and spaces were left inside thewalls so that hot air from the furnaceor what they called the Praefurniumcould circulate through these openareas. Rooms requiring the most heatwere placed closest to the furnace,whose heat could be increased byadding more wood.

Latrines: Roman bathhouses alsohad large public latrines, often withmarble seats over channels whose con-tinuous flow of water constituted thefirst “flush toilets.” There was also ashallow water channel in front of theseats that was furnished with spongesattached to sticks for patrons to cleanthemselves.

The “Dark Ages”

A.D. 455 - 1200: The Dark Ages.After almost a thousand years of worldrule, the empire of Ancient Romecrumbled. In the fifth century, barbarictribes of Goths and Vandals subjectedit to successive invasions from thenorth of Europe. In 455, Vandals sweptsouth through Rome, sacked it of allthings of value including any metalsthat could be removed, and destroyedits public works. With the destructionof Rome, its civilization rapidlydecayed, and sanitary standardsregressed almost to the vanishingpoint. (Surprisingly several majorurban cities areas have recently gonethrough similar experiences on asmaller scale, where older parts of thecity have abandoned buildings that arebeing stripped of plumbing brass andpipe to be sold as scrap metal.)

The following 10 centuries havebeen historically termed the DarkAges. Many of the knowledgeablepeople were killed off and there waslittle or no recorded history during this

time period. For many centuries, thesepeople in general paid little attentionto personal cleanliness and otherdomestic sanitary needs involving theuse of water. Bathing was frownedupon by persons of influence and nottaken seriously even by members ofthe ruling class, many of whom pre-ferred to use perfume. Plumbing fix-tures fell into disuse, including waterclosets that had been developed and

widely used during the fourth and fifthcenturies in Rome. They were not usedagain until about the 12th century, andeven then their use was extremely lim-ited.

Plagues and EpidemicsA.D. 1300 — Bubonic Plague,

“The Black Death”: In the early1330s an outbreak of deadly bubonicplague occurred in China. The plaguewould mainly affect rodents, but fleastransmitted the disease to people.Once people were infected, theyinfected others very rapidly. T h eplague causes fever and a painfulswelling of the lymph glands calledbuboes, which is how it gets the nameBubonic Plague. The disease alsocauses spots on the skin that are red atfirst and then turn black.

Because China was one of thebusiest of the world’s trading nations,it was only a matter of time before theoutbreak of plague in China spread towestern Asia and Europe. In Octoberof 1347, several Italian merchant ships

returned from a trip to the Black Sea,one of the key links in trade withChina. When the ships docked inSicily, many of those on board werealready dying of the plague. Withindays the disease spread to the city andthe surrounding countryside. An eye-witness tells what happened:

“Realizing what a deadly disasterhad come to them, the peoplequickly drove the Italians fro mtheir city. But the diseaseremained, and soon death wase v e ry w h e re. Fathers abandonedtheir sick sons. Lawyers refused tocome and make out wills for thedying. Friars and nuns were left tocare for the sick, and monasteriesand convents were soon deserted,as they were stricken, too. Bodiesw e re left in empty houses, andthere was no one to give them aChristian burial.”

The disease struck and killed peoplewith terrible speed. The Italian writerBoccaccio said its victims often “atelunch with their friends and dinnerwith their ancestors in paradise.”

By the following August, the plaguehad spread as far north as England,where people called it “The BlackDeath” because of the black spots itproduced on the skin. A terrible killerwas loose across Europe, andMedieval medicine had nothing tocombat it.

In winter the disease seemed to dis-a p p e a r, but only because fleas —which were now helping to carry itfrom person to person — were dor-mant then. Each spring, the plagueattacked again, killing new victims.After five years, 25 million people —one third of Europe’s population —were dead.

Even when the worst was over,smaller outbreaks continued, not justfor years, but for centuries. The sur-vivors lived in constant fear of theplague’s return, and the disease did notdisappear until the 1600s.

Medieval society never recoveredfrom the results of the plague. Somany people had died that there wereserious labor shortages all over

For many centuries,people paid little

attention topersonal cleanlinessand other domestic

sanitary needsinvolving the use

of water.


Europe. This led workers to demandhigher wages, but landlords refusedthose demands. By the end of the1300s, peasant revolts broke out inEngland, France, Belgium and Italy.

The disease took its toll on thechurch as well. People throughoutChristendom had prayed devoutly fordeliverance from the plague. W h yhadn’t those prayers been answered? Anew period of political turmoil andphilosophical questioning lay ahead.

Estimated population ofEurope, 1000 to 1352

• 1000 38 million• 1100 48 million• 1200 59 million• 1300 70 million• 1347 75 million• 1352 50 million

25 million people died in just under fiveyears, between 1347 and 1352.

Source: www.byu.edu/ipt/projects/middleages/lifetimes/plague.html

The plague’s aftermathDuring the 14th century, Europe had

been ravaged by disease. Bubonicplague swept the continent andEngland reportedly killing 25 millionpeople. To improve sanitary condi-tions in Paris, the authorities in 1395ordered a stop to the practice of throw-ing sewage out of building windowsand dumping sewage waste pots ontothe streets below. But this was a com-mon practice that continued unabatedin other cities.

As late as the early part of the 18thcentury, European cities had not beenequipped with sanitary sewage dispos-al facilities. The mortality rate in manycities exceeded the birth rate. Whenbuilding owners were ordered toinstall domestic sewage vaults, consid-erable opposition was raised. It wasnot until the latter part of the 18th andearly part of the 19th centuries that

European cities started to provide pub-lic sewer systems beneath city streets.Slowly people began to use the conve-nient public sewer facilities for the dis-posal of sewage from buildings and todevelop progressively higher sanitarystandards.

1455: First Recorded Use of IronPiping. The first official record of ironpipe was in 1455 at an installation inSiegerland, Germany. German crafts-men had learned how to build fires hotenough to melt iron and pour it intocastings to make hollow pipe. At thistime the joints were crude because thehub and spigot was not invented yet.

1562 Cast Iron Piping. Anotherearly recorded use of cast iron pipewas at Langensalza, Germany, circa1562, where it supplied water for afountain.

1596: First Flushing Wa t e rCloset. In 1596, Sir John Harington,godson to Queen Elizabeth, developedwhat was then called a “necessary” forhis godmother the Queen and himself.A rather accomplished inventor,Harington published a book describinghis invention. This invention ended hiscareer. Mr. Harington was ridiculed byhis peers for developing such anabsurd device. He never built anotherone, though he and his godmother bothused theirs.

1664: First Full Scale Cast IronPipe Project. In 1664 at Versailles,France, King Louis XIV ordered theconstruction of a cast iron main tocarry water some 15 miles from apumping or lift station at Marley-on-Seine to the palace fountains and sur-rounding area. The system was stillfunctioning after more than 300 yearsof service. It represents a genuine pio-neer effort, because at the time ofinstallation, production costs on castiron pipe were considered prohibitive.The King of France could certainlyafford to build this project. This wasdue principally to the fact that high-cost charcoal was used exclusively asa fuel to reduce iron ore. Charcoal wasneeded to get the fire hot enough tomelt the iron.

1738: Coke Replaces Charcoal forproduction of Cast Iron. In 1738,charcoal was replaced by coke in thereduction process. Immediately fol-lowing this development, cast ironpipe was installed in a number of otherdistribution systems in France.

1746: Cast Iron Pipe Introducedto England. Cast iron pipe was intro-duced in London, England, by theChelsea Water Company.

1775: The Wa t e r Closet Re-emerges in England. Almost 200years after John Harington inventedthe water closet, Alexander Cummingswould reinvent Harington’s watercloset. Cummings invented a devicecalled the strap, a sliding valvebetween the bowl and the trap. It wasthe first of its kind. However, it didn’ttake long for others to follow.

1777: The Plunger WaterCloset isPatented. In 1777, Samuel Prosserapplied for and received a patent for a

plunger closet. On his heels cameJoseph Bramah, only one year later.His closet had a valve at the bottom ofthe bowl that worked on a hinge — apredecessor to the modern ball valve.Himself a bit of a sailor, Bramah’scloset was used extensively on shipsand boats of the era.

1885: Thomas Twyford Inventsthe Valveless Water Closet. The mas-ter toilet maker among the Englishmenwould emerge in the next decade.Thomas Twyford revolutionized the

Thomas Twyfordrevolutionized the

water closetbusiness in 1885when he built the

first valveless toiletin a one-piece, all

china design.



water closet business in 1885 when hebuilt the first valveless toilet in a one-piece, all china design. A preeminentp o t t e r, Twyford competed againstother notable business includingWedgwood and Moulton.

Tw y f o r d ’s design was unique inthat it was of china, rather than themore common metal and wood con-traptions. The internal workings of hiswater closet were the work of one thefirst pioneers of the “sanitary sci-ence,” J. G. Jennings, who had patent-ed a type of washout water closet in1852. This unit had a shallow basin

with a dished tray and water seal. Theflush water drove the contents into thepan and then through the S-trap. It wasa design that Twyford refined and pro-moted for the rest of the decade.

