History of Electroluminescent Displays Suntola

5/24/2018 History of Electroluminescent Displays Suntola

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A History of Electroluminescent Displays

By

Jeffrey A. HartIndiana University

Stefanie Ann Lenway

University of Minnesota

and

Thomas Murtha

University of Minnesota

Second Draft

Septemer !"""

#e are $ratefu% for the comments provided y &hristopher 'in$( Sey Shin$ Sun( )ichard Tuen$e(T. *eter Brody( and )unar Torn+vist. )esearch assistance was provided y &rai$ ,rtsey. This

research was supported y a $rant from the A%fred *. S%oan -oundation. *%ease do not cite or +uotewithout the written permission of the authors.

Introduction

%ectro%uminescent disp%ays /LDs0 have their ori$ins in scientific discoveries in the first decade ofthe twentieth century( ut they did not ecome commercia%%y via%e products unti% the!"12s. LDs

are particu%ar%y usefu% in app%ications where fu%% co%or is not re+uired ut where ru$$edness( speed(ri$htness( hi$h contrast( and a wide an$%e of vision is needed. &o%or LD techno%o$y hasadvanced si$nificant%y in recent years( especia%%y for microdisp%ays. The two main firms that havedeve%oped and commercia%i3ed LDs are Sharp in Japan and *%anar Systems in the United States.

What Is Electroluminescence?

There are two main ways of producin$ %i$ht4 incandescence and %uminescence. In incandescence(e%ectric current is passed throu$h a conductor /fi%ament0 whose resistance to the passa$e of current

produces heat. The $reater the heat of the fi%ament( the more %i$ht it produces. Luminescence( incontrast( is the name $iven to 5a%% forms of visi%e radiant ener$y due to causes other thantemperature.56!7
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There are a numer of different types of %uminescence( inc%udin$ /amon$ others04e%ectro%uminescence( chemi%uminescence( cathodo%uminescence( trio%uminescence( and

photo%uminescence. Most 5$%ow in the dar85 toys ta8e advanta$e of photo%uminescence4 %i$ht thatis produced after e9posin$ a photo%uminescent materia% to intense %i$ht. &hemi%uminescence is thename $iven to %i$ht that is produced as a resu%t of chemica% reactions( such as those that occur in the

ody of a firef%y. &athodo%uminescence is the %i$ht $iven off y a materia% ein$ omarded y

e%ectrons /as in the phosphors on the facep%ate of a cathode ray tue0. %ectro%uminescence is theproduction of visi%e %i$ht y a sustance e9posed to an e%ectric fie%d without therma% ener$y$eneration.6:7

An e%ectro%uminescent /L0 device is simi%ar to a %aser in that photons are produced y the return ofan e9cited sustance to its $round state( ut un%i8e %asers L devices re+uire much %ess ener$y tooperate and do not produce coherent %i$ht. L devices inc%ude light emitting diodes( which arediscrete devices that produce %i$ht when a current is app%ied to a doped p;n

:. %ectrons are acce%erated to a%%istic ener$ies y hi$h fie%ds in the phosphor>

?. The ener$etic e%ectrons impact;ioni3e the %uminescent center or create e%ectron;ho%e pairs that%ead to the activation of the %uminescent center> and

@. The %uminescent center re%a9es toward the $round state and emits a photon.

A%% LDs have the same asic structure. There are at %east si9 %ayers to the device. The first %ayer isa asep%ate /usua%%y a ri$id insu%ator %i8e $%ass0( the second is a conductor( the third is an insu%ator(the fourth is a %ayer of phosphors( and the fifth is an insu%ator( and the si9th is another conductor.

Figure 1. Structure of an

Electroluminescent Display
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Source4 *%anar Systems.

LDs are +uite simi%ar to capacitors e9cept for the phosphor %ayer. ou can thin8 of an LD as a5%ossy capacitor5 in that it ecomes e%ectrica%%y char$ed and then %oses its ener$y in the form of%i$ht.6?7 The insu%ator %ayers are necessary to prevent arcin$ etween the two conductive %ayers.

An a%ternatin$ current /A&0 is $enera%%y used to drive an LD ecause the %i$ht $enerated y thecurrent decays when a constant vo%ta$e is app%ied. There are( however( L devices that are D&driven /see e%ow0.

