Historical Analysis in Art Education: A Plea for Contemporary Methods

Historical Analysis in Art Education: A Plea for Contemporary MethodsAuthor(s): Heta KauppinenSource: Visual Arts Research, Vol. 13, No. 1(25) (Spring 1987), pp. 63-72Published by: University of Illinois PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20715639 .

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Historical Analysis in Art Education: A Plea for Contemporary Methods

Heta Kauppinen University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and University of Helsinki

Abstract

This paper introduces contemporary methods

in historical analysis and describes their ap

plication to art education. The methods pre sented belong to the fields of (a) philosophy of history, (b) psychosocial history, and (c) quantification. The implementation of newer

methods in historical analysis in the past dec ade have broadened the scope of historical

analysis and produced new ways of writing

history. Historians consider the era a major

turning point in the development of historical research. Except for a few, the new methods

have not been implemented in historical anal

ysis in art education. The new methods allow

for the primary writing of history and assessing and analyzing already existing history. They provide a wide range of research strategies

according to the various inclinations of the

writers and may activate writers who are not

interested in traditional narrative history.

In former times, history meant essentially a narrative of events and included pri marily political, military, legal, and bio

graphic data (Kirchner, 1966). Recent his torical analysis has been steadily broadened by adding methods from phi losophy, psychosociology, and quantifi cation (statistics). The purpose of this article is to provide an introduction to

contemporary methods in historical anal

ysis and describe their application to art education. The methods presented do not refer to the evaluation of evidence, examination of sources, validity studies, or other basic procedures necessary in

any historical study. Methods discussed here are the ways in which historical

problems may be approached and how to organize and interpret historical anal

ysis only since the sixties. Except for a few, the new methods introduced in this

paper have not been implemented in his torical analysis in art education. The new

historical methods may, however, have

potential in developing historical writing in art education. To capture the devel

opment of art education in its entirety, it

may be necessary to expand the range of its historical methods to bring it closer to the practices of current historical writ

ing. The selection of historical methods in

troduced in this paper is not exclusive. Each method in the selection was chosen for its ability to contribute to the devel

opment of historical study in art educa tion. Although the methods are described

only briefly, essential information was in cluded for seeking more information else where when needed for a particular his torical study. The application of the new historical methods to art education is

suggested in references to the art edu cation literature. When such references were not available, the author suggests an application.

Philosophy of History

The philosophy of history was developed as a method for historical inquiry in the 19th century by Hegel (Goel, 1967). In the past decade the philosophy of history has developed rapidly, adding new tech

niques from sociology, psychology, and

anthropology. The philosophy of history studies the origin and nature of culture.

When the cultural origin and nature of art education are historically analyzed, the application of approaches in the phi losophy of history may be useful. The

following methods in the philosophy of

history relate closest to art education: (a) ideas and movements; (b) image, symbol, and allegory; and (c) the Zeitgeist, myth, and legend.

VISUAL ARTS RESEARCH ? 1987 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois 63



Ideas and Movements

Nevins (1962) argues that history is nec

essarily in contact with and influenced by all of the great ideas and movements that create the uniqueness of an age. The

history of humankind is almost entirely a

history of ideas and movements that

chiefly determine the direction of human movement (Shafer, 1974). This theory ac cords well with the "great man theory," which holds that major events are likely to be caused by important leaders. If individuals become important, it is pri

marily because their ideas or the ideas

they represent are impressive and influ ential (Nevins, 1962). Ideas and move ments are generally extensions or logical implications of earlier thought. Art education has been much influ

enced by key ideas and their evolutionary change. Concepts such as aesthetic ed

ucation, visual literacy, environmental awareness, and creative development have stimulated art education history. Ideas and movements in society and ed ucation tend to feed and generate more

specialized ideas such as art education ideas. Eisner's (1984) article illustrates the tendency of the history of ideas and movements to possess the attributes of both internal (art education) and external

(social and educational) approaches. His five rationales of art curriculum ? (1 ) cre ative development; (2) social awareness; (3) art history, criticism, and studio; (4) art studio; (5) design and craft ? have their basis in art education as well as educational and social thought.

