AN OUTLINE OF ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN HISTORYPART ONE: HISTORY OF MESOPOTAMIA

MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION AND CULTURE:PRE-LITERATE AND PROTO-LITERATE PERIOD (ca. 7000 3000 BC)

I. Jarmofirst known village life in Mesopotamia (ca. 6750)

A. Rectangular houses of several rooms

1. Floors of pis (pressed clay)2. Built-in clay ovens and chimneys

B. Unbaked clay figurines of animals and gods

C. Limestone bowls, ornaments; flint tools

D. Pottery in late Jarmo

II. Hassuna (5800)

A. Socketed stones for door pivots

B. Houses built around a central courtyard

C. Clay ovens

D. No evidence of metals

E. Use of decorated pottery; similar styles and forms found at Amuq (N.Syria) and Mersin (S. Turkey)

F. Obsidian, turquoise, and malachite imported for jewelry and amulets

III. Samarra (5200)

A. Pottery characterized by geometric designs and stylized animal forms

B. Buildings of large unbaked bricks

IV. Tell Halaf (4800)

A. Yielded pottery of buff color decorated in red, white, and black

B. Spindles show the development of textiles

C. Beads, pins, and other implements of copper attested

D. Pottery kilns suited to high temperatures

E. Earliest wheeled vehicles

F. Cobbled streets

G. Circular buildings with domed roofs and long rectangular chamberattached; also found at Tepe Gawra, Hassuna, Arpachya

V. Sumer (5000-3100)

A. Eridu (5000)also attested at Ur, Ubaid, Nippur

1. Sumerians?2. Perhaps a southward extension of Halaf and Samarra3. Watercolor pottery in either solid or geometric patterns

B. Ubaid (5000)also Diyala region; Landsberger, The Beginnings ofCivilization in Mesopotamia, MANE 1/2. 1974, 8-12

1. First evidence of irrigation2. Clay tools and implements; no use of metal3. No human or animal representationsreligious taboo?4. Stone very rare

C. Proto-literate (4000-3100)

1. Uruk or Warka (= OT Erech) (4000)

a. Irrigation which required village cooperationb. Great temples by Level VIwalls and columns have clay nails

in many colors and in mosaic patternsc. Metals from XI ond. Writing in IV a or b (ca. 3200)e. Primitive ziqqurats developedf. Cylinder seals carved from semi-precious stoneg. Abundant unpainted pottery

2. Jemdet Nasr (3000)

a. Relief carvings on large objects; e.g., 3 foot alabaster vasefrom Warka with four bands, the lower two of plants andanimals, the third of men, and the top of gods

b. Gold, silver, lead, and copper used in spoons, fish-hooks,nails, and chisels

c. Abundant use of woven cloth

MESOPOTAMIA:EARLY BRONZE AGE (ca. 3000 2000 BC)

I. Sumer

A. Early Dynastic Period (2850 - 2360)

Early Dynasty I (2850 2600)Early Dynasty II (2600 2450)Early Dynasty III (2450 2360)

1. Chronology; cf. W. W. Hallo, The Date of the Fara Period: A CaseStudy in the Historiography of Early Mesopotamia, in G.Buccellati, Approaches to the Study of the ANE. Or 42(1973):228-238.

a. Begins at end of Proto-literate which is Temple C of Uruk IV(2815 85 B.C.)

b. Ends with Sargon (ca. 2360)c. Uncertain except at Lagash where a continuous line may be

traced back to Ur-Nanshe (ca. 2520)d. Other names must be synchronized with Lagash or with

archaeological points.

2. Sumerian King List (Jacobsen, AS 11); Finkelstein, JCS17(1963):39-51.

a. covers period from the origin of kingship (creation of man?)to the end of the Isin Dynasty (ca. 1750 B.C.)

b. exaggerates the lengths of reign for the earliest kingsc. represents contemporary reigns as successived. should be compared to Gen. 5 and 11

3. Royal Inscriptions

a. begin with Enmebaragisi (ca. 2700), 22nd ruler of the FirstDynasty of Kish, the first dynasty after the flood (accordingthe King list); cf. Edzard, Sumer 15(1959):9ff.

1) Semitic king with Semitic ancestors, though he bears aSumerian name

2) Shows early Semitic influence

b. supply historical and legendary details for many kings ofvarious dynasties and cities

4. Semitic migrations and influence

a. May begin earlier than Sumerian (Subarians?)b. First known in personal names of archaic texts of Ur (ca.

2675 B.C.) and old Semitic loan words in Sumerian.c. Known to Sumerians as MAR.TU and to Accadians as amurr

- westerners (perhaps from Aram-Naharain)

5. Archaeological evidence

a. Diyala sculpture tended to abstract and often took form of apraying figure; work unlike realism of Sumerian sites

b. Different (more rectangular) temple structure from thesymmetrical form of Sumerians

c. scarlet ware pottery of Diyala also non-Sumeriand. plano-convex brick laid in herringbone fashion common to

Semitic sites

6. Racial or ethnic antagonisms

a. not evident in inscriptions (cf. Speiser, OBS)b. existent only between nomads and urban dwellersc. The Sumerian Semitic symbiosis was mutually influential

and helpful

7. Political units

a. epic & hymnal literature speaks of a war betweenEnmebaragisi of Kish and Gilgamesh of Uruk; first suchrecorded (ca. 2700): speaks also of walls built by forced labor(these have been excavated)

b. other epics speak of Uruks earlier kings Lugalbanda andEnmerkar

c. One inscription mentions a victory of Enmebaragisi overthem.

d. Custom arose of rulers generally assuming title of King ofKish from Mesalim of Lagash (2575) onward

e. earliest kings names in Ur tombs are Meskalamdug andAkalamdug

f. First Ur king in King List is Mesanepada (ca. 2480), King ofKish (or all Babylonia)

g. Unity was difficult between states for geographical reasons the steppeland between cities

8. Government and society

a. Three major political titles LUGAL (sarrum), EN (priestlylord), ENSI (City ruler, governor), latter most limited inpower and territory; cf. Jacobsen, Primitive Democracy inAncient Mesopotamia, JNES 2(1943):159-172; I. M.Diakonoff, Structure of Society and State in Early DynasticSumer; Jacobsen, Early Political Development inMesopotamia, ZA 52(1957):91-140; . Mesopotamia: The Function of the State, Before Philosophy

b. Form of government called NAM.LUGALc. EN as royal title used only at Urukd. EN, as priestly title only, used at Ur from Agade period on

and by High Priestess of Nanna(r) (= Sn); at Uruk, wheredeity was feminine (Inanna), a high priest was EN; the culticofficers, then, were of a sex opposite to the respectivedeities.

e. At Uruk the EN also led armies into battlef. Though the LUGALs occasionally served cultic functions, there

is no evidence that they were divinized in ED period (bycontemporaries) nor that they were involved in hieros gamos.

g. rulers lived in E. GAL (ekallu); word first occurs in archaictexts of UR (2675)

h. tablets from Ur, Shuruppak, Lagash, Umma, Adab, Nippur,and Kish survive, but earlier ones are difficult to understandbecause of primitive character of Sum. grammar

i. oldest documents are land-sale contracts, mainly fromAkkadian centers and with the oldest Akkadian writing yetknown (ca. 2600)

j. earliest archives from Shurrupak (Fara) lists of personsreceiving rations or parcels of land as payment for service tothe state; and school exercises; cf. W. Hallo, The Date of theFara Period: A Case Study in the Historiography of EarlyMesopotamia, Or 42(1973):228-238

k. most illuminating for political and social life are those ofLagash deal largely with temple economy, size of publicholdings (ca. 1160 sq. mi.), etc.

l. in Sumer very little property was in private hands (asopposed to Akkad); temple lands could not be used forsecular purposes, even by the LUGAL or ENSI.

m. social and/or class terms are ERIM (= sabu), workman orsoldier, GURUS one capable of work (= adult);SHUB.LUGAL.A one subject to the king

n. Sumerian terms for slaves were LU.KUR (foreign man)and SAL.KUR (foreign woman)

o. Assembly of the Elders (UNKEN = puhrum) was probablyadvisory to the king at most (cf. Jacobsen, The Image ofTammuz)

9. Political history Lagash and Umma

a. Before Ur Nanshe (2520 B.C.) we know of Enhegal (ca. 2575)of Lagash from a stone purchase tablet

b. Six hereditary kings of Ur-Nanshe family and a 7th unrelatedare known from inscriptions (down to ca. 2350); cf. E.Sollberger, Corpus des inscriptions royales presargoniquesde Lagas. Geneve, 1956.

c. struggle between cities over water rights to a canal fixed byMeselim of Kish (2600) as common boundary; D. D.Luckenbill, OIP 14; Chicago, 1930; Kramer, HBS, 41-43.

d. Lugal Zaggisi of Umma (ca. 2350) finally conquered Lagash(see below); Sollberger, Or NS 28(1959):326ff.

e. Eanattum was an outstanding king of Lagash (ca. 2470) whosubdued Ur, Uruk, Kish, Akshak, and Mari; conquered Elam(Stele of the Vultures)

f. Urukagina, the successor to the Ur-Nanshe dynasty, producedreform texts of great importance (ca. 2350); cf. Sollberger,Corpus; Kramer, Sumerians, 74-83; HBS, 45-50.

1) found on building inscriptions2) show rejection of unwarranted and impious innovations3) many social reforms - basis for much later law

g. Lugalzaggisi of Umma and Uruk, last ruler of ED, wasAkkadian (son of Bubu, a Sem. name) - conquered Lagash,Uruk, etc.; Kramer, The Sumerians, 323-34.

h. first conception of Empire - From the Lower Sea along theEuphrates and the Tigris to the Upper Sea, Enlil made alllands go directly to him.