1785: Bell and Spigot Joint for

Cast Iron Pipe. An engineer with theChealsea Water Company, Sir T h o m a sSimpson, invented the bell and spigotjoint which has been used extensivelyever since. It represented markedimprovement over the earliest cast ironpipe, which used butt joints wrapped withmetal bands and a later version whichused flanges, a lead gasket and bolts.

The early development of pipe sys-tems was related to the growth of cities.As people began to concentrate withinconfined geographical areas it becamenecessary to divert water from its naturalcourse to provide water for drinking,bathing, sanitation and other needs.Ancient civilizations constructed aque-ducts and tunnels and manufactured pipeand tubing of clay, lead, bronze andwood. These materials served their pur-poses in early systems, but were fragileor not readily available. As water pres-sures increased and wood or clay systemsproved too fragile. They did, however,fill a need and were used for hundreds ofyears until the introduction of cast iron asa pipe material. Copper and lead werestill also used as piping materials. ■

This series will continuein the April issue.

The early development of pipe systemswas related to the growth of cities.


Plumbing Engineer Copyright © 2001 TMB Publishing, Inc. April 2001/Page 45


This is the second installment inan article chronicling the devel-opment of plumbing. (Part 1

appeared in the March 2001 PlumbingEngineer, page 45.) This effort hasbeen undertaken specifically to help inunderstanding why today’s codes mayrequire or not allow certain things.

Through a better understanding ofthe historical roots of current practicesand attitudes, plumbing engineers anddesigners, as well as code and enforce-ment officials, may be better able toapply fundamental principles to everchanging conditions. Code require-ments, tempered with wisdom andunderstanding, can then be applied tothe true benefit of society.

And so we return to the story ofplumbing.

Notes From Olde England

1600 - 1700: Privies in the Castles.The castles of the 17th century hadindoor privies. Unfortunately, theassociated plumbing systems dumpeddirectly into the surrounding moats.The toilets consisted of openings inprojections of the castle walls thatwere over the water below. Anyonewho dared wade across the moatwould surely die from the spread ofdisease. They would also end upsmelling pretty ripe.

1 8 5 9 : Parliament in LondonEngland, was suspended for a shorttime because of the unbearable stenchof the Thames River. The Thames wasthe sewage system, as well as the onlysource of drinking water, for the morethan three million residents of the cityof London.

1861: Prince Albert, as well as thou-sands of others, died of typhoid fever.Sanitation soon became a public concern.

1880: Toilet paper was developed bythe British Perforated Paper Company.

Refining the Water Closet

1900-1932: By the turn of the cen-tury, water closet innovations wereoccurring on a nearly daily basis. TheU.S. Patent Office received applica-tions for 350 new water closet designsbetween 1900 and 1932. Two of thefirst granted in the new decade were toCharles Neff and Robert Frame. TheseNew Englanders were the first to pro-duce a siphonic wash-down closet thatwould become the norm in the UnitedStates in later years.

1904: Thomas Crapper Retires.Thomas Crapper, a British sanitaryengineer, retired from the plumbingindustry and later died, in 1910. Hehas often been wrongfully creditedwith inventing the water closet. The“Silent Valveless Water Wa s t ePreventer” (No. 814) was a siphonicdischarge water closet with an over-head tank that allowed a toilet to flusheffectively when the tank was onlyhalf full. British Patent 4990 for 1898was issued to a Mr. Albert Giblin forthis product.

Thomas Crapper came to be asso-ciated with the water closet becauseof his association with Giblin. Hemost likely bought the patent rightsfrom Giblin and marketed the devicehimself. Crapper owned a companythat sold plumbing products includ-ing water closets and many otherplumbing supplies. He heavily pro-moted the water closet as the“ Waterfall model no. 1” in his plumb-ing company advertisements. T h i smay be where many people in Europegot the notion he invented the waterc l o s e t .

One of the many other productsThomas Crapper sold was manholecovers. I hear that many of the originalmanhole covers are still in placetoday. They had something like “T.


Crapper — Chelsea Ironworks”engraved on the manhole lids.

Early American Sanitation

1600: Early Settlements.AlthoughAmerica has become a symbol of highstandards in plumbing and sanitation,these evolved from very primitive andcrude beginnings. Soon after Americawas settled along the Atlantic Coast,firmly established settlements devel-oped local industries and conductedtrade with Europe. Among the numer-ous early settlements were severalwhich later became major port cities,such as Boston, New Yo r k ,Philadelphia and Baltimore. Each ofthese cities faced the same generalsanitation problems and progressed indeveloping sanitary standards almostsimultaneously. The following is anaccount of the historical records ofthese East Coast United States citiesgathered from news accounts andother legal records. They serve as arecord of early American plumbinghistory.

1626: New York Port Area LivingConditions. Available reports of theprogressive development of sanitarystandards in New York may be cited astypical of the East Coast cities.Following settlement of the port areain 1626, houses were built. None hadwithin them any water supply orsewage disposal facilities. The houseswere mostly log homes made fromsurrounding native trees. Drinkingwater was used sparingly as it had to




Part 2 — Renaissance conveniences yield to modern sanitation

Page 46/Plumbing Engineer April 2001

The History ofPlumbing

Continued from page 45

be carried from springs or wells, orpurchased by the bucket from waterpeddlers who traveled through thestreets selling water from wooden bar-rels on horsedrawn trucks.

Outdoor earth-pit privies were usedas toilet facilities. Wastes from dish-washing, clothes washing, and bathingwere disposed of outdoors by dumpingthem onto the ground adjacent tobuildings. Rainwater from roofs alsowas disposed of onto the ground. Asthe population of the settlementincreased with the arrival of newimmigrants, conditions deteriorated.Shallow wells became polluted byseepage from earth-pit privies, areasaround homes became excessivelyfouled from sewage and refusedumped onto the ground, and streetswere quagmires of mud long afterrainstorms ended.

1675: New York Appoints theFirst Health Official in A m e r i c a .Health conditions became intolerablein time and forced organization of aCommon Council in 1675. The coun-cil appointed a health officer in chargeof sewage and refuse disposal andother health matters. Watertight privyvaults began to be installed instead ofearth-pit privies as toilet facilities.Scavenging regulations governing thedisposal of privy-vault wastes wereput into effect in 1676. The scavengerslifted the wastes with buckets andhauled it away in barrels on cartspulled by horses or oxen. Scavengerswere the predecessors to today’s mod-ern septic tank pumping services.

1677: New York Builds the FirstPublic Water Wells. New York’s firstpublic water wells were projected in1677 and completed in 1686. Peoplecould draw water from these wells thatwere located in the populated areas.Later horsedrawn carts would deliverwater to the doorstep for a small fee.

1687: Gutters for Muddy Streets.Muddy streets called for gutters inNew York City. Streets were pavedand gutters were installed in built-upareas in 1687, and homeowners wereordered to pave sidewalks. This wasall the result of storm water runoff

And Then There Was Toilet Paper

Toilet paper has not been around forever. We can be pretty sure that the cave-man did not stop at his local mega-superstore to pick up a case of Northern orCharmin. In fact, it is said humans are the only animals that have the dexterity toactually wipe themselves after defecation. It is currently believed that the origi-nal materials used for cleaning were leaves and sticks.

Of course, where one lived helped determine the material of choice. In coastalregions, mussel shells were very popular prior to toilet paper’s popularity (circa1900). If you were lucky enough to be raised on the Hawaiian islands, you mayhave used good old coconut shells. If you were born into royalty, like Louis XIV,you probably would have used wool or lace for added comfort.

In the Mideast, the most popular tool to use today is the hand — the left handto be specific. Of course, they cleanse their hands after this deed. To assist in thecleanup, many Middle Eastern restrooms have water hoses at each stool. ManyMiddle Easterners consider the Western practice of using paper to be disgusting.They can’t see how paper can actually get you perfectly clean.

Some historians consider this the reason why we shake with our right hands —because traditionally the left hand was the dirty hand!

Islamic tradition prescribes that you should wipe with stones or clods of earth,rinse with water, and finally dry with linen cloth. Pious men carry clods of earthin their turbans and carry small pitchers of water solely for this purpose. Inancient Rome, all public toilets had a sponge attached to the end of a stick whichsoaked in a bucket of brine (salty water). The wealthy used wool and rosewater.

During the late Middle Ages, the French invented the bidet for the rinsing ofboth sexes (the original models did not have modern plumbing). It is said duringWorld War I, British and American troops found these devices in the brothels theyfrequented, leading them to assume that they were only used by women. In otherwords, men no longer use them.

The material of choice in Colonial America was corn cobs. But when dailynewspapers became commonplace, in the 1700s, paper became the material ofchoice. (One could say that Gutenberg’s printing press caused the toilet paperrevolution). In a letter to his son, Lord Chesterfield (1694-1773) wrote that oneshould always carry with him a cheap copy of the Latin poets so that he wouldhave something educational to read while on the pot. He implied this provided agood use for each page after reading it. This led to a major problem in England— the landscape being littered with paper, as they lacked modern sewers to takethe stuff away.

In the late 19th century, the Sears catalog became popular in rural America.People simply hung it up on a nail and had a free supply of hundreds of pages ofabsorbent, uncoated paper. Corn cobs were still a strong second place contender,however.