Eisner's rationales demonstrate an other central aspect of this method. The

purpose is not to study abstract ideas that breed more abstract ideas (Brinton, 1950). The goal is not to relate one thought to another but to study the influence of

thought on action, that is, the influence of art education thought on art education

practice. Characteristic of ideas and movements is their reoccurrence; thus the saying, "History repeats itself." Some leaders have testified that the study of

history prepared them for what to expect

in a general way (Shafer, 1974). History does not repeat itself exactly, and the

reoccurring idea or movement is not en

tirely the same as before; it does not give detailed guidance for today. But these ideas and movements reveal possible scenarios and consequences, suggest approaches to problems that may prove valuable, and help to find a plurality of causes behind a historical event (Lovejoy, 1936).

Image, Symbol, and Allegory

Image and symbol appear in the art of

prehistoric humans circa 15000 b.c., long before the origin of historical writing in

Egyptian chronology in 3400 b.c. (Barnes, 1962). In philosophy, anthropology, and

psychoanalysis there are a number of definitions for image, symbol, and alle

gory. It is necessary to define these con

cepts for each particular study in which

they are used. An approach for studying the trans

mission of culture is inquiry into images, symbols, and allegories. Ortega y Gasset

(1932) sees the relationship between

generations as the single most important and controlling influence on our individual lives and on cultural change. The gener tional nature of human life and the role of generations in passing on cultural forms to succeeding generations is a matter of fundamental importance. The ability of individuals to achieve a sense of meaning in life depends on what is passed on from earlier to younger generations. If this link between generations is not made, civilization stagnates or declines (Kaup pinen & McKee, 1987). The oncoming generation cannot create a meaningful way of life in a vacuum. Since culture tends to change only slowly, its images, allegories, and symbols can be under stood readily from one generation to the next.

The transmission of cultural forms in art has been of interest to a number of scholars. Panofsky (1939) discusses the

representational tradition of themes and motifs in art, their temporary decline and

64 Heta Kauppinen



reintegration over time. W?lfflin (1922) emphasizes the meaning of style and its

development. The personal style of an artist develops within the style of a school, country, or race ("der Stil der Schule, des Landes, der Rasse," p. 22). Gombrich

(1968) explains how each generation de

pends to a considerable extent on the art tradition and schemata of the pre ceding generation. The transmission of cultural forms and schemata in child art has been most importantly studied by

Wilson and Wilson (1982). Some early studies such as Meumann's (1914) about cultural impact on childrens' artworks and Kerschensteiner's (1905) findings on the influence of the social background of children on their production of schemata indicate possibilities for a historical study in this field.

The Zeitgeist The approach of the Zeitgeist captures the spirit of an age and studies the de

velopment of a phenomenon such as art education in the context of the Zeitgeist. As the Zeitgeist changes, society under

goes a parallel transformation, although not immediately (Rotenstreich, 1968

1974). The Zeitgeist as the description of the spirit of an age is a synthesis of a number of dimensions in a culture

during a certain era. To Brinton (1950), the Zeitgeist is a total impression made

by a huge number of details that some how fit together. The Zeitgeist is a char acterization of an era, which compiles aspects from philosophy, arts, education, politics, science, and so on. We speak about Victorian times, medieval times, romanticism, liberalism, the Bismarckian era, the Depression, and may have a

general conception of the character of an age. For W?lfflin (1940), the Zeitgeist was a central formative element in the

development of a style. He mentions the

change of Renaissance style into Ba

roque as a classic example of how a new Zeitgeist forces a new form. He sees the emergence of a new life ideal as

forcing a stylistic change.

There may be more than one Zeitgeist at one time (Colie, 1967). For instance, the following two characterizations of the 1920s give quite different concepts of the

spirit of the time.

In the 1920s, scientific and technological work broadened in scope and signifi cance; literature, painting, and architec

ture flourished, bringing to maturity the revolutionary art concepts that had been

in a pioneer stage before the war; and

political experiments engendered much idealism. The New World, having come of

age, now contributed in the same way as

the European nations to the cultural ac

complishments of the West. (Kirchner, 1966, p. 264)

Allen (1931) speaks about the Ballyhoo Years. In the 1920s there was the de

velopment of popular culture and the influence of mass media. "Ballyhoo" pro duced a public generally ignorant of truly significant events while devoting atten tion to superficial fads, including cross word puzzle books, thrilling murder trials, football, Rudolph Valentino's funeral, Charles Lindbergh's story, a heavyweight boxing match, a new automobile model ?

one excitement and sensation after an other.