MESOPOTAMIA:THE AKKADIAN DYNASTY (ca. 2360 2180 BC)

I. Sargon (sarru-kin true king), Brian Lewis, The Sargon Legend. ASORDiss. Series 4 (Cambridge, MA; 1980).

A. Humble and obscure birth

1. mother a priestess (enitu), father an unknown wanderer2. born at Azupiranu on the Euphrates3. placed in a floating basket and rescued by Aqqi, a laborer who

reared him. (ANET2, p. 119)

B. Advancement

1. favored by Istar and given a position of cupbearer under Ur-Zababa of Dyn. IV of Kish

2. allegedly because of Ur-Zababas impiety, Sargon was advancedover him; actually by founding a rival dynasty

3. located capital at Agade (not yet discovered)

C. Rise to power

1. Conquered Lugal-zaggizi of Umma who had gained control ofUruk and nearly all of lower Sumer (2360 - 2336) (ANET2, 267)

a. attacked Urukb. Took Lugal-zaggizi captive in a yoke

2. Turned next to Ur, Lagash, Umma - Urukagina of Lagash mayhave been taken (2367 - 2360)

D. Foreign conquest

1. Marched to Tuttul - Mari - Iarmuti - Ebla - to the Cedar Forestand the Silver Mountains, ANET2, 268)

2. Made a conquest of Amurru in his 11th year (2349)3. Delivered oppressed merchants of Purushanda against impossible

odds (recorded in the King of Battle); This places Sargon deepin central Anatolia; the legend also is known in the Tell el-Amarnamaterials

4. Made penetration to Anaku (Tin) and Kaptara (Crete, cf. OTCaphtor)

5. Conquered Subartu, Ashur, and Nineveh to the North6. Moved east to Elam

E. Close of reign filled with trouble; Agade nearly fell and Sargonsuffered the divine displeasure of Marduk according to later tradition

II. Rimush (2304 - 2296)

A. Younger brother of Manistusu who succeeded him according to theSumerian king list

B. Faced general revolt upon his succession

1. Put down Kaku, king of Ur; recorded in the lament ofEnheduanna, high-priestess of Sin, and sister of Rimush (cf.Falkenstein, RA 52(1958), 129f, Woolley, UET 4, p. 51); she alsocomposed The Exaltation of Inanna (cf. Hallo)

2. Attacked and conquered Lagash, Umma, Adab, and Zabalam3. Next turned to the East, to Elam - his greatest triumph

C. Traveled far and wide

1. Monument fragment at Brake2. Pressed to the Mediterranean

D. Slain, perhaps by Manistusu indirectly?

III. Manistusu (2295 - 2281)

A. Peace at first, then a new revolt

1. Anshan, an Elamite province, was reduced and its king taken toSippar and the Temple of Utu

2. 32 kings on the other side of the sea (perhaps the south coastof Iran on the Persian Gulf

B. Murdered in a palace conspiracy

IV. Naram-Sin (2280 - 2244)

A. Considered, next to Sargon, the most glorious figure of Akkadianhistory; first to use d with his name, and to call himself king of thefour quarters (sar kibratim arba'im)

B. Had to put down revolts

1. Kish was the leader of the opposition2. Marched NW to Mari, Armanum (Aleppo?), Ebla, the Cedar

Mountains (Amanus), Apishal, Purushanda (ANET2, 268)

3. To the North he took Brak and cities in Assyria (Nineveh andAshur)

4. To the East he took Lullubi (east of Kirkuk), Gutium (south of theLower Zab), Elam (over king Khita of Awan)

C. Climaxed his reign with a victory over Magan (erroneously identifiedwith Egypt; probably a port on Gulf of Oman)

V. Shar-kali-sarri (2243 - 2219)

A. Succeeded his father Naram-Sin at a time of great decline andperhaps invasion by the Umman-Manda from the northwest

B. Lost his empire to

1. Elam, which attacked Akshak2. The Amurru, who started a major southeasterly drive (held off by

S at Basar on the Euphrates)3. Guti, who nearly ended the Akkadian presence

VI. Four shadow kings followed collapse of Agade, a fall attributed to thesacrilege of Naram-Sin (Kramer, From the Tablets of Sumer, p. 267f.; TheSumerians, pp. 62-66)

VII. Two last kings

A. Dudu (2215 - 2195)

B. Shu-Durul (2194 - 2180); recovered some territory

VIII. Life in the Akkadian period

A. No evidence of Akkadian-Sumerian hostility on any but political lines;cf. Jacobsen, The Assumed Conflict Between Sumerians and Semitesin Early Mesopotamian History, JAOS 59(1939):485-495

B. Sumerian culture prevailed even when Agade prevailed politically

C. There was a consciousness, however, of a distinction between theSemites and earlier Sumerians - this lay at the base of Sargons rise.

D. Akkadian control

1. Kings bought up vast land holdings and dispersed them to theirsupporters Semitic and Sumerian alike

2. Less attention to temple and cult3. The language, beautifully written, is known as Old Akkadian4. Beautiful examples of cylinder seals

5. Less opulent society as evidenced by a shortage of materials suchas lapis-lazuli and tin

6. Much international trade, however, even to India as evidenced byIndian seals found also at Mohenjo Daro and Harappa

IX. The Dynasty of Akkad (2371 - 2191)

Sargon (2371 - 2316) 56 years

Rimush (2315 - 2307) 9

Manishtusu (2306 - 2292) 15

Naram-Sin (2291 - 2255) 37

Shar-kali-sharri (2254 - 2230) 25

Anarchy (2229 - 2227) 3

Dudu (2226 - 2206) 21

Shu-Dural (2205 - 2191) 15

MESOPOTAMIA:THE GUTI PERIOD (2180 2082 BC)

I. 20 or 21 kings who reigned 125 years (Sumerian king list)

II. Rude culture

A. Few monuments and other remains

B. Left only shacks on the ruins of Ashur

III. Rule not complete or pervasive

A. Evidence of contemporary Babylonian and Sumerian dynasties

B. Lagash especially rose to power under Ur-Baba (= Ur-Bau)

1. Rebuilding of temples and water works2. Development of sculpture in hard stone - finest in Babylonian

history3. Succeeded by Nammakhni, his son-in-law, and Gudea, also son-

in-law; these were only semi-independent local governors4. Statues of Gudea and his son Ur-Ningirsu are the finest in

Sumerian sculpture; cf. Statue B, ANET, 268-695. Gudeas inscriptions represent Sumerian classic literature; cf.

Prayer to Gatumdu, NERT, 112-13

IV. Expulsion

A. Under Utu-hegal of Uruk (2120 - 2114)

1. Records victory and indicates that he was chosen by Inanna toremove the Guti; Kramer, The Sumerians, 325-26

2. Omen text mentions this victory in terms of a lunar eclipse

B. Caused rise of Sumerian nationalism after almost 300 years ofsubservience to Akkad and Gutium; cf. W. W. Hallo, Gutium, RLA3(1971):708-720

MESOPOTAMIA:THE THIRD DYNASTY OF UR (2113 2006 BC)

I. Founded by an appointee of Utu-hegal, Ur-Nammu (2113 - 2096)

A. Broke with Uruk over a boundary dispute with Lagash

B. Little known of the period

1. Some date formulae preserved2. King lists not known until the Kassite period

C. Ur-Nammus exploits

1. Made war with the Guti and with Nammahni of Lagash2. Little contact to the N and NW3. Collected and published laws (cf. Finkelstein, JCS 22(1968-9),

66ff.; ANET, 523-25)4. Undertook building projects at Ur, Nippur, Uruk, and Larsa -

major projects:

a. Ziggurat of Inanna at Urukb. Ziggurat of Nannar at Ur

5. Re-opened a canal system

II. Sulgi (or Dungi) (2095 - 2048)

A. Made a marriage alliance with the Elamite state Barakhshe

B. Thousands of business documents recording the most minutetransactions

C. Undertook campaigns to the north, especially in the vicinity of the Zabrivers - Urbilum, Sumurrum, Shashrum

1. Probably vanquished Ashur itself2. Continued the expulsion of Guti3. First encountered the Hurrians on a major scale4. Felt great pressure from the northwest

D. Many of his letters have been recovered

E. Most important are the 30+ hymns which boast of his super-humanprowess and skill (ANET, 584-86)

III. Amar-Sin (2047 - 2039)

A. Continued campaigns to the N and NW

B. Constructed many temples and public buildings, notably the Apsu ofEridu

IV. Shu-Sin (2038 - 2030)

A. Perhaps a brother of Amar-Sin

B. Continued conquests of the Upper Tigris/Zagros area.

1. Placed Ir-Nanna of Lagash over NE territories including Assyriaand Elam

2. Faced increasing danger from the NW so he constructed a longdefensive wall (ca. 170 miles)

V. Ibbi-Sin (2029 - 2006)

A. First few years relatively peaceful

B. Turned his attention to the east, particularly Elam, which heeffectively reduced.

C. Confronted with ever-increasing pressure from the NW

1. Ishbi-Erra of Mari joined the Amorites against him.2. Isin next fell to Ishbi-Erra despite payment of tribute3. Turned to Elam for aid

D. Destruction finally came from the east - Elamites, Subarians, Guti

VI. Government in the UR III Period

A. Extreme bureaucracy as seen in business documents - many scribes,overseers, checkers

1. Managers of workshops, city governors (sakkana or ensi), andtemple stewards over these

2. Provincial governors next3. King on top

B. Divinity of the king

1. He made all appointments, set all standards, and was chiefsupporter of the Temple

2. Temples were built to accommodate the royal cult

3. He made arbitrary law at first, later collected laws in codes

VIII. Economic life

A. Ordinary business transactions dutifully recorded

B. Offering lists indicate many incidental details re the cult

C. Temple worship tablets describe products made or processed in theworkshops and how they were disposed of

D. Private business

1. Property bought, sold, and exchanged2. Borrowing of all kinds of goods from the temple stores was

permitted (at high rates of interest) and proper contracts weredrawn up

3. Great herds of cattle and sheep4. Grains and other crops

E. Occupations

1. Grain mills - workers paid in kind

2. Wool works - mainly female workers

3. Diversified industrial complexes employing clothiers, carpenters,carvers, smiths, jewelers, cutters and engravers, leather workers,mat and basket-makers, and workers with bitumen

MESOPOTAMIA:THE DECLINE AND FALL OF SUMER (ca. 2000 1800 BC)

I. Dynasty of Isin (2017 - 1794)

A. Ishbi-Erra (2017 - 1985)

1. Took Ur from Elam2. Fortified his capital Isin3. Claimed universal domination as the successor to Ur4. Faced competing states all around, however, especially Larsa

B. Later kings - little known except from date formulae which arethemselves obscure

1. Larsa and Isin jockeyed for power, each holding Ur and othercenters at one time or another

2. Lipit-Istar (1934 - 1924)

a. Brought justice to the land - reflected in a law code similarto that of Urukagina and Ur Nammu (ANET2, 159)

b. His code and that from Eshnunna made up the major sourcesof the Code of Hammurabi (ANET, 161-163)

3. Eshnunna, Uruk, and Babylon also developed and began toharass Isin and Larsa

II. Larsa (2025 - 1763)

A. Founded by Naplanum, an Amorite (as the anu element clearlyindicates, 2025 - 2005)

B. Nur-Adad (1865 - 1850) defeated an enemy (Babylon?) to regainwater rights

C. Sin-idinnam (1849 - 1843) claimed rule over Ur, Larsa, Eridu, andLagash

D. Gungunum (1932 - 1906) claims a major conquest of Elam

III. Babylon (1894 - 1750)

A. Founded as a capital by the Amorites

B. No resistance from Larsa because Abisare and Sumuel, its kings, werealso Amorite

C. Amorites now also came into control of Kish, Sippar, Uruk, Marad

D. Involved with Assyria under Shamshi-Adad in the time of Sin-muballit(1812 - 1793) and Hammurabi (1792 - 1750)

E. Kudur-mabug of Elam took Larsa and appointed his son Warad-Sin asprince there (1834 - 1823)

1. Warad-Sin has left inscriptions suggesting dominance over awider area including Ur and Nippur

2. Appointed his sister as high-priestess of Ur3. Succeeded by his brother Rim-Sin (1822 - 1763)

F. Rim-Sin of Larsa

1. Conquered Damiq-ilisu of Isin (ca. 1799)2. Isin fell by 1794 (to Larsa or Babylon?)3. Finally overcome by Hammurabi

ASSYRIA:PRE-DYNASTIC AND EARLY KINGDOM (ca. 2600 1750 BC)