Use of the Sears catalog declined in the 1930s due to the fact that they startedprinting on glossy, clay-coated paper. Many people complained to Sears aboutthis newfangled paper. (Can you imagine writing a letter to Sears? “Dear Sirs, Iwant to register a complaint about your new glossy catalog paper. It is no longersoft and absorbent...”)

The first actual paper produced for wiping was developed by the BritishPerforated Paper Company in 1880. It consisted of individual squares sold inboxes, not rolls, and was slow to catch on. This paper was very coarse, the typethe British still prefer today. The original American product was sort of like crepep a p e r, which you will perhaps remember from kindergarten. Today weAmericans like the soft, fluffy type, which was introduced in 1907.

In the next logical development of this evolutionary trail, several manufactur-ers (Toto and Panasonic, to name but two) in the late 20th century introduced per-sonal hygiene stations as alternatives to using toilet paper. These devices typical-ly consist of a toilet seat, easily mounted on many standard toilets, and includesuch things as electronically controlled warm water spouts, warm air dryers anddeodorizing mist dispensers. To pamper users even more, some even offer warm-ing circuits in the seat. The long and short of it is that while some things neverchange, the quests for both comfort and hygiene continue.

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The History ofPlumbingContinued from page 46

causing muddy streets and sidewalks.Once again, we learn from the past.

1700: New York Adopts aSanitary Waste Ordinance. In 1700,a sanitary ordinance was adopted pro-hibiting the dumping of scavengers’barrels of vault wastes into the streetgutters. They were required to go farbeyond the city to dump their smellycargo.

1703: New York Builds SewageCanals. An open-ditch public sewer orsewage canal was constructed, andcity surveyors were appointed toestablish street and sewer grades.

1717: Open Sewers Drain intoNew York Bay. Complaints aroseabout the unsanitary conditions creat-ed by the open-ditch public sewer, andin 1717 the sewer was extended toempty into New York Bay.

1728: New York Installs the FirstU n d e r g round Sewer. The publicbegan to complain about the smell ofthe open sewers and the health offi-

cials responded by installing the firstsewer under the streets of New York.

1776: The First Water ReservoirConstructed for New York. The firstwater supply reservoir was construct-ed in 1776. It collected water fromwells and ponds and distributed waterthrough a supply system consisting ofhollow, wooden logs laid under princi-pal streets.

1778: Patent for Float Valve Type

Flushing System. Joseph Brahmareceives a patent for the float andvalve flushing system. This principleis still used in today’s toilets.

1782: Stink Trap Patented. Thestink trap, as it was aff e c t i o n a t e l ynamed, was patented. It was a simples-trap design to catch some water andeliminate the smell of sewer gas inbathrooms. It helped reduce the smellbut still allowed some traps to siphonand did nothing to stop the spread ofdisease from untreated waste in com-bined sewers pouring into streams,rivers and lakes.

1794 - 1797: Epidemics CausedFormation of More Health Boards.Epidemics of waterborne diseasesoccurred in New York, Philadelphia,Baltimore and other population cen-ters along the Atlantic Coast. Publicpressure developed as complaints toauthorities mounted regarding theunsanitary disposal of sewage and thelack of an adequate, available supplyof safe drinking water. To improveconditions, boards of health wereestablished in Philadelphia in 1794,and Boston in 1797. At this time theywere not chlorinating the water to killbacteria. It was many years later whenwe learned that simply adding chlorinein small amounts killed the bacteria inthe drinking water. There are stillmany third world countries that could

save hundreds of thousands of liveseach year by simply adding smallamounts of chlorine bleach to theirdrinking water to kill bacteria.

1800s: The First Catch-Basins. Asa health protection measure, commu-nities began to install all public sewersunderground and to extend them tobuildings, although many people con-sidered the sewers merely as a meansof eliminating unsightly conditions.

These early underground sewers wereconstructed with flat stone tops andbottoms and brick masonry sidewalls.They were intended to serve just forstorm water drainage from streets andbuildings, but they soon became fouland odorous from sewage and garbagedumped into streets’ gutters. In 1831,catch-basin traps were installed instreet gutters to intercept solids con-veyed by storm water draining into thepublic sewer.

1800s: Early Cast Iron Pipe WasI m p o rted Into the United States.Cast iron pipe was first used in theUnited States about the beginning ofthe 19th century. It was imported fromEngland and Scotland to be installed inthe water supply and gas lighting sys-tems of the larger cities, principallythose in the northeastern section of thecountry. One of the first cast iron pipeinstallations was at Bethlehem, Pa.,where it was used to replace deterio-rated wooden mains. The iron industryin the colonial United States was lim-ited to the production of raw materials.This iron was shipped to Englandwhere it was remelted to manufacturefinished goods. England’s failure topermit the colonists to manufacturefinished goods played a large part inthe United States Revolutionary War.Eight eventual foundry owners signa-

One of the first cast iron pipe installationswas at Bethlehem, Pa., where it was used

to replace deteriorated wooden mains.



tures appear on the Declaration ofIndependence. As early as 1801,Pennsylvania sought to promotedomestic manufacture of the product,but this campaign was not successfuluntil 1817-1819, when production wasstarted at a number of charcoal furnaceplants in New Jersey. At about thesame time, a foundry located at WestPoint, N.Y., also produced limitedamounts of cast iron pipe.

1817: Early Production and Useof Cast Iron Pipe in the UnitedStates. The first manufacturer of castiron pipe in the United States waslocated at Weymouth, N.J. Metaldirect from the blast furnace was castinto 16-inch diameter pipe for the cityof Philadelphia. It was used to replacethe old pine log pipe for the force mainfrom the pumping station to the reser-

voir, although wooden pipe continuedto be used for the distribution system.The iron was obtained by melting NewJersey bog ore and the pipe was castinto molds laid horizontally in thecasting beds used to cast pig iron. Thesmall blast furnace was tapped in theusual manner and the stream of moltenmetal filled one mold and was thendiverted to another. Production at thisfoundry and at other foundries whichstarted to produce cast iron pipe in1819 was strictly limited. The industrywas dormant until 1830, when afoundry designed specifically for castiron pipe production was constructedat Millville, N.J. The foundry used thesame ore and the same casting processas that at Weymouth, but it producedcast iron pipe on a regular basis andhad a capacity of 18,000 tons of pipe

per year. The company at Millville hadbeen in existence since 1803.

1830: First Water Mains InstalledUnder New York Streets. In 1830,after numerous fires had demonstratedthe need for an adequate, availablesupply of water for fire fighting, NewYork City installed its first publicwaterworks. This consisted of a largeabove ground water storage tank intowhich water was pumped from shal-low wells, and from which water wassupplied through two 12-inch cast ironwater mains to fire hydrants installedalong several of the main streets wherebusiness buildings were located. Butthis system proved to be totally inade-quate when a severe fire broke out onDecember 16, 1835. A total of 530buildings were destroyed overnight.




New York, Philadelphia,Boston Fires

The population of the New Worldcontinued to rise as shiploads ofimmigrants stepped ashore looking fora fresh start in a new land. Citiesbegan to take shape, and the problemsmultiplied as more and more struc-tures were added. The fire load inthese cities increased as forests werecleared and wooden homes and build-ings were constructed.

The communities that sprang uparound three of the best harbors —Boston, New York and Philadelphia— soon faced a number of socialproblems involving housing, sanita-tion, water supply and the danger offire. These three cities set the courseearly on as to the direction of the earlyfire codes.

In 1648, New Amsterdam (laterNew York) Governor Peter Stuyvesantstood firmly on his peg leg andappointed four men to act as fire war-dens. They were empowered toinspect all chimneys and to fine anyviolators of the rules. The city resi-dents later appointed eight prominentcitizens to the “Rattle Watch.” Thesemen volunteered to patrol the streetsat night carrying large wooden rattles.If a fire was seen, the men spun therattles, then directed the respondingcitizens to form bucket brigades. Thisis generally recognized as the firststep in organized firefighting inAmerica.

Even earlier, Boston’s city fatherstook the first steps in fire preventionwhen Governor John Winthrop out-lawed wooden chimneys and thatchedroofs in 1631. Forty years later,Boston suffered a series of arson firesand finally a conflagration in 1676.The small engine built by local iron-maker, a syringe-type pump, had littleeffect on the swelling wall of flames.Shortly after the fire, Bostonians sentfor a “state of the art fire engine” thenbeing made in England. The tub-liketank section of the engine was keptfilled with water by a bucket brigade.

The disastrous fire of 1835 in New

York City stirred the people into actionand led to developments of great sig-nificance and benefit. People becameaware of the necessity for having anadequate pressurized water supply sys-tem readily and constantly availablefor fire fighting in built-up areas. Theyalso realized there was a great need,both as a sanitary measure and as alaborsaving convenience, for havingan adequate pressurized water supplysystem from which safe drinking watercould be piped directly to buildings.Soon after the fire, plans were project-ed for providing a large public watersupply system that would satisfy bothof these needs.

The fire service has long viewedold-style factory buildings as a seriousfire hazard. Many of the worst firesduring the late 1800s and early 1900shappened in factory buildings. Someare more famous than others. A 1910fire in a Newark, N.J., clothing factorykilled 24 workers, and there werecountless others. All had life-safetyproblems but there were no codes orlaws addressing fire resistive construc-tion or life safety.

The fires in New York City taught usa lesson about fire prevention, buildingegress, sizing water mains and manyother life-safety issues that engineersstill refer to today.