The interrelationship between the Zeitgeist and art education is portrayed in June King McFee's (1984) article in

which she discusses social and political influences in the 1960s and characterizes the spirit of the decade. Social optimism and improvements both in education and in opportunities to be educated were an

important basis for an improved society. Art education programs flourished and

gained identity and held a strong position in the Office of Education. Research in art education increased and became more

accepted. The context of the Zeitgeist seems to be the key to capturing this

important phase in the development of art education.

Myth and Legend

Myth may be a traditional story that usu

ally occurs in a timeless past and involves

Historical Analysis 65



miraculous elements (Eliade, 1974). Expressions such as "long before," "for

merly," "in former times," "always," "for

ever," and "once upon a time" describe

an indefinite time in the past. Myth may be any character type that appeals to the consciousness of people by embodying their cultural ideals or by giving expres sion to deep, commonly felt emotions. M?ller (1965) sees myth evolving out of the corruption of language. Therefore, what seems absurd in myths is the result of people forgetting or distorting the

meaning of words. Eliade (1974) con tends that myths are recited for the pur pose of returning to the beginning of time. By doing so, individuals can get back to the time of the original, success ful creative act. Myth is an indispensable ingredient of all culture, one that is con

stantly being regenerated. Every histori cal change creates its mythology indi

rectly related to historical fact (M?ller, 1965). While myths include a substantial

amount of fabrication and beliefs, leg ends are based on fact. Legends concern a historical person, place, or incident that has achieved widespread fame. Legends can glorify a historical figure to whom

people trace their origin or to whom they believe they owe their greatness. A leg end sometimes may be seen as a ro manticized or popularized figure of mod ern times (Garraghan, 1951). Both myths and legends persist. On their pedestals they remain untouchables and untar nished regardless of criticism.

The study of myths and legends in art education may reveal deeper trends in its history. Such an approach might study the events and circumstances related to the birth and survival of a myth as well as the impact myths and legends have on their descendants and later develop ments.

Fabrications and beliefs may surround a historical figure. As the mythical sub stance increases, the historical person begins to turn into a myth. Erikson, in his study of Gandhi, indicates that

"...where myth-making predominates,

every item of the great man's life be comes or is reported like a parable" (1971, p. 198). He sees "...the myth affirming and myth-destroying propensi ties of a post-charismatic period as the

very stuff of which history is made" (1971, p. 198).

In the history of art education, Franz Cizek may be thought of as an image of

mythical nature. He is known mostly through indirect sources, by the tales of

contemporaries. The descriptions of his life as an art educator include abrupt events as miraculous turning points. His

observing children drawing on the fence at his home or the procedures for ap proval of his art classes in Vienna are such events (Viola, 1936; MacDonald, 1970). Because of the language barrier, persons who described his methods may have distorted the meaning of words or

forgotten what kinds of actions and ac tivities took place in Cizek's art class rooms.

Mythical substance may surround the historical image of Viktor Lowenfeld. There is a web of orally transmitted saga concerning his work and life. Scholarly writings such as the Michael and Morris

(1985) article attempt to reveal the person behind the myth. However, Lowenfeld as

myth is elusive and out of the grasp of

analysis. Saunders (1982) and Smith

(1982) arrive at very different conclusions in their analysis of his thought and

method. The Lowenfeld myth persists. Despite the controversy between his ori entation of creative development and to

day's educational views, his major book, Creative and Mental Growth (1947), is still one of the best-selling textbooks in art education (Eisner, 1984).

Herbert Read can be considered a

legend in art education. He achieved leg endary fame by his abundant writings and appearances at art education con ferences. Walter Smith represents a leg end to whom art education in this country can trace its origin. Famous schools such

66 Heta Kauppinen



as Bauhaus may also become legends because of their reputation or history.

Chapman (1982) identifies several be liefs about art education which she con siders harmful myths. Each of these

myths, "The Child as Artist," "Art Should Not Be Taught," "Artistic Ability Is In

born," "Making Art Equals Art Educa tion," and "Art as Panacea" holds its own history. It is likely that findings in

developmental psychology, in the theo ries of creativity, and in art education

theory have been misinterpreted by the

public and in art education practice. The

discovery of prehistoric and primitive art led to interpretations that artistic ability is inborn or that the child is an artist

(Meumann, 1914). Various interpretations may have contributed to the development of art education myths. Historical analysis may discover the origins and develop ment of these myths.