I. Pre-Dynastic Assyria (2600 - 2000)

A. Seen principally in Qalcat Sherqat (Ashur) and Koyuncik (Nineveh),the latter yielding the oldest levels

1. At the bottom the remains resemble Ubaid and Halaf2. Level 4 = Jemdet Nasr in Babylon3. Level 5 is somewhat earlier than Ur I4. ED Sumer never occupied Assyria5. Population seems to have been mainly Hurrian (= Subarian)

B. Other Hurrian place names are Baltil(a) and Subartu

1. Originally personal names according to the Hurrian custom;Semites named sites after gods usually

2. Baltilla means knowing the (god) Tilla, son of the storm godEnlil

3. Subar(tu) was the countrys namelater it became anopprobrious term for the Assyrians because slaves were takenfrom Subarum (Ass. subrum, slave)

C. Sargonic Era

1. OAkk text found at Nineveh in Level 62. From Nineveh and Ashur are inscriptions speaking of the control

over Assyria by Manistusu3. Ashur the capital as seen in OAkk Nuzi texts4. Oldest Assyrian royal inscription was found at Istar temple in

Ashurruler was called issiakkum (= PA)5. Connection between OAkk and OA languages

a. in rather than inab. GA=ga, k, q in bothc. Common personal names

6. Affinity of Assyrian culture and ideology to Akkadian

a. The Assyrians cherished the memory and exploits of theAkkadians; e.g., Sargon II was an Assyrian and not aBabylonian

b. Imperialismthe Assyrians (not Babylonians) used titles suchas sar kissati or sar kibrat erbettim

c. Moon cult was central to both; worshiped at Ur, Haran, theLebanon (as Laban, the white one), Hazor, and Tema; cf.the PN Naram-Sin

d. Built capitals at various places (as opposed to Babyloniancentrality at Babylon; rotated according to the turn of rulefrom one god to the next in succession; e.g., Sulmanu(Saturn) who owned cities such as Jerusalem(URUSalmanu) and Kalhu (Gen. 10:11-12); each era was 350years and the final would be that of Sin who would ruleforever

7. Period ended with a devastation by the Lullubi

II. Old Assyrian Period (ca. 2000 - 1750)

A. Leading featureforeign trade

1. Assyria had little agriculture so depended on woolens industryand trading

2. Earliest OA texts are mercantile and are found at sites such asNuzi and Arrapha (ca. 1900)see detailed arguments on thebasis of linguistic developments in Lewy, JAOS 58(1938):459

3. Penetration into Anatolia began under Erisum (1941 - 1902) ca.1940 or Ilusuma (1962 - 1942)

4. Source of great holdings in gold and silver before the Anatoliantrade must be from Nuzian and native ore deposits

B. Political history

1. Puzur-Assur (ca. 1980) regained Assyrian independence2. All kings of the period call themselves issiakkum (city ruler = EN);

only the god was know as sarrum3. Ilusuma (1962-42) undertook action against Der which opened up

trade with Assyria and Babylonia4. Copper was obtained through the conquest of Kharana on the

upper Euphrates5. Erisum (1941 - 1902)

a. Initiated free enterprise among his subjectsb. Wealthy financiers staked merchants to a sum which they

invested abroad; the latter would pay the former twice theprincipal and split profits above that at a certain ratio

c. The king taxed the bankers and merchants aliked. Built a sanctuary for Adad at Ashur and a supreme court

building at Kanesh

6. Ikunumrebuilt the wall of Ashur (which needed to be doneoften, perhaps because of continuous harassment from Esnunna)

7. Sargon Iperiod of wealth and power8. Naram-Sin (ca. 1850) apparently conquered and ruled Esnunna

OLD KINGDOM ASSYRIAN KINGDOMAND ITS NEIGHBORS (ca. 1850 1700 BC)

I. Shamshi-Adad (1841 - 1781)

A. Son of a Semitic tribal chieftain from near Mari

B. Seized Assyria upon the death of Naram-Sin of Esnunna who hadrecently dominated Assyria

C. Took Mari upon the death of Yahdunlim, causing the latters son,Zimri-Lim, to go to Halab into exile

1. Put Mari under his younger son Yasmah-Adad2. Placed his elder son Isme-Dagan over Ekallatum, to the east

D. Faced a constant threat from Esnunna and from the Zagros mountaintribes

E. Was limited in the west to the boundary of Yamhad, whose capitalwas Halab

F. Organized and administered his realm with great efficiency andeffectiveness

G. Made his primary center Subat-Enlil (Chagar-Bazar?); likely now TellLeilam

H. Left extensive archives but they are difficult to arrange chronologicallyand to assess otherwise

II. Isme-Dagan (1780 - 1741?)

A. Lost most of his territory, either to Esnunna (under Ibalpiel II), toZimri-Lim, or to revolutions within

B. His final fate is unknown

III. Yasmah-Adad

A. Defeated by Ibalpiel II

B. Driven out and replaced by Zimri-Lim

IV. Zimri-Lim of Mari

A. Son of Yahdunlim and descendant of Semitic nomads

B. Ruled over the Middle Euphrates and Habur valleys

C. Reduced many petty states to the northwest to some kind ofsubordination

D. Diplomatically kept on good terms with Babylon and Yamhad betweenwhich he was a bridge

E. Faced many enemies

1. Esnunna continued to threaten2. Nomads such as the Benjaminites

F. Maintained a relatively high level of prosperity and culture

1. Built a great palace of more than 260 rooms covering originallymore than 6 acres

2. Sponsored beautiful frescoe painting and other objets dart3. Took advantage of his location on primary caravan routes

G. Mari finally fell to Hammurabi when he could give it his full attention;it never was prominent again

V. Other states

A. Esnunna

1. Held much of Assyria until the time of Samsi-Adad2. Recovered after Samsi-Adads death and nearly took Mari3. Seized much of Upper Mesopotamia4. Everything was lost to Hammurabi under Silli-Sin (ca. 1760)

B. Carchemish

1. Located between Yamhad to the south and Ursu to the north2. Held close ties to Mari3. Was an important trading emporium

C. Yamhad

1. First king, Yarim-Lim, reigned at Halab2. His daughter married Zimri-Lim of Mari3. His son Hammurabi (not of Babylon) had cordial relations with

Hammurabi of Babylon because of Yarim-Lims past aid toBabylon

4. Connected the Mediterranean with the Tigris-Euphrates basin andso was an important trade center

5. The major influence was by Hurrians but the Amorites were inpolitical control during this period

D. Qatna

1. West of Palmyra and of the Anti-Lebanon mountains2. Close relationship with Samsi-Adad by the marriage of his

daughter Ishi-Adad to Yasmah-Adad of Mari3. With the fall of Mari to Zimri-Lim, Qatna (under Amatpiel)

established new relations with both Mari and Yamhad

E. Amurrusouth Syria and Palestine

1. Little known in this period2. Only Ugarit and Byblos mentioned in the Mari texts

VI. The Hurrians

A. First entered Mesopotamia in the Sargonic period

B. Concentrated east of the Tigris in the MB period

C. Some Hurrian princes are listed in the Mari texts but only a minority

D. Alalah tablets of Level VII (ca. 1800 B.C.) show numerous Hurrianswere there then; perhaps even the scribes were Hurrian (Kupper, Lesnomades, 234ff; Gelb, JCS 15, 1961, 27-47)

E. Alalah tablets of Level IV (ca. 1450) show pervasive Hurrian influence

VII. The Amorites

A. Originated as semi-nomadic dwellers of the Syrian desert and steppe-land

B. Filled in the vacuum of Babylonia after the fall of Ur III

C. Moved as tribes such as the Benjaminites (ARM VII, 224)

1. Generally non-sedentary

2. Harassed population centers3. Other groups known as Sutians, Hanaeans (of Balih-Habur

region), and others such as the Habiru

D. Fell victim to Babylon under Samsuiluna and his successors after thefall of Mari (ca. 1757)

E. Later overwhelmed by the Hurrians (in Upper Mesopotamia) who, by1450, had created the state of Mitanni

VIII. Aleppo (= Halab) and Alalah

A. Known mainly from the Alalah tablets of Level VII

B. Yarim-Lim and Ammitaqum of Alalah reigned contemporaneously withsix kings of Aleppo

C. Hattusilis of Hatti destroyed Alalah (ca. 1675), and then, insuccession, Ursu and Hasum

D. Hattusilis was defeated in an attempt to take Aleppo, but the latterfell finally to Mursilis I on his way to sack Babylon (ca. 1600)

E. Hurrian influence was pervasive at Alalah

IX. Hurrian states

A. Ursu and Hasum to the north were Hurrian by 1800 B.C. and laterbecame part of Mitanni

B. When threatened by Hatti, the Hurrians attacked Hattusilis and tooknearly everything short of Hattusas

C. They were augmented by Indo-Aryan elements from the northeastwhich provided, primarily, a military aristocracy

1. Often connected with the Umman-manda; however, they areknown in OB sources much earlier than the Indo-Aryans of theHittite sources

2. Hurrians achieved strength before and apart from the coming ofthe Indo-Aryans

D. Hurrian culture

1. Difficult to define or to trace to its origins2. Preserved in ritual tablets of Boghazkeui and Mari3. Their gods such as Hebat were known at Mari

4. Dagan of Mari is identified in the texts with Tesub/p5. Adad of Mari is identified in the texts as dIM=Tesub/p

THE OLD BABYLONIAN PERIOD (1792 1595 BC)

I. Hammurabi (1792 - 1750)

A. Inherited an independent but small and weak entity

1. Babylon controlled Sippar, Dilbat, Kutha, and occasionally Kish2. Hammurabi made of it a substantial power, though not an

empire in any sense

B. Major records are date-formulae; there is scanty informationotherwise (on date-formulae cf. RLA, loc. cit. and Morgan, MCS 3,1953)

C. Military career

1. Early campaigns under or in connection with others such asSamsi-Adad

2. The middle part of his reign consisted of defensive actions andbuilding projects, especially temples and canals

3. Upon the death of Samsi-Adad (in Hammurabis 10th year?) thebalance of power swung to Babylon which eventually conqueredAssyria in the time of Isme-Dagan (1780 - 1741)