1842: New Yo r k ’s A q u e d u c tPlaced in Service. In 1842 the originalCroton Aqueduct System was placed inoperation. In this system, water fromthe Croton River was collected inCroton Reservoir, 40 miles north of thec i t y. It was supplied from therethrough an underground piping systemto two reservoirs in the city, one at42nd Street and another in CentralPark. From those reservoirs, water wasdistributed through a system of cast-iron water mains installed undergroundin city streets, and fire hydrants wereinstalled in sidewalks at appropriatelocations along the curb. Buildingowners were permitted to have waterservice connections made to the publicmain, and water service piping extend-ed from the main to supply faucets orhydrants in building cellars or yards.

At that time the population of the cityof New York was about 300,000.

Indoor Plumbing in America

1842: New York City InstallsWa t e r Piping to Buildings. U p o ncompletion of the Croton AqueductSystem and pressurized water servicesinto building cellars and yards in NewYork City in 1842, a radical change inbuilding construction took place — theinstallation of plumbing systems inbuildings. Pressurized water supplysystems made it possible to satisfy, atthe turn of a faucet, the needs of build-ing occupants for a safe and abundantsupply of water for all domestic pur-poses and to eliminate the drudgery,labor and inconvenience of having tocarry water from the source. Noplumbing fixtures had been installed inbuildings prior to this time, except fora few crude sink installations reported-ly installed in kitchens that were pro-vided with water supply by means ofan adjacent hand pump that drewwater from a shallow well.

1845 - 1850: Drainage PipingInstalled in Buildings. As late as1845, records indicate that buildingswere not provided with interiordrainage piping systems. Most build-ings were equipped with exterior lead-ers that conveyed storm water fromroofs to pavements and sidewalksfrom which the water ran into thestreet gutters. In some cases, wherebranches had been installed from thepublic sewer to buildings, the exteriorleaders discharged directly into suchbranches or building sewers.

Before fixtures could be installedwith water supply and drainage pipingsystems, building sewers had to beinstalled so as to convey sewage awayfrom the buildings to a suitable dispos-al terminal, such as a public sewer sys-tem. In 1845 New York City permittedsanitary building sewers to be connect-ed to the existing public sewer system,which had originally been provided forjust storm water disposal. These build-ing sewers, and the main drains




installed underground in buildings atthe time, were constructed with flatstone tops and brick masonry bottomsand sidewalls. They still had flat-bot-tomed sewers. And when they allowedthe connection of sanitary sewers tothe storm sewers, many solids startedto settle out in the bottoms of the sew-ers. They had not discovered thehydraulic advantages of round or eggshaped sewers.

1845 - 1850: Plumbing FixturesInstalled in New York CityBuildings. By 1850, plumbing fix-tures had been installed in a number ofNew York City homes. These wereprincipally private residences ownedby wealthy people who could afford toalter their buildings to accommodatesuch facilities. Provision had to bemade to protect the fixtures and pipingagainst frost damage by means of heat-ing equipment, insulation or both.Earliest installations consisted ofwooden and sheet metal sinks inkitchens, wooden washtubs inkitchens, cellars or basement laundryrooms, and sheet-metal bathtubs inspecial bathrooms or closets.

For these early installations, watersupply and drainage piping wereattached to building walls and eitherleft exposed in rooms or concealed inbox work. A handmade trap wasinstalled in the drain of each individualfixture to prevent escape of obnoxiousodors and sewer gases from fixturewaste outlets. However, at that time,the principle of venting fixture drainsto protect trap seals was unknown.These traps often lost their water sealsbecause of siphonage and back-pres-sure conditions in the drainage system,and this caused fouling of the atmos-phere of rooms in which fixtures wereplaced. Check valves and many spe-cially designed traps were installed inefforts to prevent loss of trap seal, butsuch devices were found to be totallyineffective.

1845 - 1860: Development of theToilet Room in A m e r i c a .Nevertheless, progress was made inthe installation of plumbing systems in

buildings. Fixtures were placed inlocations where they would not be tooobjectionable. Sinks and washtubswere put in kitchens and basements.Lavatories and bathtubs were locatedon various floors and connected toseparate stacks. Long hopper waterclosets, so named because of their fun-nel or long hopper shape, wereinstalled in toilet rooms or compart-ments accessible only from outdoors,because it was considered hazardousto health for rooms which housed suchodorous fixtures to be directly accessi-ble from the interior of buildings. Thehopper type water closet was installedso as to be relatively frost-proof byplacing the trap and water supplyvalve below the floor level. There waslittle or no consideration for backflowor cross connections in the early instal-lations.

In the late 1850s, people becamemore and more aware of the need forimproving sanitary standards in andadjacent to buildings. Recognition wasgiven to the fact that plumbing sys-tems in buildings could provide ade-quate safe water for drinking, cooking,bathing, and for flushing fixtures andalso could safely and efficiently dis-pose of sewage and other wastes frombuildings. Extensions were built onmany homes specifically to providebathrooms at the upper stories of exist-ing buildings. Lavatories, bathtubs,and water closets were installed inthese extension bathrooms, many ofwhich were also provided with heatingequipment. Double doors were placedin passageways between extensionbathrooms and the main building inorder to prevent bathroom odors andsewer gases from entering the livingquarters.

1848: National Public Health ActPassed. A model plumbing code wasenacted that most of the world hasadapted and continues to follow.

1850: Casting Process for CastI ron Pipe Impro v e d . Prior to theearly 1850s, horizontal green sandmolds and dry sand or loam cores wereused exclusively to produce cast iron

pipe. By 1854, the “cast-on-end-in-pit” principle of pipe manufacture,using dry sand molds and dry sandcores, started to gain wide acceptancefor the production of pressure pipe. Itwas introduced by George Peacock,who is also credited with inventing thedrop pattern used in machine molding,and the application of core arbors tothe green sand molding of fittings.Vertical casting was used to producepressure pipe in 12-foot lengths, whilehorizontal molds continued to be usedfor shorter lengths of pressure pipe. Agreen sand core was developed for usewith the horizontal mold, and this wasthe first method employed to manufac-ture cast iron soil pipe.

As the demand for cast iron pipeincreased, eastern Pennsylvania andthe adjoining sections of New Jerseydeveloped as the earliest site of theindustry, with the largest works locat-ed in the immediate vicinity ofPhiladelphia. The plants in easternPennsylvania used anthracite coal toreduce iron ore.

1860s: The First Multi-FamilyHousing Built in East Coast Cities.Directly following the Civil Wa r,immigration swelled the populationsof industrial cities in the eastern part ofthe country. In many cities, rows ofattached three- and four- t e n e m e n thouses were built to take care of theadditional population. These buildingswere provided just with yard hydrantsfor drinking water supply, while toiletfacilities consisted of rows of priviesbuilt above watertight privy vaultslocated in the backyards of the build-ings. Extremely objectionable, unsani-tary conditions soon developed undersuch circumstances. Health authoritieshad to take stringent action to halt thespread of disease. To protect the healthof building occupants, the public wasalerted to the necessity of equippingbuildings with adequate means forsupplying safe drinking water fordomestic purposes and with adequatefacilities for sanitary disposal ofsewage. Health authorities advocated




the installation of plumbing systems inbuildings, and as a result this became asubject of regulation in sanitary codes.

1861: Cast Iron PipeManufacturing Plants Built inWestern Pennsylvania and Ohio.When coke made from bituminouscoal was widely adopted, cast iron pipemanufacturing was started in WesternPennsylvania and Ohio.

1861 - 1865: The Civil War. Duringthe Civil War, fighting militias consist-ing of tradesmen and farmers from allparts of the country spent a great dealof time conversing with people fromother parts of the country. This allowedfor many soldiers that were otherwisetoo poor to travel to far off places toexperience conditions in other parts ofthe country. The massive war effortcaused large numbers of soldiers to betogether in areas that had no facilities.This highlighted the need for improvedsanitary conditions. Many friendshipswere formed and many of these sol-diers were later the plumbers andtradesmen that would help form asso-ciations from their contacts during thewar.

1870s: The First WaterHeaters. Inthe early 1870s, water- s u p p l i e dkitchen sinks came into general use inprivate homes and other small build-ings. Fireboxes of coal-fired kitchenranges were equipped with water jack-eted backs and water jacketed fronts,and circulation piping was installedbetween these water-heating units andhot water storage tanks so as to makepressurized hot water available in vol-ume at fixtures. The use of outdoorprivies and privy vaults for privatehomes was discontinued gradually asindoor water closets, directly connect-ed to building drains, were installed intoilet rooms accessible from back-yards.

In the late 1800s through the early1900s, there were numerous waterheater and boiler explosions that tookmany lives. Many water heaters wereinstalled with pressure relief valves,but there were still boiler failures thatcaused explosions. Later designs

called for a pressure relief valve and atemperature relief valve to eliminatethe danger of an explosion.