Psychosocial History

Psychosocial history attempts to inter

pret history through the theories of psy chology and sociology. Approaches re lated to psychology

? that is, psy choanalytic theory, role theory, status and reference group theory, and cognitive dis sonance theory

? share the common

goal of understanding individual person ality and behavior. Social psychology and

sociology attempt to understand the be havioral complexities of groups, individ uals in groups, and institutions. Alex ander claims that psychosociology and

history are inseparably linked: "No indi vidual can be understood without know

ing the social scene in which he lives and which has molded his personality. No historical event can be understood with out knowing the fundamental principles of human motivation" (1974, p. 48).

Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic theory consists of Freud ian personality theory (1974) and Erik sonian developmental theory. Erikson

(1963) points out that the psychoanalytic approach is essentially historical. It in

terprets present information as a function of past experience. The experiences in childhood and youth and adult years af fect people's actions and the philoso phies they develop. The vital events sur

rounding a historical person can be studied in psychoanalytic interpretation. In recent biographies, especially in polit ical history, the psychoanalytic approach has led to a new interpretation of docu ments and to the inclusion of documents

previously overlooked as unimportant and without significance (Mazlish, 1971). Psy choanalytic theory is also applicable to historical group studies. Political history has analyzed social processes and po litical behavior in pyschoanalytic inter

pretation (Mazlish, 1971). In small group studies the psychodynamics of group fantasies, group defenses, and other shared needs have been discovered

through psychoanalysis.

Role Theory: The Significant Others

Individuals' behavior tends to be a com

promise among the many roles that those

powerful or significant enough to affect their lives wish them to play. Roles help people to know what others expect from them. They mediate between individuals and the groups they confront. They in form people of the demands and taboos to which they are expected to conform. The roles are not created by individuals; they are imposed on them (Hartley and

Hartley, 1961). Role theory supplements the theory of significant others, those persons whose impact is important enough to induce behavior. A person internalizes the values of significant oth

ers.

Michael and Morris (1985) discuss Eu

ropean influence on Viktor Lowenfeld's

theory and philosophy. They conclude that without knowledge of his influential

predecessors (i.e., significant others), the comprehension of Lowenfeld's work is difficult; that Lowenfeld incorporated into his theories and practices ideas from the




European tradition. Michael and Morris

suggest a number of individuals from the

study of child art and psychology as the influential predecessors for Lowenfeld's

theory. A group of significant others whose

values Lowenfeld may have internalized is found among the philosophers who

developed theories in phenomenology and existentialism. It is likely that Low enfeld would have studied in school the

major existentialist philosophers such as

Heidegger, Jaspers, Kierkegaard, Schel

ling, and Marx. Ortega y Gasset (1932) and Maslow (1943) had wide academic and public appeal in the 1930s and 1940s

(Stumpf, 1966) when Lowenfeld devel

oped his own theories. To reflect the

major current of philosophy of the time

(Stumpf, 1966) in his work, the inclusion of existentialist orientation would have been natural for Lowenfeld.

The spectacular spread of Lowenfeld's

thought may be connected to the later existentialists such as Sartre (1957) and the phenomenologist Gadamer (1982). Sartre expressed existentialist thought with lucidity and popular appeal: "What

appeared first in heavy language of phi losophy now came forth from Sartre's

pen in the open and captivating style of novels and short stories" (Stumpf, 1966, p. 481). Existentialism invaded virtually every form of human thought and expres sion, including the novel, theater, poetry, and art, and "achieved a far wider re

sponse than any other mode of philos ophy in current time" (Stumpf, 1966, p. 459). Lowenfeld's thought adapted smoothly to the general existentialist ori

entation, "which does not appear to be

waning" (Stumpf, 1966, p. 481). In fact, what we have observed lately as Low enfeldian tradition may indicate an exis tentialist approach in art education. Sig nificant others for today's art educators

may be found among existentialist phi losophers.