4. Esnunna was a strong rival which finally fell to Hammurabi5. Mari (under Zimri-Lim) was in frequent contact with Babylon as

seen in the Mari Letters (ca. 1770)

a. Ambassadors (spies) operated on both sides and claimed tobe privy to matters of greatest secrecy and importance(ARMT 2, 31)

b. Goods and services were freely exchanged

6. A balance of power was maintained among Babylon, Larsa,Esnunna, Mari, and Yamhad until finally Babylon prevailed aboveall

a. Took Larsa under Rim-Sin in 1761; inherited the holdings ofLarsa in the south (cf. prologue to the Code of Hammurabi)

b. Took Mari in 1759c. Defeated Elam, Subartum, Gutium, Esnunna, and Malgium in

1763; these were apparently defensive actions at firstd. Retook Esnunna in 1754

D. Political career

1. Hammurabi is not as major a figure as was once thought2. Prolific correspondentca. 150 extant letters, mostly to his

officials in Larsa (cf. LIH), speak of the disbursement of royallands to citizens who had served or paid the king

3. Seems to have had a timid attitude toward the subjects ofconquered lands and an extremely critical or adversarial postureregarding his own officials

4. Most famous for his Code

a. Preceded by earlier examples such as that of Lipit-Istar ofIsin (Steele, AJA 52, 1948, 425ff), Esnunna (Goetze, TheLaws of Esnunna, AASOR 31, 1956)

b. Because the Code is not alluded to in contemporary records,its purpose must have been descriptive; i.e., to show legalcustom as it operated universally in his reign

E. Economy

1. Costs and prices were fixed firmly by royal decree (cf. CH)2. One silver shekel = 1 gur (Esnunna) or 2 gur (Shamsi-Adad); 1

gur= 30 sila or ca. 25 litres3. Vast amounts of private property and trading (cf. OB contracts)4. The kings also held great estates or maintained monopolies in

certain businesses and industries5. Traders were bankrolled by merchants who expected 100% profit

on their investments; only in circumstances beyond their controlwere the traders freed from reimbursement

6. Each new reign was commenced by a misarum, a cancellation ofindebtedness incurred during the previous reign (similar toJubilees)

F. Society

1. Three classes

a. awilumman; i.e., a free citizenb. wardumslavec. muskenumsubject?; b. and c. were distinguished from

each other but the basis is unclear (perhaps ultimately theirrespective wealth

2. Personal letters show insights into the personality and psychologyof the people

3. Soldiers were recruited by levy; there were armies as large as30,000 men (cf. Zimri-Lim)

4. Work crews on farms and elsewhere were frequently foreigners,usually Amurru

5. Canal and waterway maintenance was by corve6. Farming was scientifically carried out (Kramer, The Sumerians,

105ff.)7. Women were given exalted places

a. They were high-priestesses of male gods (entum) with lesserpriestesses as attendants, perhaps serving as templeprostitutes (naditum)

b. There were also subordinate cultic figures such as thesikirtum, qadistum, and kulmasitum

c. Married women were protected by law in business, property,and contracts; they could be divorced on little grounds,however, with some monetary compensation (cf. CH 291,296)

G. Culture and religion

1. The Amorites introduced or popularized new gods such as Adadand Amurru, but the older deities still retained pride of place evenas far northwest as Mari

2. In Babylon, Marduk emerged to rival the chief gods; eventually hebecame the state god, never to be superseded

3. The appearance of religious literature led to OB as the dominantliterary period

a. Based on Sumerian prototypes in form and contentb. Bi-linguals, grammars, and lexical lists were producedc. Classical literature was the subject of the scribal schools

which were found mainly at Nippur and Urd. The main original compositions (as opposed to copies and

translations of Sumerian literature) were scientific literaturesuch as medical, mathematical, and astronomical treatises

e. Sumerian texts are mainly mythic/epic or hymns and psalmsf. Incantations and prayers were also introduced; they were

often used as exorcisms or charmsg. Divination or omen texts developed especially with extispicy

or haruspicy; they are valuable because they frequently touchon historical precedents

H. The major artistic accomplishments were wall-painting and cylinderseals

II. Remainder of the OB Dynasty

A. Samsuiluna (1749 - 1712)

1. Babylon began to weaken, though written evidence is meagre2. He was the first to encounter the Kassites (ca. 1740)3. He undertook a successful campaign against a southern

confederacy instigated by a Rim-Sin of Larsa ca. 1739 (nephew ofthe earlier king)

4. He was later troubled by Iluma-Ilum, founder of the SealandsDynasty

5. Managed to hold on longest in the northwest, along theEuphrates

B. Abiesuc (1711 - 1684)

1. Unsuccessful in putting down Iluma-Ilum2. Lost the Upper Euphrates

C. Ammiditana (1683 - 1647)

1. Made some advances against Damiq-ilisu of the Sealands2. Produced some letters addressed to Sippar

D. Ammisaduqa (1646 - 1626)associated with the Venus Tablets,which contain important chronological information

E. Samsuditana (1625 - 1595)

1. Very obscure period2. Babylon was probably sacked by the Hittites under Mursilis3. Kassite control followed the Hittite conquest

THE KASSITE ERA (ca. 1740 1400 BC)

I. Contemporary with Babylonia (1740 - 1595)

A. First mentioned in a text of Samsuiluna

B. The first king known by name is G/Kandas of uncertain date, perhapsca. 1740

C. Their power was centered in the Zagros and (to the west) in Hananear the Habur river (cf. Kupper, Les nomades, 205ff.); the only kingknown from there is Kastilias

II. Successive to Babylonia (1595 - 1150)

A. The most prominent king was Agum II (ca. 1575), the 9th afterGandas, who was known to have ruled Babylon

1. He renewed the worship of Marduk and other Babylonian deities2. He perhaps removed a short interregnum of the Sealands

Dynasty before occupying Babylon himself

B. Burnaburias (ca. 1500)

1. Struggled with Assyria, under Puzur-Assur III2. Troubled by the Sealand peoples

C. Kastilias III (ca. 1475)

1. Undertook the conquest of the Sealands2. His son, Agum, ended Sealands domination of the south

D. Agum III (ca. 1440)little known

E. Karaindas (ca. 1420)made contact with Egypt as seen, e.g., in EA10

III. Language and culture

A. Not preserved except for a few words and several hundred PNs andGNs (cf. Gelb, Purves, MacRae, NPN)

B. Name lists are found with columns of Akkadian equivalents

C. Similarity to the Hittites and Hurrians

1. Chariot aristocracy2. Indo-Aryan deities(?)

D. Royal inscriptions are sparse and uninformative; there are someletters, legal, and administrative texts

IV. Contributions

A. They brought peace and prosperity with internal stability

B. The arts, especially literature, were encouraged

C. They produced boundary stones (kudurru) with extensive texts inAkkadian; their use in Babylon was not for surveying purposes,however, but for land grant covenants and treaties, etc.

D. They attempted to revive and preserve old Sumerian and Babyloniancultures; cf. e.g., the statue of Kurigalzu (ANET, 57ff; Levy, Baqir,Kramer, Sumer 4, 1948, 1ff)

ASSYRO-BABYLONIAN LIFE AND CULTURE IN THE 14TH CENTURY

I. Babylonian boundary stones (= kudurrus); cf. King, BabylonianBoundary Stones, London, 1912; Borger, Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur,I, 219ff.

A. Kudurru = NIG.DU, limit of going

B. Begin with Kadasman-Enlil, father of Burnaburias II

C. Record and ratify land-grants made by the kings

D. Contain divine symbols and lists of curses incurred by violators

E. The land indicated was surveyed and the seller agreed to meet anyout-standing claims on it if the transaction were between privatepersons

II. Other records such as rental statements and lists of wages and allowancesto officials (all from Nippur) from Babylonian sources and contractsinvolving sales of land, houses, and slaves in Assyria

III. Kassite letters have a stock greeting, To X say, thus Y, suggesting that ascribe will do the reading to an illiterate recipient

A. Extremely submissive and solicitous

B. Discuss all kinds of situations

IV. Middle Assyrian Laws; Driver and Miles, The Assyrian Laws, Oxford, 1935

A. Tablet I deals with offenses involving women

B. Tablet II concerns land-holding

C. Extremely repressive and harsh (cf. ANET2, 180-88)

V. Royal regulations of Assyrian kings collected by Tiglath-Pileser I

A. Concern matters such as the control of harems

B. Show, unfortunately, a system of the virtual imprisonment of the royalhousehold

VI. Belles lettres

A. Much Kassite effort was spent in collecting and republishing older,OB literature

B. The scribes learned from Akkadian lesson-books

C. It is now clear, however, that the Kassite scribes were highly creative,having composed such sublime works as the Epic of Erra and theBabylonian Theodicy (Lambert, BWL, 63-91)

D. Updated, glossed, and exegeted Sumerian texts no longer understoodby the masses

E. Composed lexical lists, omen series, and other texts

F. Nuzi Tablets of the Arrapha area (Gazur = Nuzi) show Hurrian culturein Assyria

FIRST INTERMEDIATE ASSYRIA (ca. 1740 1380 BC)

I. The Old Kingdom ended with the reduction of territory to the immediateenvirons of Assur and Nineveh by the Hurrians

II. The period from then to Assur-uballit (ca. 1380) was under a continuousline of Assyrian kings, but it is only dimly documented; life at Nuzi is thebest-known example and even this was Hurrian and under Mitanni; for theAssyrian King List see Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (TCS5), 1972, Appendix D

MIDDLE KINGDOM ASSYRIA (ca. 1380 1200 BC)

I. Assyria regained prominence under Assur-uballit (1365 - 1330)

A. His life and career are known from later texts (cf. ARAB, I, 58-63;Grayson, ARI 1, #LXXIII, 42-50)

B. He is attested in two letters from Amarna (Knudtzon, #15, 16) toAmenhotep III in which he requests gold and other gifts (cf. ARI, 1,48, #10, #11)

C. He corresponded with and engaged in hostility with Burna-burias II ofBabylonia, though a friendship later developed (Brinkman, History ofPost-Kassite Babylonia)

1. Burna-burias protested to Amenhotep III about Assyrias newEgyptian alliance (EA 9)

2. He also complained to Amenhotep IV about the mistreatment ofhis messengers in Canaan, an Egyptian area (EA 8)

3. He reluctantly gave his daughter as wife to Amenhotep IV (EA 11,13, 14)

D. He made his move upon the death of Tusratta, king of Mitanni

1. The new king of Mitanni, Artatama (and his son Suttarna), madean alliance with Assyria and returned much former Assyrianterritory

2. This was done in response to a Hittite threat to Mitanni underSuppiluliumas (ANET2, 318)

E. His daughter married either Burna-burias or his son (ARI, 1, 50, #14)

1. The son of this marriage (Kadasman-Harbe) became the king ofBabylonia but he was murdered by the Kassites (ARI, 1, 50, #15)

