Melissa WroblewskiHistorical Question: AreWere women considered women capable of virtue in the Enlightenment?

History 343: The EnlightenmentMidterm Essay Due: Monday, December 7, 2015Topic: Women in the Enlightenment7 December 2015Historical Question: Are women capable of virtue?

A Women’s Virtue Admired, Not Equal

While the Enlightenment is often characterized as an intellectual movement, a better

word is mentality. Defining the years from the 1680s to the 1790s as a mindset allows for a

better explanation of a time period that was not characterized by a shift of thought from one set

of ideas to another but a shift from one way of thinking to another. From the 1680s through the

1790s, Tthe Enlightenment changed many values, ideals, and practices that were accepted and

admired.1 Among the values most philosophes saw as the embodying the spirit the

Enlightenment were the cultivation of freedom, education, and virtue. However, while they

called for those values, not everyone seemed entitled to them. Women, while capable of virtue

regarding virginity, were less likely to be seen as able to embody the Enlightenment’s true

definition of a virtuous person. New ways of understanding class, gender, and race, were offered

by the Enlightenment, however, intellectuals would not be comfortable with the implications of

the new way of thinking for years. For most writers in the eighteenth century, women were at

best virtuous objects rather than subjects capable of achieving virtue.

In their book, Eighteenth-Century Europe, Isser Woloch and Gregory Brown argue that

the natural philosophers of the Enlightenment had two main ideas: “one, the ability of human

reason to produce reliable valuable knowledge about nature from sense experience; and two, the

1 Isaac Kramnick, ed., The Portable Enlightenment Reader (London: Penguin, 1995), x.

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importance of communicating knowledge with others.”2 The first idea comes into play in

conjunction with the requirement of reason and logic to back up arguments. The second idea,

however, is exhibited through studies of not only academic books and universities, but of public

life. The Enlightenment challenged the traditional view of academics as solitary studies with the

ideal of the public sphere. Woloch and Brown define the public sphere as an ideal place where

scholars were welcome to speak about ideas: “the public sphere [was] a space free from

domination and coercion.”3 Places such as salons, bars, and coffee houses became centers for

thought and discussion.

While a place free and open for ideas was a nice ideal, Woloch and Brown point out the

reality that, “No social interaction was in fact open to all comers or free from internal

hierarchy.”4 Authors, such as John Priestley, were frustrated by some of the practical problems

for participating in conversation: “The business of [natural] philosophy is so multiplied, that all

the books of general philosophical transactions cannot be purchased by many persons or read by

any person.”5 But there were other constraints. The Earl of Shaftesbury in the early eighteenth

century noted that when individuals spoke in the public sphere they should always “adhere to

rules of ‘politeness.’”6 An example of the formality and required politeness when speaking in

public is demonstrated in the film, The Mission. In the scene where the Jesuits are asking

Cardinal Altamirano (Ray McAnally), who they must address as “your Eminence,” for

protection, Rodrigo Mendoza (Robert De Niro) is reprimanded for speaking directly and in a

challenging manner to a higher official, and is forced to give a heartfelt apology.7 This scene

2 Isser Woloch and Gregory Brown, Eighteenth-Century Europe: Tradition and Progress, 1715-1789, 2nd ed. (W.W. Norton, 2012), 201.3 Woloch and Brown, 215. 4 Woloch and Brown, 215. 5 Kramnick, 69. 6 Woloch and Brown, 215. 7 The Mission, dir. R. Joffé (Warner Brothers, 1986).

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illustrated both the politeness required to speak in public and the hierarchical structure that was

still normal social practice. Another limitation on participation in the public sphere was the

question of who would be considered equally capable of participating. In The Mission, the pro-

slavery faction call the native Guarani “animals”. In Enlightenment Europe, women faced similar

stereotypes about their capacity for true virtue.