Role theory can be applied to study the roles art teachers have taken ac

cording to various orientations in the

history of art education. Systematic and formal Herbartian teachers (Herbart, 1901) may have found their role alien in the

permissive classroom of the progressive approach. The Lowenfeldian or existen tialist teachers may find it difficult to adapt to the orientation in discipline-based art education (Greer, 1984). Students in the art classroom have been expected to

adopt roles consonant to an approach in

teaching. Adult models such as artist, art historian, art critic, product designer, ar

chitect, or a socially responsible citizen have been imposed on art education stu dents. These roles may have helped stu dents to know what an art teacher ex

pects from them.

Status and Reference Group Status and reference group as a socio

logical theory concern individuals' need for identification. Sherif (1956) defines reference group as the group with which the individual identifies or aspires to be

long. The implication is that an individual is motivated to choose membership in

informally or formally organized groups. Not all reference groups are positive ones to which individuals aspire to belong or to imitate. There are also negative ref erence groups whose norms are em

phatically disapproved by a certain group of individuals (Merton, 1968). Status and reference groups will operate for the

members of any organization, formal or

informal, and may determine the form or function the group takes on (Nisber, 1966).

Efland's (1983) discussion of the dis sociation of fine arts and applied arts and its consequences for art education

points to a historical problem involving characteristics of status and reference

group theory. The dilemma of artists and educators as reference groups for art educators has been influential in the for mation of art education theory in teacher

training programs and classroom prac tices. Art educators are active in creating status and reference groups among themselves. Art education associations

categorize members into groups such as

68 Heta Kauppinen



higher education, administration, and el

ementary education, and they provide categories for reference in conference themes.

Cognitive Dissonance

Historians try to understand historical individuals or groups whose behavior cannot be comprehended by those who have logical expectations about their be havior. When something individuals know does not fit logically with other things they know or believe, they may experi ence cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957). Cognitive dissonance may occur for a number of reasons. First, people cannot control all the information they acquire; invariably some of it does not fit. Second, there are few instances in

which all information leads to the same conclusion. When individuals must make an important decision or adjust an opin ion, they may experience dissonance cre ated by the knowledge that alternative decisions and opinions also have desir able and positive features. If individuals consider a particular decision as one that would affect their life significantly, severe dissonance appears (Festinger, 1964) and creates a tension that motivates the in dividuals to bring dissonant elements into

harmony. They can reduce dissonance

by (a) changing their behavior, (b) ac

quiring new information, or (c) changing or distorting their perception, sometimes to the point of self-deception (Cohen, 1966).

The studio model of art instruction, for

example, has been criticized by a number of art education scholars for more than two decades. Apparently there are art educators who have changed their be havior and now use other methods. There also may be art educators who seek out new information to harmonize dissonant elements by examining research reports. In this way, they try to identify ways of

defending the old method. And there are those who simply disbelieve that there are any differences between the old and new approaches, or they speak as if they

were adopting a new method but con tinue their previous practice. They have distorted their perception in order to rec oncile obviously contradictory positions and thus escape the tensions of basic conflict between dissonant elements.

"Emotional and professional invest ments are important factors in the te

nacity with which appropriate knowledge is believed" (Brehm & Cohen, 1962, p. 300). Cognitive dissonance among art educators may be one reason why a number of quality art programs and movements have not been successfully implemented and why significant move

ments have been resisted. Where a group of people suffer the same dissonance, members tend to persuade each other to retain their orthodox beliefs (Festinger, 1957). Further, only a certain type of information is permitted to be assimilated and only partially. We tend to filter per ceptions so that information justifies our

conditions, plans, or activities (Festinger, 1964). Reality may be very different than

what individuals perceive. What counts is not what is, but what individuals need to believe to avoid conflict, however dis torted those beliefs may be.

Quantification

Historians who use words like "typical," "representative," "significant," "wide

spread," "growing," "usually," "nor

mally," "upper class," "working class," are making quantitative statements, whether or not they present figures to

justify their assertions. Unfortunately, not all historians realize the need to verify general quantitative statements using an

"impressionistic approach long dominant in historical studies" (Benson, 1957, p. 162). Quantitative method in history uses numerical information and statistics to reconstruct the past. Quantitative evi dence will not necessarily provide a com

plete historical perspective, but it may provide some of the answers (Floud, 1973). Quantitative findings do not by




themselves provide answers to general questions of interpretation, but they do

provide a means of verifying general statements (Aydelotte, 1971). For quan titative analysis in historical studies of art education, sizable resources of numeri cal data are readily available in educa tional records.