Scientific Origins

%ectro%uminescence was first oserved in si%icon caride /Si&0 y &aptain Henry Joseph )ound in!"2.6@7 )ound reported that a ye%%ow %i$ht was produced when a current was passed throu$h asi%icon caride detector.6C7 )ound was an emp%oyee of the Marconi &ompany and a persona%assistant to u$%ie%mo Marconi. He was an inventor in his own ri$ht with !! patents to his name

y the end of his %ife.6E7

The second reported oservation of e%ectro%uminescence did not occur unti% !":?( when ,.F.Lossev of the Gi


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phenomenon he oserved.

ooch a%so ar$ues that one shou%d 8eep in mind the differences etween the 5Lossev effect5 and the5Destriau effect45

The Lossev effect shou%d e distin$uished from the Destriau effect. Destriauswor8 invo%ved 3inc su%phide phosphors( and he oserved that those phosphorscou%d emit %i$ht when e9cited y an e%ectric fie%d6The Lossev effect( incontrast( invo%ves e%ectro%uminescence7 in p;n


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A& driven devices. An ear%y e9amp%e was the wor8 of *eter Brody and his associates at#estin$house )esearch Laoratories on L and AM;L devices etween !"E1 and !"@. 6!"7

In !"@( Toshio Ino$uchi and his co%%ea$ues at Sharp &orporation introduced an a%ternatin$ current/A&0 T-L approach to LDs at the annua% meetin$ of the Society for Information Disp%ay /SID0.

The Sharp device used 3inc su%fide doped with man$anese /nS4Mn0 as the phosphor %ayer andyttrium o9ide /

:,

?0 for the sandwichin$ insu%ators. This was the first hi$h;ri$htness %on$;

%ifetime LD ever made. Sharp introduced a monochrome LD te%evision in !"1. The paperIno$uchi pu%ished on his $roups research he%ped to reinvi$orate L research in the rest of thewor%d( inc%udin$ at Te8troni9( a U.S. e%ectronics firm ased in *ort%and( ,re$on.6:27

Te8troni9 research on L e$an in !"E. The mana$ement at Te8troni9 were fami%iar with thewor8 reported y Ino$uchis team. They decided to start a new pro$ram on LDs at Te8troni9App%ied )esearch Laoratories. The wor8 e$un there was continued when the Te8troni9researcher %eft to create a spinoff firm ca%%ed *%anar Systems. Severa% other %ar$e U.S. companies

a%so were conductin$ research on LDs in the !"2s( inc%udin$4 IBM( T( #estin$house( Aero


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!esearch on "olor E#Ds

,ne of the 8ey disadvanta$es of LDs re%ative to %i+uid crysta% disp%ays /L&Ds0 was that unti% !"1!LDs were not capa%e of disp%ayin$ more than one co%or. ven after !"1!( co%or LDs were%imited to a %imited ran$e of co%ors /red( $reen( and ye%%ow0 unti% !""? when a %ue phosphor wasdiscovered.

In !"1!( ,8amoto reported that a rare;earth doped nS cou%d e used in the phosphor %ayer of aT-L device.6::7

In !"1@( #i%%iam Barrow of *%anar and his co%%ea$ues announced that they were a%e to $et %ue;$reen emissions from strontium su%fide doped with cerium /SrS4&e0.

In !"1C( Shosa8u Tana8a at Tottori University and his co%%ea$ues reported that they had dup%icatedthe wor8 done at *%anar on SrS4&e phosphors ut added that they had $otten ca%cium su%fide /&aS0to emit a deep red co%or. In !"11( Tana8as $roup announced that they had $otten white %i$ht from aT-L disp%ay usin$ a comination of SrS4&e and SrS doped with uropium /SrS4u0. The ideahere was to use the white %i$ht in connection with a co%or fi%ter to produce a fu%% co%or disp%ayana%o$ous%y to the way that it is done in %i+uid crysta% disp%ays. The advanta$e of doin$ this with

LDs was that such a disp%ay wou%d not re+uire a ac8%i$ht. The main disadvanta$e was the addedcost and difficu%ty of introducin$ a co%or fi%ter.

In !""@( Soininen and cowor8ers at *%anar Internationa% in -in%and announced that aSrS4&e=nS4Mn white phosphor deposited y atomic %ayer epita9y achieves sufficient %uminanceand stai%ity for use in co%or L disp%ay products.6:?7

-urther wor8 on %ue phosphors was done y )einer Mach and his co%%ea$ues at the Heinrich Hert3Institute in Ber%in. Additiona% wor8 on SrS4&e %ue phosphors was done at #estaim &orporation.