The modern definition of virtue, behavior showing high moral standards, comes

close to how the philosophes would have defined the value, but not all saw virtue the same

way. As Jean-Edme Rommilly statesput it in the Encyclopédie, “The word virtue is an

abstract word, offering at first to those who hear it nothing precise and determined.”8

However, Rommilly goes went on to explain how the term virtue originally was used to

explain strength that was gained through courage. Rommilly stateds, “We are aware that

the word virtue referred originally to force and courage; it in fact applied only to those

who, weak by nature, became strong through courage; to vanquish oneself, to subjugate

one’s desires to reason, that is the continual exercise of virtue.”9

Other authors haveMontesquieu defined virtue in other ways using parables. For

example, in Montesquieu’sIn the Persian Letters, a story of a peoples called the Troglodytes is

used to illustrate the ideal of virtue. The story begins with the Troglodytes electing a new

ruler and slaughtering him and his family shortly after election. The people agree that they

will not follow laws of anyone, but of their individual self-interest. Montesquieu describes

this when he states, “Freed of this fresh yoke, the Troglodytes now let themselves be guided

solely by their natural savagery; they agreed that they would no longer obey anyone, but

8 Jean-Edme Rommilly, “Virtue,” in The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d’Alembert Collaborative Translation Project, trans. M. McAlpin (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Library, 2005). 9 Jean-Edme Rommilly, “Virtue.,” The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d’Alembert Collaborative

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that each would consult his own interest without reference to others’ needs.”10 The

Troglodytes continue in this manner, only looking out for themselves becoming more and

more unjust and selfish until a plague wipes out the majority of the peoples as doctors

refuse to serve such a cruel people. As stated, “ ‘Be off with you, you unjust men,’ he told

them, ‘your souls are sick with a poison deadlier than that for which you seek a cure: you

are not worthy of occupying a place on this earth, because you are devoid of humanity, and

know nothing of the rules of fairness; I believe I would offend the gods, who are punishing

you, if I opposed the justice of their anger.’”11

However, the story of the Troglodytes does not end there, a small group had moved

away from the unjust members of their peoples and began a new community. This group of

Troglodytes learned from the mistakes of their ancestors and were a happy, fair, and

virtuous people. As explained, “While they ate a frugal meal, they sang of the injustices of

the first Troglodytes, and their misfortunes; of a virtue born anew in the heart of a new

people, and its felicity; they sang of the greatness of the gods, their everlasting favors to

those who prayed to them, and their inevitable anger towards those who feared them

not.”12

Both Montesquieu and Rommilly agree that the term and practices of virtue involve

moral laws that all peoples of the world are given by the Creator. However, while

Rommilly argues that governments are capable of creating laws that enforce virtue,

Montesquieu’s Troglodytes see laws enforcing “good” behavior make humans less virtuous.

Rommilly states,

10 Montesquieu, Persian Letters, trans. M. Mauldon. (NY: Oxford U. Pr., 2008), 16.11 Montesquieu, 17-18. 12 Montesquieu, 19.

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Let us simply observe that however numerous the classification of these duties, all flow from the principle we have just established; virtue is singular, simple, and inalterable in its essence, it is the same in all eras, all climates, all governments; it is the Creator's law given to all men, speaking to all in the same language: do not seek for what constitutes virtue in positive laws, nor in human conventions; these laws are born, altered, and succeed each other, like those who make them; but virtue knows nothing of such variations, it is immutable like its Author.13

WHowever, while Montesquieu believes virtue is a moral issue, he views laws and

governments forcing men to live virtuously lessens the standards of virtue men personally

would hold themselves to without government laws. He concludes this when he states, “I

think it best not to employ purely abstract reasoning: sometimes simply to persuade people

of a truth is not sufficient, one must also make them feel it; moral truths belong in this

category, and perhaps this little narrative will impress you more deeply than would a

subtle philosophical argument.”14 At the end of the parable, the good group of Troglodytes

once again insist upon a ruler which leads to the idea that while virtue resides naturally in

the human race, it is easier to be told to be virtuous than to have to do it oneself.

Montesquieu explains at the end of his narrative with the election of a new ruler,

‘Oh cursed day, why have I lived this long? Then, in stern tones, he exclaimed: ‘I can see exactly what is happening, Troglodytes; your virtue is becoming burdensome; in your present situation, without a leader, you have to be virtuous in spite of yourselves, for otherwise you could not survive, you would fall into the misfortunes of your earliest forefathers; but you find this yoke too heavy to bear, you prefer to be subject to a prince and to obey his laws, which would be less strict than your own customs; you know that then you will be able to satisfy your ambition, amass riches, and live a life of ease and self-indulgent pleasure; and that, as long as you avoid serious crime, you will have no need of virtue.’ For a moment he fell silent, his tears more copious than ever. ‘And what do you require of me? How can I give an order to a Troglodyte? Do you want him to do a virtuous deed, because I command him to do it, he who would do it anyway without my intervention, simply because it is how Nature guides him? Oh Troglodytes,

13 Jean-Edme Rommilly, “Virtue,” The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d’Alembert Collaborative14 Montesquieu, 15.