Demographic analysis, or the study of social and geographic mobility, fertility, and mortality and their effect on the size, structure, and composition of popula tions, may enlighten the causal relations of these variables to developments in art education. Computer techniques facili tate linkages of data from a variety of sources such as census returns, tax as

sessments, deeds, city directories, parish registers, county histories, and similar documentation.

Content analysis is controlled obser vation and systematic counting of fre

quencies of occurrence in historical sources (George, 1959). A method for content analysis is a simple frequency count of overall impressions or contexts

(Berelson, 1952). The sources may be verbal or pictorial. Content analysis may go beyond general impressions and em

ploy instead frequency counts of key words, phrases, or images. Content anal

ysis may prove necessary in the analysis of the characteristics and nature of art education programs and curricula. It may reveal trends in philosophy and practice in art education literature and publica tions. Smith's (1982) analysis of Lowen feld in a Germanic perspective and Saun ders's (1982) study of the interpretations of Lowenfeld's teachings both apply con tent analysis.

Conclusion

The implementation of psychosocial and

quantitative methods in historical analy sis and the rapid development of the

philosophy of history in art in the past decade has broadened the scope of his torical analysis and produced new ways

of writing history. Historians consider the era as a major turning point in the de

velopment of historical writing (Mazlish, 1971). The insight, pluralism, and pro found interpretation of new historical

analysis has begun to replace the tradi tional narrative history.

In art education the tradition of histor ical writings is young and not yet wide

spread. Because of the rapid change in historical analysis, keeping up may be come difficult. The small quantity and the brief span of historical writing in art ed ucation do not favor full participation in the development of historical analysis. The application of new historical methods is difficult without the support of long tradition in historical writing. If we take

Logan's (1955) book as a beginning, the tradition of historical analysis in art ed ucation covers about three decades, compared to more than 5,000 years of historical writing.

Another difficulty in the acceptance of the contemporary methods is that the theories and approaches are sophisti cated, complicated, and often tenuous. When a theory from outside a field is used in research, it becomes an applied theory; it is adjusted to suit the needs of the new context. For instance, the use of psychoanalytic theory in historical writ

ing has extended clinical psychoanalytic insight to empirical techniques in group studies. Eriksonian developmental theory has been applied to the history of ideo

logies and movements. The approach of

significant others in role theory has been

applied in a number of ways ? to study

the American slave system, behavioral

patterns in Nazi concentration camps, or to identify the influential predecessors of a historical figure. In historical quantifi cation, statistical findings may be used

merely as a research guide for a prose discussion. Numerical outcomes and ta bles are not shown in the interpretation of data, of which a major portion may be other than numerical. When used in art education, the new historical methods

may require further refinement. For ex

70 Heta Kauppinen



ample, how should the psychoanalytic method be adjusted to a historical study about Viktor Lowenfeld when the inter

pretation of Lowenfeld's artworks is in cluded?

It would be beyond the limits of any essay to provide a description of the

contemporary methods adequate to en able a researcher to employ a particular method. To see the difficulty one need

only envision the volumes of Freud's

writings about psychoanalytic theory. The

relatively short descriptions of the meth ods in this paper are meant primarily to direct one's interest. It is necessary first to learn a particular theory in depth and then to become acquainted with historical

writing, which has applied the theory as a method. Only then can the application to art education be made. A historian in art education might consider new meth ods that were not introduced in this pa per, such as projection, analogy, informal

organization, simulation, and medical

analysis. In the large field of the philos ophy of history one might discover a number of methods that might enrich historical analysis in art education.

Contemporary methods can be a val uable tool not only in the primary writing of history but also in assessing and ana

lyzing already existing history. Newer methods are capable of providing a wide

range of research strategies according to the various inclinations of the writers. The vigorous adoption of the contem

porary methods in the historical analysis of art education might activate writers who are not interested in the traditional narrative history and thus expand histor ical writing in art education.

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Heta Kauppinen Department of Art

University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee P.O. Box 413 Milwaukee, Wl 53201

72 Heta Kauppinen



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Historical Analysis in Art Education: A Plea for Contemporary Methods