A SrS4&u %ue phosphor showin$ improved %ue co%or and efficiency was reported y Sey;Shin$
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Sun of *%anar in !"". *%anar demonstrated true white co%or L prototype disp%ays usin$ this %uephosphor in a SrS4&u=nS4Mn mu%ti;%ayer structure. The SrS4&u phosphor wi%% ena%e co%or Ldisp%ays to e produced with a wider co%or $amut.6:@7

Barrow and his team at *%anar announced a prototype of a mu%ti;co%or L disp%ay usin$ nS4Mn

and nS4T phosphor %ayers in !"1E. By !"11( they had a prototype fu%%;co%or disp%ay usin$ apatterned phosphor structure. &ommercia% production of mu%tico%or LDs did not occur unti% !""?at *%anar( however( and fu%% co%or LDs have een produced on%y in the form of microdisp%ays /seesection e%ow on AML microdisp%ays0.6:C7 These co%or AML microdisp%ays used the ALSrS4&e=nS4Mn white phosphor with either se+uentia% or spatia% co%or fi%terin$.

$lanar Systems

*%anar Systems( Inc.( was formed in !"1? as a spinoff from Te8troni9. It was founded y three

senior mana$ers from Te8troni9 So%id State )esearch and Deve%opment roup4 John Laney( JamesHurd( and &hristopher 'in$.6:E7 Hurd ecame the *resident and &,( Laney wor8ed onmanufacturin$ issues( and 'in$ ecame the firms chief technica% officer. Te8troni9 $ave *%anar itsri$hts to certain techno%o$ies in e9chan$e for an e+uity sta8e /in !""@ its share was sti%% .C

percent0.6:7 *%anar remained private%y he%d unti% it went pu%ic in !""?.

In !"1@( *%anar opened its first manufacturin$ faci%ity in Beaverton( ,re$on. It shipped its firstu%8 order in !"1C to Gippon Data enera% for an ear%y %aptop computer with a &A /E@29:220 Lpane%.

,nce vo%ume manufacturin$ of LDs e$an( a numer of additiona% pro%ems had to e so%ved inorder to improve prospects for sa%es in the competitive mar8ets for f%at pane% disp%ays4

!. Luminous efficiency had to e increased>

:. Better drivin$ methods were needed> and

?. ray sca%e capai%ity of LDs had to e enhanced.

The initia% LD prototypes had ri$htness %eve%s of on%y aout :2 foot %amerts /fLs0. &ommercia%products in the !""2s were to have ri$htness %eve%s of !22 fLs.

The initia% drive scheme for LDs at *%anar was to app%y a sin$%e po%arity vo%ta$e pu%se to each %ineof the disp%ay and then an opposite po%arity pu%se to the entire pane%. This was ca%%ed 5the refreshmethod.5 In !"1@=1C( it was determined that this drive method %ed to 5urn in5 ;; some pi9e%swou%d ecome unusa%e over time. A new drive scheme invented y Tim -%e$a% ca%%ed symmetricdrive rep%aced the refresh method. In symmetric drive( pu%ses of a%ternate po%arities were app%ied toeach %ine so that a net 3ero dc vo%ta$e was deve%oped. This prevented 5urn in.5

Tim -%e$a% was a%so responsi%e for pioneerin$ a variety of $ray sca%e drivin$ methods( inc%udin$pu%se width( ana%o$ vo%ta$e( and frame rate modu%ation. Hi$h performance ana%o$ drivers atreasona%e prices were difficu%t to otain( and *%anar had difficu%ty $ettin$ Te9as Instruments to
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supp%y them ecause of the re%ative%y %ow vo%umes invo%ved /from TIs perspective0( ut eventua%%y*%anar found a new supp%ier for these circuits4 Superte9.6:17

,ne of *%anars 8ey mar8ets after the dec%ine in demand for monochrome disp%ays for %aptopcomputers was mi%itary disp%ays. *%anar provided L disp%ays to defense contractors %i8e Gorden

Systems and &omputin$ Devices &anada( Ltd. /&D&0. These disp%ays were monochrome with%imited $ray sca%in$. *%anar diversified its sa%es out of mi%itary app%ications toward industria% andmedica% e+uipment. By the mid !""2s( over a third of *%anars sa%es were to medica% e+uipmentfirms.

-i$ure ?. Sa%es of *%anar Disp%ays y Type ofApp%ication( c. !""1.

Source4 *%anar Systems athttp4==www.p%anar.comonJu%y :1( !""".