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I have reached the end of my days, my blood runs cold in my veins; soon I shall be meeting your sacred forebears; why do you want me to grieve them, by having to tell them that I left you under the rule of something other than virtue?’15

While, there are even more extensive and elaborate definitions of the word virtue, the

majority of definitions center around the key components of a natural inclination to virtue

through laws created by a higher power, whether spiritual or governmental that leads men

to selfless and just acts.

During the Enlightenment, in the practice of questioning all beliefs and practices,

the topic of women and their place in society was brought into consideration; and just as

many other subject, the issue had an array of opinions that range from sole objectification

to deserving respect. Authors such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, and

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart viewed women as objects to be admired by men, guided by

men, and subordinate to men. However, in opposition to Kant, Rousseau, and Mozart, authors

such as Francoise de Graffigny, Olympe de Gouges, Mary Wollstonecraft argued for the rights of

women.

In her Declaration of the Rights of Woman, de Gouges questions what right men have to

force women to be the weaker of the two sexes. In the spirit of the Enlightenment, she brings in

the study of nature and the lack of oppression she sees in the animal kingdom, the lack of natural

reasoning for having a dominant sex. She states,

Man, are you capable of being just? It is a woman who poses the question; you will not deprive her of that right at least. Tell me, what give you sovereign empire to oppress my sex? Your strength? Your talents? Observe the Creator in his wisdom; survey in all her grandeur that nature with whom you seem to want to be in harmony, and give me, if you dare, an example of this tyrannical empire. Go back to animals, consult the elements, study plants, finally glance at all the modification of organic matter, and surrender to the evidence when I offer you the means search, problem and distinguish, if you can the sexes in the

15 Montesquieu, 22.

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administration of nature. Everywhere you will find them mingled; everywhere they cooperate in harmonious togetherness in this immortal masterpiece.16

De Gouges is pointing out that the male academic culture that focuses on how

society should reflect natural order, is in even the most basic of functions, equality of

sexes, falling short; somehow forcing women to be subordinate to men.

Arguments made by women for women can also be seen in Francoise de Graffigny’s

Letters of a Peruvian Woman. In the end of the story, rather than have a Zilia rely on a man and

marriage, this story is the first introduction to the idea that women can find happiness out of

marriage and outside of romantic love. Zilia surrounds herself with friendship and grows through

experiences and knowledge rather than by secluding herself in a house to raise children.17

One of the few male authors who depicted women as capable of virtue was Montesquieu. While

the majority of the letters in the Persian Letters on women focus on women’s captivity, one of

the later letters focuses on a woman, Zulema, discussing the Muslim tradition of a male only

after-life.18 Zulema explains that in Persia along with the belief that Paradise is only for men,

there are groups that claim women do not even have souls. However, Zulema argues that those

who believe in the myth that women have no souls are only furthering a claim that has no factual

basis. She redefines the notion of virtuous men gaining God’s rewards into all of God’s virtuous

children gaining rewards. She states,

‘God will not limit himself in his rewards; and just as those men who have lived virtuously, and have not abused the power they have over us here on earth, will inhabit a Paradise so full of heavenly, exquisite beauties, that if a mortal man had seen them he would instantly kill himself in his impatience to enjoy the; so too will virtuous women inhabit a place of pure delight, where they will be intoxicated by flowing streams of sensual pleasure, with sublime men who will

16 Olympe de Gouges, “The Rights of Woman,” in The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick (NY: Penguin, 1995), 611.17 Francoise de Graffigny, Letters of a Peruvian Women, trans. J. Mallinson (NY: Oxford UP, 2009). 18 Montesquieu, 188.