2. Assur-uballit, in revenge, took Babylonia and placed his great-grandson Kurigalzu II in power

F. He was plagued incessantly by the Sutu (= Arameans)

G. The period is elucidated by the Erra Epic (cf. Cagni, LEpopea diErra, 1969)

II. Enlil-nirari (ca. 1330 - 1320)

A. Defeated his great-nephew Kurigalzu II Babylonia

B. There was then a continued succession of victories anddefeatsgenerally stalemated

C. See the Synchronistic History (ARI, 1, 53, #7)

III. Arik-den-ili (ca. 1320 - 1308)

A. Continued the war with Babylonia under Nazi-marattas (1323 - 1298)

B. There were usually minor attacks and counter-attacks

C. Conquered northwest Sutu, Ahlamu, and other nomads, forcing themto move into Babylonia

IV. Adad-nirari I (1307 - 1275), son of Arik-den-ili (cf. Borger, Einleitung indie Assyrischen Konigsinschriften, I, 1964, 32-48)

A. Defeated Nazi-maruttas and took Babylonian territory (perhapsArrapha?); cf. Synchronistic History (ARI, 1, 79, #53)

B. Defeated the Zagros people such as Qutu (= Gutu) to the east andthe Subari (Subarians) to the northeast (or northwest? i.e.,Hanigalbat) (ARI, 1, 58, #1)

C. Gained much territory from Hanigalbat (on Upper Habur and Balih)under its king Sattuara I, a Hittite vassal of Muwattalis (ARI, 1, 60,#3)

D. Entered into a peaceful stalemate with Urhi-Tesub and Hattusilis ofthe Hittites because of the need for the latter to have support againstEgypt; Hattusilis also made a pact with Kadasman-Turgu of Babylonia,who proceeded to break relations with Egypt (ibid)

E. Later took Hanigalbat as an annexed territory and threatened theHittites; now called himself sar kissati

F. Hattusilis thus made a treaty with Rameses (1284) and eventuallyretook Hanigalbat

V. Shalmaneser I (1274 - 1245) (Borger, EAK, I, 49-70; Grayson, AssyrianRoyal Inscriptions, I, 79-100, esp. 80, #1)

A. Was attacked upon his accession by Uruatri (= Urartu) but he invadedand conquered the whole area (near Lake Van)

B. Moved east (or west?) to take Musri

C. Retook Hanigalbat, finally ending the Hurrian power of 300 years

D. Maintained stable relationships with Babylonia

VI. Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244 - 1208) (Ebeling, OrNS 17 [1948]; Millard, Iraq 32[1970]; Borger, EAK, I, 71-97; Grayson, ARI, I, 101-134)

A. Confirmed Assyrias control of the north and east and took the Gutu-lands

B. Brought the Subari-land under control

C. Defeated and occupied Babylonia in 1235 under Kastilias IV (1242 -1235) (cf. Tukulti-Ninurta Epic [Lambert, AfO 18, 1957/58, 38ff.])

1. Took the statue of Marduk to Assyria (ARI, I, 134, #47, 873)2. Subjugated all Babylonian territory from the Persian Gulf to Mari3. Babylonia rebelled under Enlil-nadin-sumi (in the south) and

Adad-suma-usur (or -iddina, Brinkman) (in the north); ARI, I,134, #47, 874

4. The Elamites subsequently invaded Babylonia

D. Because of over-extension, Assyria weakened internally and its powerbegan to disintegrate externally as well

E. Attacks on the Hittites (under Tudhaliyas IV) only weakened Tukulti-Ninurta further and encouraged widespread revolt

F. Tukulti-Ninurta was eventually assassinated by his son Assur-nasir-apli(Assurnasirpal I), who evidently never reigned

VII. Collapse of Kassite rule in Babylonia after 576 years (Brinkman, HPKB, 86-104)

A. The conquest by Tukulti-Ninurta, though followed by rebellions,enabled a native Babylonian (?), Adad-suma-usur/nasir (or -iddina), toascend the Babylonian throne (1224 - 1219)

B. A second Elamite incursion took his life and attempted to seat Enlil-nadin-sumi over the entire land

C. The Kassites, however, (re)placed the son of Kastilias IV, Adad-suma-usur, in power preemptively (Brinkman, ZA 59[1969]:233ff.)

1. This was possible because of an internally weakened Assyria2. An attempt at the conquest of Assyria (then under Enlil-kudur-

usur) was unsuccessful, however, though Babylonia won thebattle

D. Meli-sihu (1188 - 1174) continued a strong Kassite rule

E. Marduk-apla-iddina I (1173 - 1161) maintained internal stability andprosperity

F. Attacks by Assur-dan of Assyria (ARI, I, 143, #8) and Sutruk-Nahhunte of Elam nearly ended Kassite power by 1160

G. Elam finally conquered Babylonia, removing the statue of Marduk toSusa under Kudur-Nahhunte (1157); cf. IIIR 38, #2, 8'-13'

VIII. Second Isin Dynasty (ca. 1156 - 1024)

A. The Elamites now turned to harass Assyria, bringing about thedownfall of Assur-dan I (1179 - 1134)

B. This created a vacuum in the south where a noble of Isin, Marduk-kabit-ahhesu (1156 - 1139?), seized control of Babylonia as successorto the Kassites

C. Itti-Marduk-balatu (1138 - 1131) (Brinkman, PHPKB, 94ff.)

D. Ninurta-nadin-sumi (1130 - 1125) launched an attack on Assyria inthe eastern provinces (Brinkman, PHPKB, 98ff.)

E. Assur-resa-isi was then king of Assyria (see below)

F. Nebuchadnezzar I (1124- 1103), son of Ninurta-nadin-sumi

1. Undertook a policy of hostility toward the Elamites in revenge forthe sacking of Babylon by Kutir-Nahhunte

2. Achieved a smashing victory near Susa which ended Elamitepenetration and permitted the return of the Marduk statue (ca.1108) (cf. Brinkman, PHPKB, 104ff; Lambert, JCS21[1967]:126ff.)

3. May have caused Marduk to become the supreme deity ofBabylon (cf. Lambert, The Seed of Wisdom, pp. 3ff.)

4. Defeated, however, by Assyria under Assur-resi-isi5. Rebuilt E-sagila and paid much attention to the cult (Brinkman,

PHPKB, 116f.)

G. Enlil-nadin-apli (1102 - 1099), son of Nebuchadnezzar

H. Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1098 - 1081), brother of Nebuchadnezzar(Brinkman, PHPKB, 119ff; Gadd, UET 8, n. 101)

1. Held sway from Babylon to Ur2. Attacked Assyria and carried off many of the gods (ca. 1088)3. The Arameans began major infiltrations

I. Marduk-sapik-zeri (1080 - 1068) (Meek, BASOR 74[1939]:7ff; King,LIH n. 70)

1. Made an alliance with Assyria against their common Aramean foe2. Undertook much reconstruction throughout Babylonia

J. Adad-apla-iddina (1067 - 1046) (Brinkman, PHPKB, 135ff; Gadd, StOr1[1925]:28ff; UET 1, n. 165)

1. An Aramean, though not a conqueror of Babylon2. Established good relations with Assyria through marriage, but

trouble developed later3. Carefully tended to the needs of the cult4. Assyria attacked and opened the way for more Aramean incursion

(cf. Erra Epic)5. Last three kings rather ephemeral (1045 - 1024)

SECOND INTERMEDIATE ASSYRIA (ca. 1200 1100 BC)

I. Tukulti-ninurta, who had been murdered, was followed by his assassin-son Assur-nasir (or nadin)-apli (1207 - 1204) (ARI, A. 1, 135, #1, 878-883)

II. Assur-nirari III (1203 - 1198), grandson of Tukulti-Ninurta, becamesubservient to Adad-suma-usur of Babylon (ARI, 1, 137, #1, 890-895)

III. Enlil-kudur-usur (1197 - 1193)

A. Was attacked by Adad-suma-usur at Assur but forced the Babyloniansto withdraw (ARI, 1, 139, #3, 901)

B. Overthrown by a usurper, Ninurta-apil-Ekur (1192 - 1180), who hadbeen an exile in Babylon (ARI, 1, 141, #5, 916)

IV. Ninurta-apil-Ekur (1192 - 1180)

A. Felt the pressure of nomads entering from the west and north

B. Threatened by the Elamites who cut off many eastern trade routes

V. Assur-dan I (1179 - 1134), son of Ninurta-apil-Ekur

A. Reopened eastern routes by a policy of population deportation andexchange

B. Most of his reign obscure

C. Succeeded by two sons in rapid succession

1. Ninurta-tukulti-Assur (cf. letter to him from Itti-Marduk-balatu (?)in ARI, 1, 145, #2, 938; also Stephens, YOS 9[1937]:text 80;Fine, HUCA 25:107ff.)

2. Mutakkil-Nusku (1134); may have been co-regent in last years ofhis father

VI. Assur-resi-isi I (1133 - 1116), son of Mutakkil-Nusku (Lloyd, Iraq5[1938]:135; Iraq 32[1970]:171; Borger, EAK, I, 102ff.)

A. Plagued by western nomads

B. Constructed massive defenses

C. Restored the Temple of Istar at Nineveh

D. Took successful action against the Zagros peoples

E. Defeated Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar I (especially in the decisivebattle of 1116) (ARI, 1, 153, #22, 995-996)

TEMPORARY ASSYRIAN REVIVAL (ca. 1100 1050 BC)

I. Tukulti-apil-Esarra (Tiglath-pileser I) (1115 - 1077) (King, AKA, 27-127;ANET, 274ff; EAK, I, 108ff.)

A. Capitalized on Babylonian control of the Elamites and western nomadsby turning his attention to Muski (the Phrygians of Anatolia?) in thenorth (ARI, 2, 5-20, #1)

B. Soundly defeated Muski and turned also to the northeast and eastwhere he reduced Hurrian elements (2, 7, 13)

C. Took Subartu and other eastern Zagros peoples (2, 9, 18)

D. Marched far north and west, nearly to Anatolia, placing a vast areaunder tribute

E. Turned west to defeat Musri, Tadmor, and other Aramean territories(2, 13, 33-40)

F. Finally reached the Mediterranean where he was given properdeference by the Phoenicians, Egypt, and Hatti (N Syria) (2, 23, 81-83)

G. Babylon, in the meantime, began an assault on the Lower Zab areaunder Marduk-nadin-ahhe (ca. 1088)

H. Tiglath-pileser retaliated by seizing even Babylon and razing many ofthe important buildings; his capture was not followed up byoccupation, however (2, 27, 100)