1872: Fire Hose T h re a d sStandardized in the United States.The need for securing uniformity andinterchangeability of fire hose cou-pling threads was demonstrated by theBoston conflagration of November1872. Fire departments from many dif-ferent cities responded to the Bostonfire only to discover their hose threadsdid not match the hose connections onBoston’s hydrants and fire engines.The following year, standardizationwas proposed by the InternationalAssociation of Fire Engineers (IAFE),now the International Association ofFire Chiefs (IAFC). In subsequentyears, various suggested standardthreads were considered. IAFE pre-pared a report that was later adopted atits 1891 convention in which the pre-sent principal dimensions for 2-1/2-inch fire hose coupling screw threadswere suggested, but no specificationsfor the shape of thread were included.Little more was done toward standard-ization until difficulties with nonstan-dard threads were encountered by firedepartments called to assist at theBaltimore conflagration of 1904. Thefollowing year the National Fire

Protection Association (NFPA) tookup the project actively, appointing aCommittee on Standard Thread forFire Hose Couplings. The NFPA com-mittee developed general screw threadspecifications covering the 2-1/2-inch,3-inch, 3-1/2-inch and 4-1/2-inchsizes, using as a basis the earlier reportof the IAFE committee and workingwith the active cooperation of the

American Water Works Association(AWWA). The principal dimensionsfor the 2-1/2-inch couplings were 7-1/2 threads per inch and 3-1/16-inchoutside diameter of the externalthread (ODM). This was selected tofacilitate conversion of existing cou-plings, the majority of which hadeither seven or eight threads per inch,and 3-inch or 3-1/3-inch outsidediameter measurements. During theyears that followed, until 1917, thiscommittee worked diligently tosecure recognition of these specifica-tions as a “National Standard” andtheir adoption by cities and townsthroughout the United States. Itsefforts were rewarded with consider-able success, and, in addition, asmany as 20 organizations officiallyapproved and adopted the standard.The specification, now known asNFPA 1964, was also published bythe National Board of FireUnderwriters (NBFU) in 1911, theAmerican Society of MechanicalEngineers (ASME) in 1913, the U.S.Bureau of Standards as Circular No.50 (1914 and 1917), and the AWWA.

Between 1920 and 1923, a series ofconferences were held that wereattended by representatives of themanufacturers of fire hose couplings,

the National Board of FireUnderwriters, the National ScrewThread Commission (NSTC), and theASME. These resulted in an agree-ment concerning the standardizationof screw thread tolerances,allowances, and methods of gauging.E fforts to bring about the general

At a Master Plumbers conference in 1874,the theory was introduced that air

pressure in the drain and at the outletof a fixture trap had to be the same.



Plumbing Engineer April 2001/Page 5 9

adoption of the standard throughoutthe country were continued.

1874: The Venting Theory WasProved. A major obstacle to morerapid introduction of plumbing sys-tems in buildings was the fact that, aslate as 1874, no method was knownfor preventing fixture trap seals frombeing lost because of siphonage andback pressure conditions in thedrainage system. Where fixture trapseals were lost, objectionable odorsand sewer gases escaped from the sys-tem at fixture outlets and fouled theatmosphere of rooms in buildings. Asignificant instance of this occurredwhen a plumbing system was installedin a large, new private dwelling inNew York City in 1874. Soon afteroccupying the building, the ownercomplained to the plumbing contractorthat the stench of sewer gas from fix-tures in the building was unbearable.

After receiving this complaint, theplumbing contractor discussed it at aconference with other New York Citymaster and journeymen plumbers. At aMaster Plumbers conference in 1874,the theory was introduced that air pres-sure in the drain and at the outlet of afixture trap had to be the same.Keeping the pressure outdoors in bal-ance with the pressure at the inlet ofthe trap could be maintained by meansof a vent pipe. The vent pipe could beconnected to the drain at the trap out-let and extended to atmospheric pres-sure outdoors. By doing this, air couldflow freely into or out of the drain inresponse to pressure variations in thedrain. The venting theory was testedshortly after the conference by con-tractors and journeymen in the fieldand was proved to be correct.However, numerous details of vent-piping installation and sizing had to bedetermined by further testing and fieldexperience before continuous, satis-factory performance of vent pipingwas assured. Nevertheless, the princi-ple of venting sanitary drainage sys-tems by means of vent pipes, to protectfixture trap seals against loss bysiphonage and backpressure, wasestablished. The way had been found

to prevent objectionable odors andsewer gases from escaping at fixturewaste outlets and fouling the atmos-phere in buildings. To me this is one ofthe most important advances in mod-ern plumbing history. Now, there

could be “Indoor Plumbing.”

This series will continuein the May issue.


Page 50/Plumbing Engineer Copyright © 2001 TMB Publishing, Inc. May 2001


This is the third installment in anarticle chronicling the develop-ment of plumbing. (Parts 1 and

2 appeared in the March and April2001 issues of Plumbing Engineer.)This effort has been undertaken specif-ically to help in understanding some ofthe requirements and prohibitionsfound in today’s plumbing, buildingand fire protection codes.

As we have already seen, conditionscertainly have changed over time.Combining our constantly improvingunderstanding of how things workwith evolving technology has enabledcivilization to reach the point at whichwe now find ourselves. Through fur-ther application of this understandingand technology, using the wisdomgained by studying our historicalroots, we can help shape future codeprovisions to enhance the quality oflife.

With those lofty thoughts in mind,we return to the story of plumbing.

The American AdventureContinues

1875: The Venting Principle isPublicized. News of the developmentof the principle of venting sanitarydrainage systems spread rapidly to allparts of the country. Detailed informa-tion on vent-piping installation, testreports and experience with systems inservice were carried in trade publica-tions, association reports and newspa-pers at the time. A major breakthroughhad been achieved in knowledge of thedesign of plumbing systems in build-

ings that made it possible to locateplumbing fixtures inside without foul-ing the atmosphere. Objections toinstalling plumbing systems in build-ings rapidly vanished, and plumbinginstallation proceeded at a greatlyaccelerated rate.

Within a few years, kitchen sinkswere installed in each dwelling unit intenement houses. Owners of privatehomes began to have kitchen sinks putin, followed soon after by laundrytrays, then bathtubs, and later lavato-ries placed in appropriate locations forconvenient use. About 1880, the useof privies and privy vaults in the back-yards of tenement houses was discon-tinued. In their place batteries of hop-per-type water closets, directly con-nected to building drains, wereinstalled in either backyards or cellars.Similarly, at schools privies and privyvaults were removed. They werereplaced by installation of trough-typewater closets, known as school sinks,directly connected to building drains.Their fixtures were provided in sepa-rate school yard toilet buildings.

1880s: NAPHCC Formed. Duringthe 1880s, a national plumbing con-tractors organization was formed tocontinue the efforts of providing safeplumbing systems. The associationhas undergone many name changesover the years and is now called thePlumbing, Heating and CoolingContractors - National Association.

1880 - 1890: Growth andDispersion of Cast Iron Foundries.Prior to 1880, the foundries of NewJersey and Pennsylvania supplied thegreat majority of the nation’s cast ironpipe requirements, but during 1880-1890, production spread to the Southand the Midwest. The advance inmunicipal improvements in theseareas and the dispersion of the pig ironindustry encouraged the location of


plants closer to the new markets andin places where pig iron and fuel costswere low. The largest number of castiron pipe foundries built during thisdecade were located in the southernand mid-western sections of the coun-try. Most of these were of compara-tively large capacity, so that by 1890,the share of total output by thefoundries of New Jersey andPennsylvania had declined to 43 per-cent.

During the census year 1890, therewere 33 establishments in the UnitedStates engaged principally in the man-ufacture of cast iron pipe. The rapidgrowth of the industry between 1880and 1890 was indicated by the largenumber of foundries constructed dur-ing that period.

1881: Building Sewers ImproveLiving Conditions. By 1881, thehealth protection benefits of sanitaryplumbing systems in buildings wereclearly recognized by health officialsin cities. Prior to this time, in NewYork City, 90 percent of all humanwastes had to be disposed of byremoving such wastes from privyvaults and transporting them throughbuildings, along city streets to docks,and then out to sea where they weredumped. This method of sewage dis-posal was a severe health hazard andhad to be eliminated. Sanitary plumb-ing systems in buildings was theanswer. People in cities knew thisfrom hard experience. They began torely upon plumbing facilities forimproved sanitary conditions, and toreduce their daily work and increasetheir enjoyment of living.

For economy in installations, sinksand laundry trays were groupedtogether in kitchens; and water clos-ets, bathtubs, and lavatories weregrouped together in bathrooms. Thiswas possible to do in cities with pub-



Part 3 — Indoor plumbing on the rise

Plumbing Engineer May 2001/Page 5 1

lic water supply and sewage disposalsystems. But in rural areas, having nosuch public systems available forbuilding connection, homes had noplumbing facilities. The only watersupplies for sanitary purposes forbuilding occupants in such areas wereoutdoor brick lined, earth-pit wells.The outhouse was still common inrural areas. Portable washtubs andbathtubs were used either indoors orunder an outdoor shed in most areas.

Enameled Horse Trough Sold asBathtub

A manufacturer of horse drinkingtroughs and hog scalding troughsnamed John Michael Kohler had asmall manufacturing company inWisconsin. He included the trough inhis catalog, describing it as “a horsetrough/hog scalder.” (Acommon prac-tice when butchering hogs in thosedays was to scald the carcass in boilingwater to help remove the tough skin.)A local farmer approached Mr. Kohlerand asked if he could takes a horsetrough/hog scalder, heat it up to 1700degrees Fahrenheit and cover it withenamel powder. The enamel powderwould melt to a smooth glassy finishthat would not rust. When the hogtrough was coated with an enamelcoating and furnished with four legs, itmade the perfect bathtub. The firstbathtub was sold to a local farmer fora cow and 14 chickens. Troughs soongive way to more stylized bathtubswith rolled rims and brass fittings.