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submit to them the women will each have her own seraglio where these men will be confined, with eunuchs to guard them even more faithful then are our own.’ 19

Zulema rationalizes Persian women’s lack of freedom during their life on earth by believing in

an afterlife where men are subject to the captivity women face on earth.

Montesquieu was an exception. Most other male Enlightenment authors allow women virtue

only as a matter of chastity. While there are many examples of women who overcame obstacles

during the Enlightenment and became educated and respected parts of the Enlightenment’s

academic and philosophical society. The majority of literature from the period has examples of

women as second-class citizens incapable of gaining equality morally, legally, or academically.

In regards to women being subordinate to men, Louis chevalier de Jaucourt explaineds how

women and wives in particular should specifically obey their husbands. He stateds, “Such

that the woman must necessarily be subordinated to her husband and obey his orders in all

domestic affairs.20 Continuing women’s lack of agency, Rousseau stateds, “If woman is

made to please and to be in subjection to man, she ought to make herself pleasing in his

eyes and not provoke him to anger; her strength is in her charms, by their means she

should compel him to discover and his use strength.”21 Woloch and Brown discuss

Rousseau’s position on the role of women. Rousseau said that women have two main

contributions to make to society: sexual pleasure and social roles such as child bearing.

Rousseau’s positions on women seem to come from his firm belief that the physical and

biological differences between men and women led women to be the less moral and useful

members of society.22

19 Montesquieu, 188. 20 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, “Duties of Women,” in The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick (NY: Penguin, 1995), 569. 21 Woloch and Brown, 201. 22 Immanuel Kant, “The Fair Sex,” in The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick (NY: Penguin, 1995), 583.

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Kant continueds this sentiment and elaborateds on a women’s lack of intellectual

depth only acting on instincts to do what brings happiness to them. He stateds,

The virtue of a woman is a beautiful virtue. That of the male sex should be a noble virtue. Women will avoid the wicked not because it is unright, but because it is ugly; and virtuous actions mean to them! Woman is intolerant of all commands and all morose constraint. They do something only because it pleases them, and the art consists in making only that please them which is good. I hardly believe that the fair sex is capable of principles, and I hope by that not to offend, for these are also extremely rare in the male.23

With this statement, Kant arguedis arguing that while women may at times tend towards an

action that is morally virtuous, it is because they are lured towards beauty, not because

they possess morality.

Mozart’s comments concerning women in The Magic Flute, accuse women of lacking any

sort of morality, possessing only the ability to corrupt and deceive men and ultimately lead

them to destruction. He writes, “Guard yourself from women’s tricks: this is the first duty

of our order! Many a wise man has been deceived, has failed and never seen his error; he

himself finally abandoned, his faithfulness paid back with scorn! In vain were all his

struggled, for death and despair were his reward.”24 Author of Mozart and the

Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Operas, Nicholas Till analyzes the

themes that are seen and utilized throughout Mozart’s Operas. The distrust of women that

is seen in the example of The Magic Flute, is a motif throughout most of Mozart’s operas.25

He views women as objects of sexual pleasure, but also as beasts who can cause destruction.

23 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, “The Magic Flute,” in The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick (NY: Penguin, 1995), 591.24 Nicholas Till, Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Opera (NY: Norton, 1996).25 Gregory S. Brown and Isser Woloch, Eighteenth-Century Europe: Tradition and Progress, 1715-1789 (NY: Norton, 1982), 201.

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Authors Isser Woloch and Gregory Brown discuss Rousseau’s position on the role of

women in Eighteenth-Century Europe. They discuss Rousseau’s writings and his position on

women. Rousseau saw women have two main contributions to society, sexual pleasure and social

roles such as child bearing. Woloch and Brown further the discussion by commenting on

Rousseau’s positions on women seem to come from his firm belief that the physical and

biological differences between men and women led women to be the less moral and useful

members of society.26

However, in opposition to Kant, Rousseau, and Mozart, authors such as Francoise de Graffigny,