I. Lack of a policy of widespread political control made the whole seriesof conquests on a shaky foundation

J. Did much building and reconstruction and was a patron of the artsand literature (2, 32, 124-126; 2, 43, 188-192)

II. Asared-apil-Ekur (1076 - 1075)

III. Assur-bel-kala (1074 - 1057), grandson of Tiglath-pileser I

A. Undertook action against Uruatri and the Arameans (ca. 1070)

B. Later pushed west as far as the Mediterranean (Broken Obelisk, 2,55, 249)

C. Renovated Assur (2, 56, 250-252)

D. The end of his reign was accompanied by confusion because of powerstruggles (Synchronistic History; 2, 61, 285)

IV. Eriba-Adad II (1056 - 1055)

V. Samsi-Adad IV (1054 - 1051)

A. A usurper (though a son of Assur-bel-kala) from Babylon

B. Deposed Eriba-Adad II who had seized power from the ruling house(Assyrian King List, 2, 66, 316)

THIRD INTERMEDIATE ASSYRIA (ca. 1050 - 900)

I. Asur-nasir-apli I (1050 - 1032), son of Samsi-Adad IV earliest name ona restorable eponym list (Grayson, 2, p. 67; cf. Ungnad, RLA 2:412-457)

II. Salmaneser II (1031 - 1020), son of Asur-nasir-apli

III. Asur-nirari IV (1019 - 1014)

IV. Asur-rabi II (1013 - 973) (Grayson, 2, 41, 1)

V. Asur-resa-isi II (972 - 968)

VI. Tiglath- pileser II (967 - 935)

VII. Assur-dan II (935 - 912)

THE NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (ca. 912-609 BC)

I. Adad-nirari II (912 - 889)

A. His first campaign was to the Lower Zab and as far as inner Iran

B. His third campaign was against Babylonia where he defeated Samas-mudammiq and took Arrapha (= Kirkuk)

C. The fourth campaign was against Hanigalbat to the west whichinvolved its isolation and the defeat of the Ahlamu and Suhu tribes(Grayson, ARI pp. 2:87-90)

D. Eventually conquered Hanigalbat (907 - 903)

E. Campaigned in the Habur Valley (900) and reduced certain Arameantribes

F. Defeated Babylonia under Nabu-sum-iskun and restored Assyriasformer natural territory

II. Tukulti-Ninurta II (889 - 884)

A. Reigned from Nineveh

B. Reconquered former territories from Elam in the east to Muski in thewest with the intent to create an empire

C. Commenced a period of creative, colorful artglazed brick, etc.

III. Assur-nasirpal II (883 - 859)

A. Built Calah (ANET, 558-60)

B. Undertook annual campaigns to secure tribute, especially in the west

C. He was merciless and bloody in his tactics

D. Reduced the Arameans as far as Bit-Adini by 877

IV. Shalmaneser III (859 - 824)

A. Sourcesmany annals, fragmentary eponym chronicle (cf. Olmstead,Assyrian Historiography, New York: Columbia, 1916)

B. His major campaigns (mainly to the west and north)

1. First (858)west to the Mediterranean by way of Samal, Patinu,Bit-Adini; extracted tribute (cf. ANET, 277-278)

2. Second (857)Til-Barsib and other places taken and paid tribute3. Third (856)created the province of Bit-Adini with centers at Til-

Barsib and Pitra (= OT Pethor; Num 22:5)4. Sixth (853)took tribute from Carchemish, Kummuhu, Bit-Agusi,

Samal, Patinu, Gurgumu and then took Halman (Halab/Aleppo)

a. Met opposition at Qarqar (ANET, 278-279)attested on theKurh Monolith

b. Probably stalemate at best

5. In 849 and 848 he returned and had to forcibly take tribute fromCarchemish and Bit-Agusi

6. Succeeded in controlling North Syria for in 842, 840, and 838 hetook tribute freely

7. Tried to take South Syria in 845 (his 14th year) with 20,000 men

a. Hadadezer was now king of Damascusb. Joram (852 - 841) was king of Israel and Jehoram (848 -

841) king of Judahc. See ANET, 280, ll. 99-102 of Bull Inscription

8. In 18th year (841) he faced no southern coalition sinceHudadezer had died (as did both Joram and Jehoram)

a. Hazael, king of Damascus, took up a defensive position in theLebanon mountains (ANET, 280 a, b)

b. Hazael fled to Damascus and survived a siegec. Took coastal cities and erected a stela on Mount Carmeld. Took tribute from Jehu (841 - 814)

9. Made last South Syria campaign in 838took Damascus, Tyre,Sidon, Byblos (ANET, 280b, Black Obelisk)

a. Jehu king of Israelb. Athaliah queen of Judah

10. Also undertook campaigns farther west and north

a. In 839 crossed the Amanus and invaded Que (= Cilicia)b. In 837 took Tabal and pushed all the way to Hubusnac. In 836 again plundered Tubald. In 834 resumed attack on Que, taking the capital Timore. In 833 followed this up by taking Tarzu (= Tarsus)

f. Last western campaign (831) was to put down rebellion inPatinu

11. Miscellaneous campaigns were to Urartu in 859, 856, 844, 832,830, 829, 828, 827all seemed reasonably successful

12. Upper Diyala and Zagros campaigns in 843, 835 (all the way toParsua and then south to the land of the Medes)

13. Two campaigns to Babylonia

a. A treaty had existed between Shalmaneser and Nabu-apla-iddina and Marduk-zakir-sumi I

b. Marduk-bel-usati, brother of the latter, tried to divideBabylonia, so Shalmaneser moved in to stem the partition(851)

c. Returned in 850 to finish the task and slew Marduk-bel-usati; also attacked Chaldean tribes along the Persian gulf(ANET, 276-277, Thron-Inscrift)

C. His building programs

1. Resided and built at Nineveh in his early years2. Moved to Calah after his 12th year (ca. 846) and built or rebuilt

many important structures3. Most important project was Fort Shalmaneser, the most extensive

military post yet excavated4. Also did much at Ashur5. Bronze Gates of Balawat (at Imgur-Enlil)

D. Decline of Shalmaneser

1. Insurrection began as early as 832; campaigns now were led byhis turtanu Dayyan-Ashur while Shalmaneser remained in Calah

2. Rebellion of 827 was not put down until the reign of Shamshi-Adad V; possibly a conflict between Dayyan-Ashor and the kingsown sons (so Olmstead)

V. Shamshi-Adad V (824 - 811)

A. Sourcestwo versions of annals, a letter to a god, a treaty text, apassage in the Synchronistic History, and eponym chronicle

B. Seven campaigns, only six documented

1. Period of confusion (824 - 820)2. Three campaigns to Nairi (= Urartu) (819, 818, 815)3. Four campaigns to Babylonia (814 - 811)

C. Period of confusion (824 - 820) came about through the rebellion ofShalmanesers son Ashur-dain-apla with assistance throughout theempire; Shamshi-Adad was able to prevail only by acceptinghumiliating terms offered by the Babylonian king Marduk-zakir-sumi

D. Nairi campaigns

1. The first brought about great territorial gain all the way toKurdistan

2. The second was led by the rab saq Mutarris-Ashor3. The third was by the king, primarily to obtain horses

E. Babylonian campaigns

1. Probably undertaken to avenge the humiliation mentioned above2. Prompted by the accession of Marduk-balassu-iqbi of Babylon3. In the third campaign Babylonia was subjugated all the way to

Chaldea

F. Did some building at Nineveh, Ashor, and may have founded a palaceat Calah

VI. Adad-nirari III (811 - 782)

A. Sourcesnot a single annalistic text and only one major royalinscription (Calah Stone Slab, ANET, 281-282)

B. Beginning of instability and major Assyrian decline

C. Campaigns that are known (only in the eponyms [Thiele, 210-211])

1. Against the Medes (809, 800, 799, 793, 792, 789, 788, 787)2. Against Hubushiya (801, 791, 785, 784)3. Against Mannaeans (807, 806)4. Against Guzanu (808)5. Against Lusia (798)6. Against Namri (797)7. Against Kisku (786)

D. Most campaigns known otherwise were in the west

1. The first was in 805 and the last ca. 796Jehoahaz (814 - 798)and Jehoash (798 - 783) were kings of Israel and Joash (835 -796) was king of Judah

2. Involved reconquest of Arpad; the siege and capture ofDamascus (ANET, 281-82) in 805 (his 5th year); and payment oftribute by Jehoash

3. Campaigned against Babylonia in the middle and latter part of hisreignreceived tribute and levied taxes

4. A prominent leader under the king was Nergal-eris, who led manyof his campaigns to the west

5. His mother Sammuramat (Semiramis) was also important (cf.Herodotus, 97); she may have been a Babylonian, thus explainingthe introduction of Nabu to Assyrian religion and his temple atCalah and Nineveh (see Eponym for 788)

VII. Shalmaneser IV (782 - 772)

A. His chief foe was Urartu which now reached its height

1. Six campaigns (781 - 778, 776, 774)2. Actually led by a turtanu, Samsi-ilu

B. Went west to the Cedar Mountain in 775

C. Received tribute from Damascus in 773; the king was Ben-Hadad II

D. The king of Israel was Jeroboam II (793 - 753) and of Judah Amaziah(796 - 767)

VIII. Ashur-dan III (772 - 754)

A. Campaign in his first year to Aleppo (Eponym List)

B. Two more to that region in 765 and 755

C. Eponym List refers to many years with no campaign (768, 764, 757,756)

D. Rebellion broke out everywhere (Eponym 763 -762, 761 - 760)

IX. Ashur-nirari V (754 - 746)see Eponym

A. In the land in years 753, 752, 751, 750, 747

B. Rebellion in Calah (746)

X. Tiglath-pileser III (745 - 727)

A. Probably a usurper

B. Also known as Pulu or (OT) Pul

C. Had three major military tasks or objectives:

1. Restore order in Babylonia2. Regain control of Syria3. Defend the north against the Urartu

D. Babylonian problems

1. He primarily made attacks on the increasing Aramean presencethere

2. Left a native Babylonian king, Nabonassar, in control

E. Brought Urartu under subjection as a province

F. Turned west in several campaigns

1. Arpad fell (743 - 740) and with it Damascus, Tyre, Que,Carchemish, etc.

2. Elicited submission and tribute from Rasun (Rahianu), Minihim,Que, etc. (2 Kings 15:19) (ANET, 283, 150-157); ca. 743

3. Put down Ydi (not Judah) and its king Azriau (738)4. Annexed all of north Syria by 738

G. Undertook further campaigns on Urartu, largely successful (735)

H. Returned in 735 to the west to take Gaza; this caused Ahaz to appealto Assyria against Rezin (750 - 732) and Pekah (742 - 732) who hadformed an anti-Assyrian alliance (ANET, 282:56-63, 283:205-240)

I. Took Damascus in 732; Samaria was saved because Pekah died andwas replaced by the pro-Assyrian Hoshea (ANET, 283-4:1-34)

J. Took Babylon in 729/28 after the submission of Marduk-apal-iddina

XI. Shalmaneser V (727 - 722)no annals survive

A. Attacked Samaria after Hoshea had become attracted to Egypt (725 -722; cf. 2 Kings 17:6)

B. Took Samaria though Sargon took the credit

XII. Sargon II (722 - 705)

A. Was troubled at first by Marduk-apal-iddina (= Merodach-Baladan) ofBit-yakin who had regained influence in Babylonia

1. Marduk-apal-iddina had gained the support of the Aramean tribes2. Made an alliance with Elam3. Seized the hands of Bel in the Akitu of 721