1 8 9 0 : In 1890, Robert Manningproposed the “Manning Formula”which allowed engineers to calculateflows in sloping drains. The formulawas developed for calculating openchannel flow, but it is suitable for andoften used to calculate the capacity ofsloping sanitary and storm drains.

1890s: The Washdown Wa t e rCloset and Cast-Iron Bathtub. In the1890s, two important fixture develop-ments, combined with newly availablegas and electric public utility systemslaid under city streets, aided in further


Page 5 2/Plumbing Engineer May 2001

The History ofPlumbingContinued from page 51

expanding the use of plumbing systems in buildings. Thefirst water closet design considered to be really sanitary wasintroduced about 1890 with the development of the washdown water closet. Almost simultaneously, the freestand-ing, white-enameled cast iron bathtub appeared. They werehailed as important new sanitary advances, as they werereasonably priced, mass-produced fixtures which home-owners desired. The smooth surfaces of these fixtures didnot harbor bacteria and were easy to clean. These newsmooth finishes on these fixtures helped to reduce odors,spread of diseases and they improved sanitary conditions.

1890s: New Gas Mains Allowed Installation of GasFired Water Heaters. Doctors and health authorities advo-cated the expanded use of hot water as a sanitary measureand proclaimed the health benefits of bathing. The readyavailability of public utility gas supply systems, which hadbeen newly laid under city streets, aided in expanding theuse of hot water supply systems in buildings and the instal-lation of gas-fired water heaters. The availability of publicutility systems for supplying electricity for light and powerin buildings made possible the installation of efficient elec-tric pumps for pumping water to plumbing fixtures at anyheight. It was at this time that skyscraper-type office build-ings were first erected in New York City, Chicago,Philadelphia and other major cities. These buildings wereequipped with plumbing systems that performed satisfacto-

rily, and unobjectionable and suitable kinds and numbers offixtures were provided in convenient locations for buildingoccupants.

1900s: Minimum Requirements for N u m b e r o fFixtures. At the start of the 20th century, laws had alreadybeen enacted in many areas of the country requiring theinstallation of plumbing systems in buildings and the provi-sion of suitable kinds and numbers of fixtures in convenientlocations for the use of building occupants. In general, suchareas were large municipalities where public water supplyand public sewer systems were available for building con-nections. In areas beyond the limits of public systems, itwas deemed unreasonable to require installations of plumb-ing systems and fixtures. Nevertheless, people desired san-itary plumbing facilities and sought to equip their buildingswith appropriate systems.

1900s: Key Developments in WaterHeating. Hot watersupply was especially desired as manufacturers publicized

their new developments in water heater equipment. Coal-and gas-fired sidearm water heaters appeared on the scene.Automatic controls were developed to eliminate the dan-gers associated with manual operation of water heaters, andrange boiler manufacturers introduced tanks made of sever-al different materials with greater durability. Later pressureand temperature relief valves would be required on allheaters to prevent explosions when the burners failed in theon position.

1900s: Unsanitary Conditions Caused Building Codesto be Updated. Many new tenements were erected in largeindustrial cities to house the swelling populations. Thesebuildings had sinks and laundry trays in each dwelling unit,but water closets were provided in toilet compartmentsaccessible from the public hallways on each floor. In manycases, more than one family used the toilet facilities. It wassoon apparent that such arrangements were inadequate andobjectionable and fostered unsanitary conditions. Healthauthorities put new regulations into effect requiring waterclosets to be installed in toilet rooms or bathrooms in eachdwelling unit. Strenuous efforts were made to bring exist-ing buildings up to existing standards.

1906: American Society of Sanitary Engineering isOrganized. The American Society of Sanitary Engineering(ASSE) grew out of a meeting held in Washington D.C.,January 29-31, 1906. Henry B. Davis, chief plumbinginspector for the District of Columbia, believed it was vitalthat the plumbing practice in the United States be standard-

The first water closet designconsidered to be really

sanitary was introduced about1890 with the development ofthe wash down water closet.

Plumbing Engineer May 2001/Page 53

ized. Mr. Davis invited 25 inspectorsfrom other American cities to organizean association of plumbing inspectorsand sanitary engineers. The fundamen-tal principle they decided to followwas “Prevention Rather Than Cure.”This principle still guides the societytoday. ASSE’s activities and programswere and still are designed to developplumbing standards and educate theindustry and the public on the impor-tance of safe and correct plumbinginstallations.

1 9 11: The Triangle Shirt w a i s tFactory Fire in New York. In 1911 afire at the Triangle ShirtwaistCompany in New York City marked aturning point in how fire codesaddressed industrial and manufactur-ing occupancies. Chief Edward Crokerof the New York Fire Department hadlong sought improvements in thebuilding codes to bring about more fireresistive construction and changes infactory laws, because of such earlyfires as the Parker Building. Threefiremen were killed in a massive col-lapse within this 20-story fireproofbuilding. His pleas fell on deaf earsand the resulting catastrophe, whichkilled scores of innocent young immi-grants, will long live in the annals ofhistory.

The Triangle Shirtwaist Companywas located at 23 Washington Place inlower Manhattan. The workforce wasprimarily made up of young, femaleimmigrants, who labored under classic“sweatshop” conditions. More than500 workers were jammed into theeighth and ninth floors of the 10-storybuilding, which was supposedly builtfrom fire-resistive materials.

About 4:45 p.m. on Saturday,March 25, 1911, a fire started in a ragbin on the eighth floor. It spread rapid-ly through the mix of combustiblecloth, and soon wooden cutting tablesand other fixtures were ablaze. Onegroup of workers grabbed the stand-pipe hose line and attempted to extin-guish the fire. They quickly found thatthe hose was rotted and the valves cor-roded shut. Word of the fire soonbegan to pass through the workersjammed into the loft building. Workerssurged toward the exits with whichthey were familiar. They were met Continued on page 56

with a wall of fire racing up the stairs.Others moved toward another exit, butwere blocked by a locked door. Whenthey were finally able to force it, theyfound that it opened inward. By thistime, there were so many people push-ing toward the door that the door wasjammed shut; people began piling upat this point.

Very few workers knew that thefreight elevator was still working. Anumber of young girls faced with theprospect of a horrible death by firechose to leap to their deaths from win-dows on the eight and ninth floors.Others managed to make it to the roof,and a small number were able to maketheir way over ladders to the NewYork University Law School nextdoor.

Bells in New York fire stationsbegan to toll the alarm. But the prob-lems were many. The streets were lit-tered with bodies, making apparatusplacement difficult. Ladders could notreach the fire or the roof.

Once lines were in position, the firewas quickly extinguished. The horri-ble toll was 146 people who leaped totheir deaths or were burned or crushedto death in the panic. The public was

outraged. This fire had proved ChiefCroker correct. More was needed thanjust fire suppression.

After an intense investigation, anumber of changes were instituted. Anew bureau of fire prevention was cre-ated in the fire department. Labor lawswere passed outlawing many of thepractices that had led to the large num-ber of deaths in the fire. In the wake ofthis tragedy, work began on the codesthat eventually led to what we knowtoday as the building code and LifeSafety Code.

1915: Building Officials and CodeAdministrators OrganizationFormed. In 1915 a group of buildinginspectors got together in New Yorkand formed an organization called theBuilding Officials and CodeAdministrators (BOCA). This was thefirst group to get together to concen-trate on coordinating building codes ona national level. Two other organiza-tions soon formed. The SouthernBuilding Code Congress International(SBCCI) was formed in the South andthe Council of American BuildingOfficials (CABO) was formed in theWest. The Southern and Western areas

Page 5 6/Plumbing Engineer May 2001

of the country wanted immediate com-munication and local control when itcame to code issues. In those days,transportation was inadequate and atrip from coast to coast took almostfive days. Today everyone is just aphone call or email away. This may bewhy the three building code organiza-


tions decided to form the InternationalCode Council and jointly publish theInternational Building Codes. T h eInternational Codes are the first fullfamily of building, fire, mechanical,electrical, plumbing, energy, fuel gas,property maintenance and severalother codes that were correlated to

work together as a full set of codes.1918: American National

Standards Institute Founded. T h eAmerican National Standards Institute(ANSI) has served in its capacity asadministrator and coordinator of theUnited States private sector, voluntarystandardization system for 80 years.Founded in 1918 by five engineeringsocieties and three government agen-cies, the Institute remains a private,nonprofit membership org a n i z a t i o nsupported by a diverse constituency ofprivate and public sector org a n i z a-tions.

Throughout its history, the ANSIfederation has maintained as its prima-ry goal the enhancement of globalcompetitiveness of U.S. business andthe American quality of life by pro-moting and facilitating voluntary con-sensus standards and conformityassessment systems and promotingtheir integrity. The Institute representsthe interests of its nearly 1,400 compa-ny, organization, government agency,institutional and international mem-bers through its headquarters in NewYork City, and its satellite office inWashington, D.C.