Olyme de Gouges, Mary Wollstonecraft argued for the rights of women. In her Declaration of

the Rights of Woman, de Gouges questions what right men have to force women to be the weaker

of the two sexes. In the spirit of the Enlightenment, she brings in the study of nature and the lack

of oppression she sees in the animal kingdom, the lack of natural reasoning for having a

dominant sex. She states,

Man, are you capable of being just? It is a woman who poses the question; you will not deprive her of that right at least. Tell me, what give you sovereign empire to oppress my sex? Your strength? Your talents? Observe the Creator in his wisdom; survey in all her grandeur that nature with whom you seem to want to be in harmony, and give me, if you dare, an example of this tyrannical empire. Go back to animals, consult the elements, study plants, finally glance at all the modification of organic matter, and surrender to the evidence when I offer you the means search, problem and distinguish, if you can the sexes in the administration of nature. Everywhere you will find them mingled; everywhere they cooperate in harmonious togetherness in this immortal masterpiece.27

De Gouges is pointing out that the male academic culture that focuses on how

society should reflect natural order, is in even the most basic of functions, equality of

sexes, falling short; somehow forcing women to be subordinate to men.

26 Olympe de Gouges, “The Rights of Woman,” in The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick (NY: Penguin, 1995), 611.

27 Francoise de Graffigny, Letters of a Peruvian Women, trans. J. Mallinson (NY: Oxford UP, 2009).

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Arguments made by women for women can also be seen in Francoise de Graffigny’s Letters of a

Peruvian Woman. In the end of the story, rather than have a Zilia rely on a man and marriage,

this story is the first introduction to the idea that women can find happiness out of marriage and

outside of romantic love. Zilia surrounds herself with friendship and grows through experiences

and knowledge rather than by secluding herself in a house to raise children.28

Kant’s argument leads into a discussion furthering the question of women and virtue. However,

while the definitions, parables, metaphors, and examples surrounding virtue and virtuous men

and extensive, the Enlightenment authors leave women and virtue only as a matter of chastity.

While there are many examples of women who overcame obstacles during the Enlightenment

and became educated and respected parts of the Enlightenment’s academic and philosophical

society. The majority of lierature has examples of women and second-class citizens incapable of

gaining equality morally, legally, or academically. One of the few examples that does show

women as capable of virtue comes from Montesquieu’s Persian Letters. While the majority of

the letters including women in the book focus on the women’s captivity, one of the later letters

focuses on a women, Zulema, discussing the Muslim tradition of a male only after-life.29

Zulema explains that in Persia along with the belief that Paradise is only for men, there are

groups that claim women do not even have souls. However, Zulema argues that those who

believe in the myth that women have no souls are only furthering a claim that has no factual

basis. She redefines the notion of virtuous men gaining God’s rewards into all of God’s virtuous

children gaining rewards. She states,

‘God will not limit himself in his rewards; and just as those men who have lived virtuously, and have not abused the power they have over us here on earth, will inhabit a Paradise so full of heavenly, exquisite beauties, that if a mortal man had seen them he would instantly kill himself in his impatience to enjoy the; so too will virtuous women

28 Montesquieu, 188. 29 Montesquieu, 188.

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inhabit a place of pure delight, where they will be intoxicated by flowing streams of sensual pleasure, with sublime men who will submit to them the women will each have her own seraglio where these men will be confined, with eunuchs to guard them even more faithful then are our own.’ 30

Zulema rationalizes Persian women’s lack of freedom during their life on earth by believing in

an afterlife where men are subject to the captivity women face on earth.

Furthermore, modern other representations of the Enlightenment period regard women in

the same manner as Mozart, as capable of destruction rather than virtue. For example in

the film, The Triumph of Love, Hermocrates has taught Agis that women, especially the

Princess, will only bring corruption and deceit into his life and love is the worst emotion of

them all. Furthermore, the Princess is depicted as someone who will lie to get what she

wants, Agis, and will do anything it takes to get him to fall in love with her, even going so

far as to disguise herself as a man.31 This modern representation equated women to the

moral level or children, needing to be told what is wrong and right and going too far to

gain the pleasure they desire.

Another example of a visual representation of a womaen lacking moral standards and

therefore virtue is in the film, The Mission. In the beginning of the movie when Rodrigo

Mendoza return to Spain after s from a journey he finds the women he loves has betrayed

him and gone to be with his brother. This act of betrayal leads Rodrigo to kill his own

brother and set his life on a path of destruction, until his meets Father Gabriel. However,

just as in The Triumph of Love, a women’s lies are what leads to a man’s downfall. 32 Even

in Voltaire’s Candide, there are examples of women causing pain to men. Dr. Pangloss,

Candide’s tutor, from when he was younger is discovered by Candide living on the streets

30 The Triumph of Love, dir. C. Peploe (Paramount, 2001). 31 The Mission, dir. R. Joffé (Warner Brothers, 1986).32 Voltaire, Candide, trans. R. Pearson (NY: Oxford UP, 1990).