B. In an attempt to put down Marduk-apal-iddina, Assyria was defeatedat Der by the Elamites

C. Suffered economic set-backs because raw materials and other goodswere cut off by surrounding hostile tribes

D. Troubled by Syrian rebellions under Hamath which was converted in721 from a vassal state to a province; defeated Hamath and its alliesin 720 at Qarqar

E. Gaza and Ashdod (Isa 20:1-6) sought help from Egypt but werelikewise taken (712)

F. Major problems with Urartu which also was now harassed by theZikirtu and the Medes from the Russian steppes

1. Undertook a massive attack in 714 and defeated Urartu and itsking Rusas

2. He was unable to occupy or keep Urartu under control

G. Took Babylonia after 10 years of an unpopular Chaldean rule (721 -711)

H. A series of wars with Mushu (= Phrygia in west-central Asia Minor),which had influenced Carchemish, Que, and other places to rebelagainst Assyria and had later joined in alliance with Urartu (ca. 718)

I. Mushu, under Mita (= Midas), later made a treaty with Sargon (ca.709)

J. The Cimmerians raided Calah in 706 and perhaps Sargon died inresisting them

XIII. Sennacherib (705 - 681)

A. Rebuilt Nineveh and made it the capital to succeed Dur-sarrukin(Khorsabad), built by his father

B. Faced a rebellion by Marduk-apal-iddina (in 703) who gained thesupport of Arameans, Elam, and Judah (?; cf. Isa 39)

1. Took Babylon and reasserted himself there2. Undertook a subjugation of the Sealands area

3. Hezekiah rebelled in 701 with the encouragement of Egypt (Isa30:1-5; cf. 2 Kings 18:13ff.)

4. Defeated Judah and Egypt at Eltekeh and was paid a tribute byHezekiah (Isa 3839) (Or. Inst. Prism/Taylor Prism; ANET, 287-88)

C. Final rebellion of Marduk-apal-iddina in 700 was put down andSennacheribs son Assur-nadin-sum ruled Babylonia

D. Encountered Elam by a naval invasion but unsuccessfully; Elamcounter-attacked and seized Babylon, taking Assur-nadin-sum captive(695)

E. A decisive battle between Assyria and Elam occurred in 692 at theDiyala; pretty much a stalemate

F. Babylon, which by now was under Musezib-Marduk, was sacked in689; Sennacherib now called himself King of Sumer and Akkad andinstalled his son Esarhaddon as ruler there

G. Built and beautified Nineveh with wide streets, plazas, gardens,orchards, canals, and zoos (Olmstead, History of Assyria, 316-336)

H. Was murdered by his sons in Babylon after a second (?) Judeancampaign (2 Kings 19:36-37) (Grayson, ABC, 81; ANET, 288)

XIV. Esarhaddon (681 - 669); cf. Esarhaddon Chronicle, ABC, 125-127

A. Avenged his fathers death; his brothers went into exile to Urartu(ANET, 289)

B. The Sealands rebelled but were refused Elamite support soEsarhaddon appointed his own choice of ruler there, Ubaru

C. Encountered Asguzaya (OT Askenaz, Jer 51:27), known later as theScythians; made a marriage alliance with them but lost much of hisland to the west and northwest

D. Sacked Sidon, which had led a rebellion (677 B.C.) (ANET, 290-291;ABC, 126:12)

E. Rebuilt Babylon and made it a secure part of his empire by 676

F. Made treaties with the Medes, copies of which have survived in theEsarhaddon treaty-texts (ANET, 534-541)

G. Made Assur-banipal prince of Assyria and Samas-sum-ukin prince ofBabylonia (672)

H. Invaded Egypt, then ruled by Tarqu (= Tirhakah, 2 Kings 19:9), in671 and took Memphis (ABC, 127, 25-26; ANET, 292-294); also madea treaty with Baal I of Tyre (ANET, 533-34)

I. Tarqu recovered and Lower Egypt broke free (669); Esarhaddon dieden route to deal with this (ABC, 127, 28-30)

J. For Arbela Oracles, cf. ANET, 449-450

XV. Assur-banipal (669 - 626)

A. Confronted and frustrated by a growing Median presence to thenorth; they cut off his important trade routes

B. The Chaldeans continually harassed Babylonia

C. Undertook a follow-up of the Egyptian campaigns by 667; retookMemphis (ANET, 294; 296b)

1. At Tarqus death (664) Upper Egypt, under his nephewTantamani (664 - 656) took Memphis once more but only briefly(ANET, 295b)

2. Assyria replied by taking even Thebes (= OT No-Amon, Nah 3:8-10) in 663; Tyre and Judah rebelled and Manasseh was taken toAssyria (2 Chr 33:10-13; ANET, 295b)

D. Troubled in the west by the Cimmerians who also, however, wereunder pressure from the Scythians, Lydians, etc.

E. Appointed Psammeticus (664 - 610) son of Necho of Sais, as prince inEgypt (ca. 665); he, however, with Lydian help, began to expelAssyria (658 - 651) (ANET, 294-95)

F. Managed to defeat Elam with finality by 655; Elam had alreadybecome weakened because of the Persians

G. His brother, Samas-sum-ukin, revolted because of some policy errorhe felt Assur-banipal had made, particularly in his selection of agovernor in the Elamite areas; as a result, Elam, the Arameans,Babylonia, and Egypt attacked Assyria but by 648 Assur-banipal wonout and Samas-sum-ukin committed suicide

H. Assur-banipal again ravaged Elam and defeated both it and theArameans between 642 - 639

I. His last 13 years are obscure because the annals cease

XVI. Assur-etil-ilani (626 - 623)

A. Son of Assur-banipal

B. Suppressed two uprisings in his brief reign

C. Babylonia, Palestine, Phoenicia, and Media repudiated Assyrianauthority

XVII. Sin-sar-iskun (623 - 612)

A. Son of Assur-banipal

B. Aided by the Babylonian king Nabopolassar (626 - 605) in removingAssur-etil-ilani from power

C. Broke relations with Nabopolassar later

D. Lost Assur to the Medes in 614

E. Lost Nineveh to the Medes under Kyaxares in 612; Nabopolassarintended to participate but was forced to return to Babylon

XVIII. Assur-uballit (612 - 609)

A. Military officer who regrouped the Assyrian forces at Harran

B. Forced to abandon Harran in 609 under attack from the Babylonians;Necho II of Egypt attempted to assist Assyria but was detained byJosiah of Judah (2 Kings 23)

C. In 605 Egypt attempted once more to assist an Assyrian remnant atCarchemish but was defeated and driven out of Syria and Palestine byNebuchadnezzar

D. Assyria thus passed from the scene of world history

THE NEO-BABYLONIAN (= CHALDEAN) EMPIRE (626-539 BC)

I. Origins

A. The Chaldeans (mat kaldu) are first mentioned in a Neo-Assyrian textof Assur-nasir-pal II from 878 B.C.

B. The three main tribes of the early periodBit-Yakin, Bit-Dakkuri, andBit-Amukaniare attested earliest in the time of Shalmaneser III (ca.850)

C. They seem to be connected with Aramean tribes active in the middleEuphrates area as early as 1100 B.C.; however, both Assyrian andBabylonian native texts seem to distinguish Arameans and Chaldeans(though not in later times)

II. Emergence

A. Rose to power in the last days of Assyria

B. Samas-sum-ukin (672 - 648), a son of Esarhaddon, was viceroy overBabylonia

C. Assur-banipal, his brother, opposed and overcame him and ruled overBabylonia through an appointee by the name of Kandalanu (648 -627)

D. Upon Assurbanipals death, Assur-etil-ilani (627 - 623) ruled in Assyriawhile Sin-sum-lisir took over in Babylonia briefly (623)

E. Sin-sar-iskun (623 - 612) followed Assur-etil-ilani in Assyria and triedto succeed Sin-sum-lisir in Babylonia but he was prevented from doingso by Nabopolassar, a Chaldean leader appointed by Sin-sar-iskunhimself

III. Nabopolassar (626 - 605)

A. Appointed by Sin-sar-iskun governor of the Sealand (= mat kaldu)

B. Fought Sin-sar-iskun in 626 at Uruk and prevailed (BM 25127,Wiseman, Chronicles of Chaldaean Kings, 51:7-9

C. Ascended the throne at Babylon on Nov. 23, 626 (cf. Wiseman,Chronicles of Chaldaean Kings, 51:14-15)

D. Defended Babylon for the next three years and drove Sin-sar-iskunout of the land ca. 623

E. Encountered Assyrian-Egyptian alliance (under Psammeticus I) in 616

F. Took Assur in 614 after its defeat by the Medes and then made analliance by giving his son Nebuchadnezzar in marriage to the daughterof the Median king Kyaxares (BM 21901, 59:29-30)

G. Captured Nineveh in 612 with the aid of the Umman-manda(Scythians or perhaps = Medes) and the Medes (cf. Zeph 2:13-15;Nah 2:23:19); BM 21901, 59-61:38-52 (JuneAug. 612)

H. Took and plundered Harran in 609 with the help of the Umman-manda; the remaining Assyrians and their Egyptian allies withdrewacross the Euphrates (BM 21901, 61-63:58-65)

I. He was occupied with Urartu for three years (608 - 605) in order toopen trade routes and secure the northern frontiers (BM 22047, CCK,65-67); cf. l. 6 for first reference to Nebuchadnezzar

J. Defeated the Egyptians, who had remained in upper Syria, atCarchemish (BM 21946, CCK, 67-69:1-11)

1. Nebuchadnezzar, newly appointed as commander-in-chief, led theattack (605)

2. He defeated Necho and his Greek mercenaries and pursued themto Hamath

3. Nabopolassar died on Aug. 15, 605, so Nebuchadnezzar left offthe pursuit, returned in 21 days to Babylon, and seized powerthere on Sept. 7; took Daniel then and made Jehoiakim vassal (p.69, ll. 8-11)

IV. Nebuchadnezzar II (605 - 562)

A. Returned to Hatti (= Palestine) in 605 - 604, conquering the entireland to the Egyptian border; this was his accession-year (p. 68, l. 12;MU. SAG - res sarruti)

B. Undertook western campaigns each year until his fifth (600 B.C.)when he had to regroup following a major defeat at the hands ofEgypt (CCK, 71:5-7)

C. Seizing the opportunity, Jehoiakim rebelled against Babylonia andwent unpunished until 597 when his successor Jehoiakin was captured(March 16) in Nebuchadnezzars eighth year (CCK, pp. 71-73: 9-13)