ANSI does not itself developAmerican National Standards; rather itfacilitates development by establish-ing consensus among qualified groups.The Institute ensures that its guidingprinciples — consensus, due processand openness — are followed by themore than 175 distinct entities current-ly accredited under one of the federa-tion’s three methods of accreditation(organization, committee or canvass).In 1996 alone, the number ofAmerican National Standardsincreased by nearly 4 percent to a newtotal of 13,056 approved AmericanNational Standards. ANSI-accrediteddevelopers are committed to support-ing the development of national and,in many cases international standards,addressing the critical trends of tech-nological innovation, marketplaceglobalization and regulatory reform.

This series will continuein the June issue.

Page 48/Plumbing Engineer Copyright © 2001 T M B Publishing, Inc. June 2001


This is the fourth installment inan article chronicling the devel-opment of plumbing. (Parts 1, 2

and 3 appeared in the March, April andMay 2001 issues of P l u m b i n gEngineer.) This effort has been under-taken specifically to help in under-standing some of the requirements andprohibitions found in today’s plumb-ing, building and fire protection codes.

A second, though not necessarilysecondary, reason for relating this his-tory is to remind us of the bold andnecessary steps taken by our predeces-sors. And although western civiliza-tion rounding the corner into the 21stcentury gives lip service to the conceptof continuous improvement, change isstill deeply resented, if not activelyresisted.

Technological improvement in thehuman condition is always limited bys o c i e t y ’s willingness to see theseimprovements come into being.However, with a long record of suc-cesses to build upon, we can take hopethat our efforts today will benefit gen-erations to come.

We proceed with the conclusion, fornow, of the history of plumbing.

Progress and IncreasedComfort

1920s: Post World War BuildingBoom. Following World War I andcontinuing through the early 1920s,the large industrial cities expandedtremendously. New housing develop-ments were built on the fringes ofcities, and public water supply, sewer,

and utility systems were extended toserve the new buildings. All thesewere equipped with the most modernplumbing systems and fixtures of theday. Complete bathroom installations,consisting of a water closet, lavatory,and bathtub with an overhead shower,were provided in each dwelling unitalong with modern kitchen sinks andlaundry trays. The growing impor-tance of sanitary plumbing systems inbuildings was shown by large-scale

plumbing installations in hotels, officebuildings, factories, food processingplants, and dairy buildings. Mostbuildings were provided with moreplumbing equipment than wasrequired by law. Multi-story residen-tial buildings in great numbers wereerected in the central parts of citieswhere land values were very high.They too were fully equipped withcomplete bathroom, kitchen, and laun-dry fixtures of modern and sanitarydesign. Many were equipped with col-ored plumbing fixtures, which wereintroduced in the middle 1920s. Butthis tremendous new building con-struction wave reached its peak in1929 and came to a sudden halt in1930 when the severe businessdepression occurred.

1921: Herbert Hoover Appointedas Secretary of Commerce. In 1921,President Warren Harding appointed avery prominent engineer, HerbertHoover, as Secretary of Commerce.Hoover as an engineer saw the poten-


tial for a post war boost in the UnitedStates if he could only implementsome good engineering planning con-cepts across the nation. Hoover want-ed prosperity for all. At the time of hisappointment only one percent of thehomes in the country had electricityand indoor plumbing. Hoover startedthe Materials and Structures divisionof the National Bureau of Standards(now known as The National Instituteof Standards and Te c h n o l o g y, or

NIST). The person who headed up theplumbing division of the NationalBureau of Standards was Dr. Roy B.Hunter. Dr. Hunter dedicated his tal-ents to the research of plumbing sys-tems in an effort to standardize regula-tions in the United States.

1926: IAPMO Began as thePlumbing Inspectors Association ofSouthern California. In 1926, 42plumbing inspectors banded togetherto bring about an improvement in theapplication of common-sense codifi-cation and application of ordinancesbased on scientific knowledge. In1932 the group published theStandard Plumbing Code. The organi-zation still writes codes and publishesthe Uniform Plumbing Code and theUniform Mechanical Code. Today thiso rganization is known as theInternational Association of Plumbingand Mechanical Officials and is work-ing with the National Fire ProtectionAssociation to develop a full family ofcodes.



Part 4 — Modern plumbing enhances the American way of life

Only one percent of U.S. homes hadelectricity and indoor plumbing in 1921,

when Herbert Hoover was appointedSecretary of Commerce.

Plumbing Engineer June 2001/Page 4 9

1928: The First Plumbing Code isP u b l i s h e d . Because of Hoover’sefforts with The National Bureau ofStandards, when the first plumbingcode was developed in 1928 it wasnicknamed the Hoover Code. T h ecode was not named after Hooverbecause he worked on the code, butrather because he saw the need todevelop the code. The code was updat-ed in 1932 and Dr. Hunter continuedhis research and work on plumbingthrough the 1930s.

1930s: The Depression —Inadequate Systems Corre c t e d .Relatively few new buildings wereerected during the 1930s until the lat-ter part of the decade. This period wasdevoted principally to the correctionand modernization of plumbing sys-tems and equipment in existing build-ings. Important corrections were madeto the potable water supply systems ofbuildings to eliminate all water supplypiping connections and fixture supplyconnections which were recognized aspotential sources of contamination.This drive for correction of systemswas led by health officials, water sup-ply officials and building officials toavoid repetition of the amoebic dysen-tery epidemic which occurred in thecity of Chicago during its world’s fairin 1933.

Other important improvementswere made in the hot water supply sys-tems in existing buildings. Many wereequipped with modern, automaticallycontrolled hot water heaters designedfor use with gas, oil or electricity as asource of heat.

1932: Hunter Releases Report onPlumbing Flow in Drainage Stacks.In 1932, Dr. Roy B. Hunter publisheda report of the subcommittee onplumbing of the building code com-mittee, U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau of Standards,BH13, (1932). Hunter described theflow of waste in drain stacks includingthe cohesive effects of water clingingto the inside wall of the drainagestacks up to a certain point. Then thewater peels away and causes slugs ofwater that act as pistons and createsevere pressure fluctuations in thedrainage system.

1933: Invention of Sewer

Cleaning Machine. In 1933, SamuelO. Blanc invents the electric sewercleaning machine using a 1/6 hpMaytag washing machine motor. Forthe first time, drains could be clearedwithout having to dig up the ground.Soon after this, clean-outs wereinstalled in drain pipes to aid in clean-ing the pipes. Later, plumbing codes

started to require clean-outs at offsetsat distances that would allow Mr.Blanc’s machine to perform its task ofcleaning clogged drain piping.

1935 - 1940: Electricity Extendedto Rural Areas. During this period,the public utility systems around the


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country extended their electric supplylines into a great portion of the ruralarea. This provided a source of powerfor pumping water from wells and forsupplying plumbing systems with allthe water needed to maintain the sani-tary standards that were enjoyed in thecities. Private sewage disposal sys-tems were provided by means ofunderground septic tank and leachingfield installations in appropriate loca-

tions. In this way, modern sanitaryplumbing systems and fixtures becameavailable even in the remote regions ofthe country.

1940s: ASSE and the PlumbingIndustry Search for the Cause ofP o l i o . In the 1940s the A m e r i c a nSociety of Sanitary Engineering(ASSE) and the plumbing industrytook on an extensive effort to provethat polio was a water borne disease.ASSE and the plumbing industry con-tended the viral disease was spreadthrough polluted potable water. Thetheory was that many cases werecaused by faulty plumbing practices,such as cross connections which led toback siphonage and backflow. TheASSE campaign was of major impor-tance in developing a greater con-sciousness of proper plumbing prac-tices.

Since that time the A m e r i c a nSociety of Sanitary Engineering hasdeveloped many standards for prod-ucts that are components of plumbingsystems. The standards have a heavyemphasis on backflow prevention andare being adopted by model codesthroughout the country.

1940: Hunter Publishes BMS 66Plumbing Manual. D r. Roy B.Hunter’s work culminated in the pub-

lication of the BMS 66 PlumbingManual in 1940. This was one of thedocuments that served as the basis forevery modern plumbing code at thattime.

1944: The National SanitationFoundation was Formed. Wa l t e rSnyder, Henry Vaughan and NathanSinai formed the National SanitationFoundation. The agency was devotedto scientific research in sanitation.

They kept in contact with national,state and local governments for thepurposes of promoting sound improve-ments in sanitation. The NationalSanitation Foundation, now known asNSF International, develops standardsfor food, and beverage equipment,components used in drinking watersystems and plastic pipe and fittings.

M i d - 1 9 4 0 s : In the mid-1940s,Hersey Corporation created thereduced pressure principle backflowpreventer. The development of a back-flow preventer using this principle ledto an increased interest in the field ofbackflow prevention and cross connec-tion control. Many manufacturers andorganizations have since provided edu-cational literature, seminars and videoson the subject. Today, the AmericanBackflow Prevention Association car-ries this message forward.