Because of *%anars wi%%in$ness to wor8 with customers to adapt products for specific app%ications(it was a%e to command a price premium over the products of its main competitor( Sharp. By the%ate !"12s( *%anar contro%%ed over "2 percent of the wor%d mar8et for LDs.

*%anar purchased the -in%u9 Disp%ay %ectronics unit of Loh


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L&Ds. In response to this shift( *%anar Advance purchased T-T L&D $%ass from dpi andassem%ed them into 5mi% spec5 units for the DoD. This move permitted *%anar to diversify itsdisp%ay offerin$s out of LDs ut it a%so necessitated a redefinition of the core competence of thefirm.

In !"":( *%anar he%ped to or$ani3ed a consortium to deve%op co%or LDs ca%%ed the AmericanDisp%ay &onsortium. This consortium was funded y the Department of &ommerce under theAdvanced Techno%o$y *ro$ram /AT*0 created y the &%inton administration. The tota% fundin$ forthe consortium was to e K?2 mi%%ion> ha%f funded y the $overnment and ha%f y the consortiums

private firms. The Gationa% Institute for Standards and Techno%o$y /GIST0 supervised theconsortium on eha%f of the Department of &ommerce. ,ther memers of this consortium were4&andescent Techno%o$ies( dpi( %ectro *%asma( -D &orporation( 'ent Disp%ay Systems( LucentTechno%o$ies( ,IS( *hotonics Ima$in$( SI Diamond( Standish Industries( Three;-ive Systems( andFersati%e Information *roducts.

In Sprin$ !""C *%anar or$ani3ed a consortium to deve%op the ne9t $eneration of Hi$h )eso%utionand &o%or T-L Disp%ays. This consortium was funded y the Department of Defense under theDA)*A mana$ed Techno%o$y )einvestment *ro$ram /T)*0. The tota% fundin$ for the consortiumwas to e K?2 mi%%ion> ha%f funded y the $overnment and ha%f y the consortiums private firms.,ther memers of the consortium were4 A%%iedSi$na% Aerospace( &omputin$ Devices of &anada(Ltd.( Advanced Techno%o$y Materia%s( Boein$( &F& *roducts( eor$ia Tech )esearch Institute(Hew%ett *ac8ard( Honeywe%%( Lawrence Livermore Gationa% Laoratory( Los A%amos Gationa%Laoratory( ,re$on State University( *ositive Techno%o$ies and the University of -%orida. 6?!7

In !"1"( the Defense Advanced )esearch *ro


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In ,ctoer !""C( *%anar announced an arran$ement to supp%y AML disp%ays to Firtua% I;,( aSeatt%e;ased manufacturer of consumer head mounted disp%ays for virtua% rea%ity entertainmentsystems.6??7 Unfortunate%y( Firtua% I;, went an8rupt in !"" efore any of these disp%ays cou%d

e so%d to the pu%ic.

In March !""E( *%anar was a awarded a DoD contract tosupp%y an AML;ased head mounted disp%ay /HMD0 for themi%itarys Land #arrior *ro$ram.6?@7 ,n May !E( !""E(*%anar announced that it had deve%oped an AMLmicrodisp%ay that was one;inch s+uare( ?mm thic8( andwei$hed on%y @ $rams. In !"" *%anar announced that it haddeve%oped a 2.C inch dia$ona% fu%%;co%or FA AMLmicrodisp%ay usin$ an L& se+uentia% co%or shutter.6?C7/ref4 ).Tuen$e( et a%.( SID " Di$est /!""0( p.1E: 0. *%anar nowhas a ri$hter fu%%;co%or microdisp%ay capa%e of disp%ayin$?:8 co%ors that does not re+uire the L& shutter.

*%anar has e9perienced a steady $rowth in revenues /see-i$ure C e%ow0.

-i$ure C. Annua% )evenues for *%anar Systems in KMi%%ions(!"1@;"1

Source4Annual Report/!""10 accessed athttp4==www.p%anar.comon Ju%y !C( !""".

-i$ure @. *icture of a &o%or AMLMicrodisp%ay

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Its profits a%so steadi%y increased in oth aso%ute terms and per share ut with a dec%ine in !""1.*%anar went pu%ic with an I*, in !""?.

A %rief History of Sharp&s E# Operations

The head of research at Sharp( Sanai Mita( was convinced that LDs cou%d e used eventua%%y toma8e f%at TFs. Mito was former%y a professor at ,sa8a Municipa% University. He and his teammounted a ma


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A. -irst precursor reacts with the surface. &hemisorption occurs throu$h %i$and e9chan$e etween theprecursor mo%ecu%es and the ondin$ sites.