D. His appointee in Judah, Zedekiah, rebelled in 588, Nebuchadnezzars17th year, and Jerusalem fell to his siege in 586

E. Led a 12 year siege of Tyre (585 - 573/2) which apparently gainedhim little reward

F. Invaded and probably devastated large parts of Egypt (then underAmasis) in 568

V. Evil-Merodach (= Amel-Marduk) (562 - 560)

A. Suppressed the worship of Istar at Uruk

B. Released Jehoiakin from Babylonian house arrest (2 Kings 25:27)

C. Was assassinated by his brother-in-law

VI. Neriglissar (560 - 556)famous for a major though unsuccessfulcampaign across the Halys River into Asian Minor

VII. Labasi-Marduk (May-June 556)son of Neriglissar of whom little else isknown

VIII. Nabonidus (556 - 539)

A. Son of a nobleman Nabu-balatsu-iqbi and the highpriestess of SinAdda-guppi (ANET, 311-312)

B. A high officer of Nebuchadnezzar

C. In his third year (553) he and Cyrus plotted against the Medes whowithdrew from Harran thus allowing Nabonidus to move in

D. He elevated Sin (= Nannar, the moon god) at the expense of Mardukand so alienated the powerful Babylonian priests (Nab. Chronicle,ABC, p. 106, ll. 5-24; ANET, 312-315)

E. Lived outside Babylon for ca. 10 years (550 - 540), primarily in theArabian Desert oasis of Tema

F. Was famous for his interest in culture and the arts; restored manybuildings and collected tablets of the finest older literature

G. Appointed his son Belshazzar as regent over Babylon in his absence

H. By 539 Cyrus had conquered the entire Neo-Babylonian empire butBabylon itself and this he took on Oct. 12, 539 (ABC, p. 109, ll. 5-25)

1. Ugbaru of the Guti (= Darius the Mede?) led the army whichentered the city without resistance

2. Cyrus came in on Oct. 293. Nabonidus was taken prisoner

I. The fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire ushered in the beginning of thePersian Empire

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE (ca. 700 330 BC)

I. Pre-Cyrus history

A. Ca. 1000 B.C. there were two centers of Aryan population which hadbeen forced south from south Russia

1. The area west of Lake Urmia was known then as Parsua2. The area southeast of the lake was Mada

B. The earliest written documentation is the annals of Shalmaneser III(ca. 836)

C. By ca. 700 individual leaders are documented for Persia as follows:

1. Achaemenes (700 - 675)later regarded as the founder of theAchaemenid Dynasty

2. Teispes (675 - 640)

a. Extended Persias boundaries south to Pasargadab. Divided his realm between Ariaramnes (south) and Cyrus I

(north)c. Gained independence from the Medes

3. Ariaramnes (640 - 615)followed by Arsames, Hystaspes, andDarius Hystaspes (522 - 481)

4. Cyrus I (640 - 600)

a. Cambyses I (600 - 559)

1) Placed over Parsa by the Medes2) Married the daughter of the Median king Astyages

b. Cyrus II (559 - 530)son of Cambyses and the daughter ofAstyages

D. The line of the Medes is as follows:

1. Deioces (715)2. Phraortes (675 - 653)

a. Made Parsa a Median vassal (ca. 670)b. Killed in an attack on Assyria which allowed Parsa to become

independent (653)

3. Scythian interregnum (653 - 625)

4. Cyaxares (625 - 585)

a. Defeated the Scythians and Assyrians, gaining control of all ofnorthern Mesopotamia

b. Brought Parsa under control again

5. Astyages (585 - 550)

II. Cyrus II (559 - 530)

A. Vassal king of Anshan under Astyages

1. Located the capital at Pasargadae2. United several Persian tribes3. Made alliance with Nabonidus of Babylon who was glad to have

help against the encroaching Medes

B. Rebelled against Astyages

1. Was summoned therefore to Ecbatana, the Median capital, butrefused to go

2. Was attacked by Astyages whose troops defected from him3. Astyages was captured and Mada was made the first Persian

satrapy

C. Claimed all Median territories and thus collided with Lydia, Egypt, andBabylonia

1. Croesus of Lydia moved east to engage Cyrus but was forcedback to his capital Sardis where Cyrus defeated him and formedthe satrapy Sardis (Saparda) in 547

2. Made contacts with the Greeks of Lydia and used them as alliesand mercenaries

D. Babylonian conquest

1. In the absence of Nabonidus, Belshazzar ruled over Babylon andallowed deterioration internally and externally

2. Many Babylonian provinces (e.g., Elam under Gubaru) fell awayto Persia

3. By 539 Cyrus sent an army under Gubaru (or Ugbaru?) to takeBabylon, a venture that succeeded on Oct. 13, 539 (NabonidusChronicle, ANET, 306b)

4. The Babylonians welcomed Cyrus since Nabonidus had beenunfaithful to the cult whereas Cyrus was extremely lenient andeclectic (Persian Verse Account, ANET, 312-315)

5. Cyrus then added Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine to the satrapy ofBabirus (= Babylon) under Gubaru (= Darius the Mede?)

6. Issued a decree in 538 permitting the Jews to return to Jerusalemto build their temple (ANET, 315-316)

E. Died in a campaign against the Massagetae in central Anatolia

III. Cambyses (530 - 522)

A. Eldest son of Cyrus who had served as an administrator at Sippar inBabylonia

B. Married his sisters and slew his full brother Bardiya, a deed hemanaged to hide from the public

C. Set out to conquer Egypt

1. With Phoenician allies he attacked Amasis and, later, his sonPsamtik III

2. Took Memphis in 525 and killed Psamtik3. Marched south to Ethiopia4. Made Egypt the satrapy of Mudraya

D. His tragic end

1. In his absence in Egypt, a usurper, Smerdis (or Gautama), tookcontrol by claiming to be Cambyses murdered brother Bardiya

2. When the plot succeeded Cambyses lost his following and sokilled himself on the way back to Pasargadae

IV. Darius Hystaspes (522 - 486)

A. Descendant of the line of Teispes through Ariaramnes (see I. C. 2.,3.)

B. With co-conspirators he slew Smerdis on Sept. 29, 522

C. He disclosed in a detailed inscription that Smerdis was not Bardiyaafter all and so he was accepted by the people as the legitimate heirto Cambyses

D. His accession, however, invited many coups and rebellions

1. He put down Babylon and appointed a new satrap by 5202. He built a new capital at Susa (OT Shushan)3. He undertook legal reform which became famous for the

unalterability of its law (Dan 6:8, 12, 15; Est 1:19)

E. Established a complex taxation and tribute system which proved to bevery unpopular throughout the empire

F. Restored order in the western part of the Babylonian satrapy (Syriaand Palestine) (ca. 520) and then went on to subdue Egypt (519 -518)

G. Took western India by ca. 513

H. Retreated before the Scythians to the north

I. Brought the Ionian Greeks under his control but allowed them tocontinue their unique political system (i.e., the polis)

J. Undertook massive construction projects

1. Dug a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea2. Devised a highway network and postal system3. Located his new capital at Persepolis

K. Suffered a disastrous defeat at Marathon when he attempted tocapture the Greek peninsula (490)

V. Xerxes (486 - 465)

A. Known in the OT as Ahasueras, husband of Esther

B. He was designated heir to his father so there was a smooth transition

C. Developed Persepolis to its greatest heights of glory

D. Brought Egypt under control by 484 but offended them by refusing tobe called by the Egyptian titulary

E. Invaded Greece with a massive army and navy

1. Defeated the Spartans at Thermopylae2. Lost to the Greeks trapped at Salamis and suffered the loss of

200 ships3. Blamed his Phoenician and Egyptian allies for his defeat so they

deserted him and went home4. Left his command in the hands of his general Mardonius who

suffered a crushing setback at Plataea5. The final blow came at Mycale in 479

F. Xerxes fell victim to dissipation and licentiousness and was murderedin his own palace

VI. Artaxerxes I (464 - 423)

A. Succeeded by murdering his older brother (and rightful heir to thethrone) Darius

B. Seized much private property and strengthened the centralgovernment

C. Egypt, with Greek help, rebelled but Artaxerxes bribed Sparta to fightAthens, a move which neutralized the Delian League of which Athenswas the chief member (457)

D. War continued between Athens and Persia under the leadership of theAthenian statesman and orator Pericles until the Peloponnesian Warof 431 relieved Persia of Athenian pressures

E. In Judah, Ezra had returned with the blessing of Artaxerxes (458) andthen Nehemiah had come under the same king to rebuild Jerusalem(444)

VII. Darius II Ochus (423 - 404)

A. Succeeded a half-brother, Xerxes II, who reigned for only 45 days

B. Put the murderer of Xerxes II, Secydianus, to death at Susa

C. Renewed the collection of tribute from the Greek states after theGreek league broke up (413)

D. Made a new treaty with Sparta (411) which gave Persia power againin Asia Minor

VIII. Artaxerxes II (404 - 358)

A. Eldest son of Darius II whose succession was challenged by his half-brother, Cyrus, hero of the Greek wars in Asia Minor

B. Cyrus, with Greek mercenaries, attacked Persia but was killed

C. Artaxerxes, angry at Sparta for her collaboration with Cyrus, attackedSparta (394), defeated her, and made a new alliance with Athens

D. The friendship did not last and Persia turned against Athens causingAthens to cede many European Greek cities to Persia (386)

E. By 375 Athens formed the Second Athenian Confederacy and tried tobreak from Persia but with no success

F. Thereafter Artaxerxes was beset by problems throughout his realm

IX. Artaxerxes III Ochus (368 - 338)

A. He was the third son (of 115) of Artaxerxes II

1. The eldest, Darius, died in a usurpation plot2. The second, Ariaspes, committed suicide when he thought he had

lost his fathers favor3. As a result of all this, Artaxerxes II died of grief

B. He slew all his potential rivals

C. He engaged in war with Asia Minor states and with Greece and forcedAthens to make a treaty in 353

D. He tried to subjugate Egypt (351 - 350) but failed

E. On a second attempt (345) he was successful

F. Philip of Macedon, alarmed at Persias new-found influence, tried tomake accommodations with Persia but Artaxerxes did not trust him

X. Arses (338 - 336)threatened by Philip who had formed a new Greekleague in Corinth

XI. Darius III (336 - ?)

A. Succeeded Arses when the latter was murdered by Bagoas, a Persianofficial

B. He poisoned Bagoas to preclude suffering a fate similar to that ofArses

C. Egypt rebelled but was soon brought under control (334)

D. Alexander, having succeeded his father Philip (336), rapidly advancedeast toward Persia and after the battle of Issus controlled all thewestern half of the Persian Empire (333)

E. Alexander conquered Tyre and went on to liberate Egypt from Persia

F. At the battle of Gau Gamela on the Euphrates Macedonia defeated thePersians, Darius having fled before the encounter (331)

G. Alexander then passed on to Babylon, Susa, and finally Persepolis, allof which capitulated with barely a struggle (330)