New Challenges, Materialsand Methods

1946 - 1970s: Post W W I IBuilding Boom. In the latter 1940s,following World War II, and continu-ing through the 1950s, the 1960s andinto the 1970s, there was a tremendousexpansion of housing developmentsand industrial plant construction out-

In 1932, Dr. Roy B. Hunter described theflow of waste in drain stacks, followed in1940 by BMS 66 Plumbing Manual, whichserved as the basis for modern plumbing

codes at the time.



side the central areas of cities in theUnited States. New buildings wereerected along new principle highways,and public water, sewer, gas and elec-tric systems were provided for build-ing service needs in most areas.Private systems were utilized in manyareas where public systems were notavailable. All of the buildings builtduring these years were equipped withmodern plumbing systems conformingto sanitary standards elevated to ahigher level than ever before. In thecentral areas of cities many old build-ings were removed and in their placeslarge skyscraper office buildings andapartment buildings were erected.They, too, were equipped with modernplumbing systems designed in accor-dance with the highest sanitary stan-dards in history in order to serve thegreatest occupancy loads of all time.

1950s: Fixture Units ReportPublished by Dr. Hunter. In the1950s the National Bureau ofStandards published a report on esti-mating loads in plumbing systems.The report was titled BMS65, Methodsof Estimating Loads in PlumbingSystems. The report was presented byDr. Roy B. Hunter and gave tables ofthe load producing characteristics(Fixture Unit Weights) of commonlyused fixtures, along with probabilitycurves which made it easy to apply toactual design problems. The curves areknown as “Hunter’s Curves.”

1950s - 1960s: SkyscraperConstruction Brings Changes inDesign. Tower building constructionaccelerated in the late 1950s and early1960s, and necessitated changes indesign to meet changing conditions.Increased building heights andincreased water usage, including waterfor air conditioning, required watersupply tanks so large that they causedsignificant space problems and wereuneconomical. To meet the changingconditions, designs were changed toprovide tankless, automatic, constant-pressure booster-pump systems whichrequired a minimum of valuable build-ing space and which also provided asealed-in supply of potable water fromthe source of supply to the plumbing

fixture outlet.1955: Introduction of Ductile Iron

Pipe. Since its introduction into themarketplace in 1955, ductile iron pipehas been recognized as the industrystandard for modern water and waste-water systems. Its strength and dura-bility make it ideal for transportingraw and potable water, sewage, slur-ries and process chemicals. Ductileiron is stronger and tougher than castiron. Although its chemical propertiesare similar to those of cast iron, ductileiron incorporates casting refinements,additional metallurgical processes, andadditional quality control. Ductile ironwas found to differ from cast iron inthat its graphite form is spheroidal, orn o d u l a r, instead of the flake formfound in cast iron. This change ingraphite form is accomplished byadding an inoculant, usually magne-sium, to molten iron of appropriatecomposition during manufacture. Dueto its spheroidal graphite form, ductileiron has approximately twice thestrength of cast iron as determined bytensile, beam, ring bending and burst-ing tests. Its impact strength and elon-gation are many times greater than castiron’s.

Ductile iron’s high degree ofdependability is primarily due to itshigh strength, durability and impact-and corrosion-resistance. Ductile ironhas minimum strength requirements of60,000 psi tensile strength, 42,000 psiyield strength, and 10 percent mini-mum elongation.

1966: The Development of PlasticPiping. In 1966, a critical shortage ofcopper occurred in the United Statesbecause of the stoppage of shipmentsfrom foreign sources of supply.Inventories of copper drainage wasteand vent (DWV) tube and fittings wererapidly exhausted. Large develop-ments of single family residences werehalted for most of 1966 because of theunavailability of copper DWV pipingwhich originally had been planned forinstallation. This urgent need was soonfilled by non-metallic, plastic DWVpipe and fittings, which were thenintroduced into use for buildingplumbing systems under carefully pre-scribed installation conditions.

1961 - 1992: Development ofPlumbing for the Disabled. A mostsignificant change in the design ofbuildings used by the public began in


Page 5 2/Plumbing Engineer June 2001

1961. The object of the change was tomake all buildings and facilities,including plumbing, used by the pub-lic accessible to, and functional for,the physically handicapped, withoutloss of function, space, or facilitywhere the general public is concerned.The changes were originally set forthin the American National Standards

Institute (ANSI) standard,Specification for Making Buildingsand Facilities Accessible to andUsable by Physically HandicappedPeople, originally issued as A117.1-1961. Updates were made in 1971 and1980 and, in 1992, government regu-lations known as the Americans withDisabilities Act (ADA) went into

effect. These regulations mandated thenecessary design changes, includingmany related to plumbing systems, inbuildings.

1974: Energy Efficiency inPlumbing Design. In 1974, when thesupply of foreign oil to the UnitedStates was interrupted and oil pricesrose sharply, ways to conserve energywere a constant concern. Some impor-tant conservation measures related toplumbing were: elimination of waterwaste; reduction of water use; reduc-tion of hot water storage and supplytemperature; reduction of flow for hot

water faucets; insulation of waterheater tanks and piping; and use ofheat reclaiming systems and solarheating systems. These are just someof the conservation methods that havebeen applied to plumbing systems.Today water saving faucets and fix-tures are being mandated by manymunicipalities from coast to coast dueto water shortages in many water dis-tricts around the country. A corollarybenefit of reducing water use is thereduction of the load on overburdenedwater treatment facilities.

1977: The National Association ofPipe Fabricators Was Born. In 1977,five independent ductile iron pipe fab-ricators met in Kansas City, Mo., todiscuss the materials specified forwater and wastewater treatment

As part of theEnergy Policy Actof 1992, legislators

determined —without the benefit

of testing orresearch — that 1.6

gallons per flushwould be the

maximum con-sumption allowedfor water closets.



plants. It was determined at that meet-ing that there was a need for an orga-nization to promote the quality prod-ucts available through independentfabricators. The goal was to contactengineers and specification writersthroughout the nation and changeexisting standards to more accuratelyreflect current industry practices.Thus, the National Association of PipeFabricators (NAPF) was born. Thosefive fabricators also began to aid eachother with technical advice throughvisits to each other’s facilities, produc-ing items needed by those with limitedcapabilities, and sharing surplusinventories.

Over the next several years theNAPF continued to grow and addedmany new members across the UnitedStates. In an effort to gain nationalcredibility in the engineering commu-n i t y, the membership decided theNAPF should develop and produce astandards catalogue, which would notonly cover the existing ANSI/AWWAstandards but include additional valu-able information not currently avail-able to the industry.

More than 1000 of these manualshave since been distributed. Some ofthe topics included were welding ofductile pipe, surface preparation priorto painting, glass lining and fabricatedwall pipe. Over the past 20 years, rep-resentatives of the NAPF have alsoheld positions on various AWWA com-mittees, which are responsible forupdating existing standards to moreappropriately reflect changes withinthe industry. Many of the recentchanges in these standards are directlyattributable to the efforts of the NAPF.

1994 - 1996: Legislation Ta k e sE ffect to Furt h e r Restrict Wa t e rUse. Legislation was adopted as partof the Energy Efficiency Act in the1980s to restrict water flow rates invarious plumbing fixtures. Later it wasamended with the Energy Policy Actof 1992 to further reduce water use inplumbing fixtures. As part of theEnergy Policy Act of 1992, legislatorsdetermined — without the benefit oftesting or research — that 1.6 gallonsper flush would be the maximum con-sumption allowed for water closets.Manufacturers have spent millions of

dollars to redesign fixtures to flushwith the lower flow rates and the juryis still out on this one. Can we learn alesson from this? I think we have.Before legislation of this type is intro-duced in the future, research shouldbe done by an independent organiza-tion to conclude that the fixtures willwork properly at a given flow rate.

ConclusionAs in any such undertaking, one

p e r s o n ’s attempt to record historymay inadvertently omit certain eventsor accomplishments. Commentary,additions, corrections and clarifica-tions are sincerely invited, either bysending email to the author (rg e [email protected]) or by wayof the editor.

Many significant events are record-ed in the history of plumbing. Eachtime something failed, or peoplebecame ill, the industry reacted bydetermining the problem and workingto solve it. We need to respect thelessons we have learned from historyand continue teaching them to youngengineers and apprentices. We do notwant history to repeat itself. The codemay tell us what we can or cannot do,but history tells us why. ■

References:1. Internet search for “History_of_Plumbing” (various sources).2. http://www.bowdoin.edu/dept/clas/arch304/baths3. Nielson, Louis S., StandardPlumbing Engineering Design, 1963.4. Steele, Alfred, EngineeredPlumbing Design, second edition,

We need to respectthe lessons we

have learned fromhistory and

continue teachingthem to youngengineers andapprentices.

Construction Industry Press,Elmhurst, Ill., 1982.5. History excerpts from The FarmersAlmanac.6. The Ductile Iron Pipe AssociationWeb site, http://www.dipra.org.7. The Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute,Chattanooga, Tenn.8. Internet search for “History ofPlumbing” at www.theplumber.com9. Ballanco, Julius, “Evolution ofPlumbing Codes in the United Statesof America,” from World PlumbingConference Compendium ofWorkshop Papers, October, 1996,Chicago, Ill. (available through theAmerican Society of SanitaryEngineering, 216/835-3040).10. George, Ron, CIPE, “The Historyof Plumbing,” published in PlumbingStandards, Summer 1995, by theAmerican Society of SanitaryEngineering.

Documents

History of Plumbing