B. #ha%%

ondisites afi%%ed tsurfac

reactioissaturat.Bondisites fthesecon

precurr have

eencreate

9ce%%ent LD resu%ts ased on its proprietary AL techno%o$y were for the first time presented atthe annua% meetin$ of the Society for Information Disp%ay /SID0 in !"12( where they received a %otof attention. In !"1?( three %ar$e information oards were de%ivered to the He%sin8i Fantaa airport.ach of these was comprised of more than 22 character modu%es. They proved that ALtechno%o$y cou%d meet re%iai%ity re+uirements necessary for commercia% use. That techno%o$y was%icensed to Sintra A%cate% in -rance in !"1?. However( the driver costs of the LD charactermodu%es were too hi$h to ma8e them commercia%%y via%e( and as a resu%t -in%u9 e$andeve%opment of a ";inch C!:9:CE matri9 disp%ay for computer and industria% app%ications. A %ar$emanufacturin$ p%ant was constructed in a new science par8 set up in spoo c%ose to He%sin8i. &oremanufacturin$ techno%o$ies( inc%udin$ AL deposition e+uipment( were deve%oped in;house( whichde%ayed the start of mass production unti% !"1E. Ha%f;pa$e LD matri9 disp%ays with reso%utions ofE@29:22( EC29?C2 and E@29@22 were suse+uent%y manufactured at this p%ant.

The investments and deve%opment costs for LDs were essentia%%y funded interna%%y y Loh


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of e9perience in mana$in$ microe%ectronics usinesses. The -innish economy enefited from rapideconomic $rowth from the %ate !"2s unti% the %ate !"12s. But when the Soviet Union ro8e apartin !""!( the -innish economy suffered ecause of its dependence upon the Soviet Union as acustomer for e9ports. In !""!( the -in%u9 Disp%ay Division was so%d to *%anar Systems and wasrenamed *%anar Internationa%.

The two LD operations were of appro9imate%y the same si3e at the time of the mer$er. Themer$er permitted savin$s in mar8etin$ costs and materia%s purchases. *%anar Systems succeeded inma8in$ *%anar Internationa% profita%e in


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In the %ate !""2s( severa% research %aoratories announced that they had made rea8throu$hs in$ettin$ thin fi%ms of or$anic materia%s to emit %i$ht ana%o$ous%y to L devices. Because or$anicmateria%s offered a numer of process advanta$es over inor$anic phosphors( these announcementswere ta8en very serious%y y potentia% investors. This is not the p%ace to $o into the detai%s of thesedeve%opments. Suffice it to say that the emer$ence of ,LDs %ed to a re%ative dec%ine in interest infurther wor8 on co%or LDs. *%anar Systems set up its own ,LD pro$ram in co%%aoration with

NNN as did severa% other disp%ay manufacturers. It is possi%e that inai%ity to so%ve thetechno%o$ica% pro%ems that have to e so%ved in order to manufacture ,LDs in hi$h vo%umes wi%%resu%t in a return to research on co%or LDs and other a%ternatives to T-T L&Ds. -or the moment(however( the momentum is with the ,LD research $roups.

"onclusions

%ectro%uminescent disp%ays /LDs0 have a venera%e history startin$ with the e9periments of&aptain Henry J. )ound in !"2( ,.F. Lossev in the Soviet Union( and eor$es Destriau in -rance.%ectro%uminescence was most%y a scientific curiosity unti% the invention of thin fi%m depositiontechni+ues and the discovery that a sandwich of conductors( insu%ators and phosphors cou%d resu%tin a very efficent and %on$;%astin$ form of emissive disp%ay. LDs were very important in the ear%ydays of the %aptop computer industry and remained important in niche mar8ets for mi%itary( medica%and industria% e+uipment where hi$h ri$htness( speed( contrast( and ru$$edness are necessary. Therise of the co%or T-T L&D disp%ay forced the LD producers to en$a$e in research on co%or LDswith the resu%t that there are now mu%tico%or LDs on the mar8et and fu%%;co%or AMLs indeve%opment for microdisp%ays. The LD industry is current%y %imited to two ma


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B%asse( . and B.&. ramaier("uminescent Materials/Ber%in4 Sprin$er;Fer%a$( !""@0.

Brennan( 'evin( 5Theory of Hi$h;-ie%d %ectronic Transport in Bu%8 nS and nSe(5 ournal ofApplied Physics( v. E@( Go. 1 /,ctoer !C(!"110( @2:@;@2?2.