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covered in a disease that he contracted from a house- maid during intercourse. Although

Dr. Pangloss does not seem to resent or blame the women, the narrative still causes the

reader to dislike the women. Furthermore, in this example, this women is clearly not

capable of virtue in the moral sense or in the sense of chastity.33

While women played a role in the academic society of the Enlightenment period, the

impact and role was small. The obstacle of male perception of women stood in their way of

making a greater contribution to academics and society as a whole. Their perceived lack of

moral fiber created boundaries and fear that their ideas would lead to a negative impact on

the academic society and even on society as a whole. Women were meant to be admired by

men, guided by men, subordinate to men, but not equal to men for what they lacked in

virtue, they made up for in deceit.

33 Woloch and Brown, 215.

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Bibliography

I. Reference Sources

A. Websites

RomanticPolitics.com. Powell, Kat. “Feminine Sensibility and Virtue.” Romantic Politics. http://web.utk.edu/~gerard/romanticpolitics/feminism.htmlRomanticPolitics.com.

B. Books[C.] [D.] Brown, Gregory S., and Isser Woloch. Eighteenth-Century Europe: Tradition and Progress, 1715-1789. Second Edition. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.

Morse, David. The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism. Houndsmills: Macmillan, 2000.

Till, Nicholas. Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Opera. New York: W. W. Norton & Company,1996.

C.[E.] Articles & Chapters

II. Scholarly Secondary Sources

A. Monographs

Brown, Gregory S., and Isser Woloch. Eighteenth-Century Europe: Tradition and Progress, 1715-1789. Second Edition. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.

Morse, David. The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism. Houndsmills: Macmillan, 2000.

Till, Nicholas. Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Opera. New York: W. W. Norton & Company,1996.

B. Anthologies

Kramnick, Isaac, editor. The Portable Enlightenment Reader. New York: Penguin, 1995.

C. Articles

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Merikoski, Ingrid A. “Adam Smith and the Virtues of Enlightenment.” Action Institute For the Study of Religion and Liberty 9, no. 4.

D. Book Reviews

III. Primary Sources

A. Archives & CollectionsB. Images & Other Artifacts

C. Written Documents (Published and Unpublished)

Astell, Mary. “Some Reflections Upon Marriage.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 560-568.

Boucher d'Argis, Antoine-Gaspard. "Marriage." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Translated by Naomi J. Andrews. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2005.

Constantia. “On the Equality of the Sexes.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 601-609.

Diderot, Denis. "Citizen." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Translated by Sujaya Dhanvantari. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2005.

Gouges, Olympe De. “The Rights of Woman .” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 609-618.

Graffigny, Francoise de. Letters of a Peruvian Women. Translated by Jonathan Mallinson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

Graham, Catherine Sawbridge Macaulay. “Letters on Education.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 591-601.

Jaucourt, Louis, chevalier de. "Wife." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Translated by Naomi J. Andrews. Ann Arbor:Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2004.

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Kant, Immanuel. “The Fair Sex.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 580-586.

Montesquieu. Persian Letters. Translated by Margaret Mauldon. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. “The Magic Flute.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 591.

Paine, Thomas. “An Occasional Letter on the Female Sex.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 586-590.

Romilly, Jean-Edme. "Virtue." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Translated by Mary McAlpin. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2005.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. “Duties of Woman.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 568-579.

Voltaire. Candide and Other Stories. Translated by Roger Pearson. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Wollstonecraft, Mary. “Vindication of the Rights of Woman.” In The Portable Enlightenment Reader, ed. I. Kramnick. New York: Penguin, 1995, 618-628.

Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008.

IV. Other Sources

A. Videos

The Mission. Directed by Roland Joffé. Warner Brothers, 1986. DVD

The Triumph of Love. Directed by C. Peploe. Paramount, 2001. DVD