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8/13/2019 Himalay
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Himalayas
NASA Landsat-7 imagery of Himalayas
The Himalayas, also Himalaya, ( / hmle. / or /hml j / ; Sanskrit, him (snow) + ālaya
(dwelling), literally, "abode of the snow"[1]
) is a mountain range in Asia separating the plains
of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.
The Himalayan range is home to the planet's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount
Everest. The Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres (23,600
ft) in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is
6,961 metres (22,838 ft) tall.[2]
The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South
Asia. Many Himalayan peaks are sacred in both Buddhism and Hinduism.
Besides the Greater Himalayas of these high peaks there are parallel lower ranges. The first
foothills, reaching about a thousand meters along the northern edge of the plains, are called
the Sivalik Hills or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north is a higher range reaching two to
three thousand meters known as the Lower Himalayan or Mahabharat Range.
The Himalayas abut or cross five countries: Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, and Pakistan, with
the first three countries having sovereignty over most of the range.[3]
The Himalayas are
bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the
Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Three of the world's major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra allrise near Mount Kailash to cross and encircle the Himalayas. Their combined drainage basin
is home to some 600 million people.
Lifted by the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate,[4]
the Himalayan
range runs, west-northwest to east-southeast, in an arc 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) long. Its
western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river, its
eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river. The range
varies in width from 400 kilometres (250 mi) in the west to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in the
east.
Ecology
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Main article: Ecology of the Himalaya
The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The
climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the
highest elevations. Owing to the mountains' latitude near the Tropic of Cancer, the permanent
snow line is among the highest in the world at typically around 5,500 metres (18,000 ft).[5]
Incontrast, equatorial mountains in New Guinea, the Rwenzoris and Colombia have a snow line
some 900 metres (2,950 ft) lower.[6]
The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east
along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions
combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal
communities. For example the extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure)
combined with extreme cold allow extremophile organisms to survive.[7]
The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and
compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature may shift various
species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal
Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species,especially rhododendron, apple and Myrica esculenta. The highest known tree species in the
Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres (16,080 ft) in Southeastern Tibet.[8]
Geology
The 6,000 km plus journey of the India landmass (Indian Plate) before its collision with Asia
(Eurasian Plate) about 40 to 50 million years ago[4]
Main article: Geology of the Himalaya
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The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of
uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock . According to the modern theory of plate
tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent
boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Arakan Yoma
highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also
formed as a result of this collision.
During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian
Plate was moving at about 15 cm per year. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-
Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been
determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its
edges. Since both plates were composed of low density continental crust, they were thrust
faulted and folded into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the mantle along an
oceanic trench.[4]
An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of
Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.[9]
Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetanplateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards. The Indo-Australian plate is
still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500
km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting
along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per
year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate
also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.
During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga
in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west.[10]
In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice
stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, joined with the former Tibetan inland ice.
To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 metres
(3,300–6,600 ft).[10][11]
While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20 to
32 kilometres (12 to 20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60 to 112
kilometres (37 to 70 mi) long during the ice age.[10]
The glacier snowline (the altitude where
accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 metres (4,600–
5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least 7.0 to 8.3 °C (13 to 15 °F
change) colder than it is today.[12]
Hydrology
Indus River
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The Himalayan range at Yumesongdong in Sikkim, in the Yumthang River valley
The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3
(3000 cubic miles) of fresh water.[citation needed ]
Its glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri
(Uttarakhand) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region), and Zemu (Sikkim).
The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their
proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large perennial rivers, most of
which combine into two large river systems:
• The western rivers combine into the Indus Basin, of which the Indus River is the
largest. The Indus begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and
flows southwest through India and then through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. It is fed
by the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej rivers, among others.
• Most of the other Himalayan rivers drain the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin. Its main
rivers are the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Yamuna, as well as other tributaries.
The Brahmaputra originates as the Yarlung Tsangpo River in western Tibet, and
flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of Assam. The Ganges and the
Brahmaputra meet in Bangladesh, and drain into the Bay of Bengal through the
world's largest river delta,the Sunderbans.[13]
The easternmost Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern
Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea.
The Salween, Mekong, Yangtze and Huang He (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the
Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains, and are therefore
not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as
the circum-Himalayan rivers.[14]
In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase
in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of global climate change.[15]
For
example, Glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of the debris-covered
glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will
not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millionsof people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers of northern India during the dry
seasons.[16]
Some of the lakes present a danger of a glacial lake outburst flood. The Tsho
Rolpa glacier lake in the Rolwaling Valley is rated as the most dangerous in Nepal.[17][18]
Lakes
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A high Himalayan lake at an altitude of around 5,000 metres Sikkim, India
The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of
less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. Tilicho lake in Nepal
in the Annapurna massif is one of the highest lakes in the world. Pangong Tso, which is
spread across the border between India and China, and Yamdrok Tso, located in central
Tibet, are amongst the largest with surface areas of 700 km², and 638 km², respectively.
Other notable lakes include Gurudogmar lake, in North Sikkim, and Tsongmo lake, near theIndo-China border in Sikkim.
The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity.
Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.[19]
Impact on climate
The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the
Tibetan plateau. They prevent frigid, dry Arctic winds blowing south into the subcontinent,
which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the othercontinents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling
northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalayas are also believed
to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan
and Gobi.[20]
Religion
The Himalayas between India and China illustrated in the Jami' al-tawarikh.