Brody( T. *eter( et a%.( 5A E9E inch :2;%pi %ectro%uminescent Disp%ay *ane%(5I### $ransactions%#lectron De&ices( vo%. :: /Septemer !"C0( ?"; .

&aste%%ano( Joseph A.( ed.(Handoo( of Display $echnology/Gew or84 Harcourt BraceJovanovich( !"":0.

&oovert( )ichard .( &hristopher G. 'in$( and )ichard T. Tuen$e( !"1: SID Digest/!"1:0 p.!:1.

Destriau( eor$es( 5)echerches sur %es scinti%%ations des su%fures de 3inc au9 rayons "(5ournal deChemie Physi)ue%?? /!"?E0( C1;E:C.

%ectronic Industries Association of Japan /IAJ0(Research Report on the *isions of the #lectronicDisplay Industry in the +ear ,---( trans%. By InterLin$ua /To8yo4 IAJ( !""?0.

ooch( &.H.(In.ection #lectroluminescent De&ices/Gew or84 #i%ey( !"?0.

udden( B. and ).#. *oh%( 5ger Aus%euchteun$ der *hosphores3en3 durch e%e8trische -e%der(5/eitschrift fhr Physi(( vo%. : /!":"0( !":;!"E.

udden( B. and ).#. *oh%( 5Lichte%e8trische Beoachtun$en an in8su%fiden(5/eitschrift fhrPhysi(( vo%. : /!"?20( !1!;!"!.

Haaranen( J.( T. Har


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Hurd( James M.( 5The Disp%ay Industry in the "2s and the Important )o%e of L Techno%o$y( 5 inFi


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Lossev( ,.F.( 5Luminous &arorundum Detector and Detection ffect and ,sci%%ations with&rysta%s(5Philosophical Maga=ine( v. E( no. ?" /!":10( !2:@;!2@@.

Mach( )einer H. and .,. Mu%%er(! of Cryst! >ro?th!2! /!""20 p."E

Mach( )einer H. and .,. Mu%%er( 5*hysics and Techno%o$y of Thin -i%m %ectro%uminescentDisp%ays(5 Semiconductor Science and $echno%o$y( E /!""!0( ?2C;?:?.

Mach( )einer H.( 'ar% ,tto Fe%thaus( B. Hutt%( U. Troppen3( and ). Herrmann( SID 90 Digest/!""C0 p. :2.

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6@7Http4==nina.ecse.rpi.edu=shur=Si&=ts%d2!!.htmaccessed on Ju%y !?( !""". The pu%ication of hisoservations was in Henry J. )ound( 5A Gote on &arorundum(5#lectrical orld( v. !" /-eruary"( !"20( p. ?2".

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6E7#.J. Ba8er(A History of the Marconi Company/Gew or84 St. Martins *ress( !":0( pp. :1!;:1C> http4==memers.9oom.com=N,,M=and ooch( p. :.

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[email protected]. F%asen8o and Iuri A. *op8ov( 5Study of the %ectro%uminescence of a Su%imed nS;Mn*hosphor(5 5ptics @ Spectroscopy( v. 1 /!"E20( ?";@:.

6!C7M.J. )uss and D.I. 'ennedy( 5The ffects of Dou%e Insu%atin$ Layers on the%ectro%uminescence of vaporated nS4Mn -i%ms(5ournal of the #lectrochemical Society( v. !!@/!"E0( !2EE; !2!.

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6:27Toshio Ino$uchi( M. Ta8eda( . 'a8ihara( . Ga8ata( and M. oshida(Digest of the 69:8 SIDInternational Symposium/!"@0( 1@; .

6:!7mai% correspondence from &histopher 'in$ on Ju%y !C( !""".

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6:7Hoovers ,n%ine profi%e( accessed at http4==www.hoovers.comon May 1( !"".

6:17mai% correspondence from &hristopher 'in$ on Ju%y !C( !""".

6:"7Interview with James Hurd( &, of *%anar( on June !2( !""E.

6?27Annual Report/!""@0( p. !@.

6?!75*%anar and A)*A Si$n T)* A$reement(5;usiness ire( March ::( !""C.

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6??75*%anar Systems announces the wor%ds first fu%%;co%or active matri9 e%ectro%uminescent/AML0 miniature headmount disp%ay(5;usiness ire( May !C( !""E.

6?@7Andrew MacLe%%an( 5Sma%%er Disp%ays ain(5#lectronic

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