HI136 The History of HI136 The History of GermanyGermany

Lecture 11Lecture 11The Coming of the Third The Coming of the Third

Reich:Reich:

Nazi Consolidation & Nazi Consolidation & TerrorTerror

The 1933 ElectionThe 1933 Election New elections called within 24 hours of Hitler becoming Chancellor.New elections called within 24 hours of Hitler becoming Chancellor. The election campaign took place in an atmosphere of violence and The election campaign took place in an atmosphere of violence and

intimidation.intimidation. The Nazis used their access to the organs of the state to get their The Nazis used their access to the organs of the state to get their

message across & intimidate their opponents.message across & intimidate their opponents. 31 Jan. 1933: Hitler’s ‘Appeal to the German People’ – blamed 31 Jan. 1933: Hitler’s ‘Appeal to the German People’ – blamed

Germany’s problems on the Communists and presented his Germany’s problems on the Communists and presented his government as a ‘National Uprising’ that would restore German government as a ‘National Uprising’ that would restore German pride & unity.pride & unity.

As Minister of the Interior of Prussia GAs Minister of the Interior of Prussia Göring recruited 500,000 extra öring recruited 500,000 extra police in Germany’s largest state, most of them drawn from the police in Germany’s largest state, most of them drawn from the ranks of the SA and the SS.ranks of the SA and the SS.

Violence & intimidation of political opponents – SPD and KPD Violence & intimidation of political opponents – SPD and KPD meetings broken up, voters intimidated etc. 69 people killed during meetings broken up, voters intimidated etc. 69 people killed during the 5 week campaign.the 5 week campaign.

The Reichstag FireThe Reichstag Fire 27 Feb. 1933: The Reichstag 27 Feb. 1933: The Reichstag

burned down.burned down. An unemployed Dutch bricklayer An unemployed Dutch bricklayer

named Marius van der Lubbe named Marius van der Lubbe arrested.arrested.

The Nazis claimed this was part of The Nazis claimed this was part of a Communist plot.a Communist plot.

‘‘Decree for the Protection of the Decree for the Protection of the People and the State’: suspended People and the State’: suspended civil liberties & increased the civil liberties & increased the power of central government – the power of central government – the Nazis rounded up political Nazis rounded up political opponants.opponants.

Van der Lubbe & Bulgarian Van der Lubbe & Bulgarian Communist Georgi Dimitrov put on Communist Georgi Dimitrov put on trial for the fire.trial for the fire.

But on-going debate about who But on-going debate about who was responsible.was responsible.

Party Votes

NSDAP 43,90%

DNVP 8,00%

DVP 1,10%

BVP 2,70%

Zentrum 11,20%

Deutsche Staatspartei 0,90%

SPD 18,30%

KPD 12,30%

Other 1,60%

Election Results, 5 Election Results, 5 March 1933March 1933

The ‘Day of Potsdam’, 21 March 1933

The Enabling Law The Enabling Law ((ErmErmächtigungsgesetzächtigungsgesetz))

Without the two-thirds majority in the Reichstag necessary to Without the two-thirds majority in the Reichstag necessary to change the Constitution, Hitler proposed an ‘Enabling Law’ that change the Constitution, Hitler proposed an ‘Enabling Law’ that would enable him the government to pass legislation without the would enable him the government to pass legislation without the approval of either parliament or the President.approval of either parliament or the President.

23 March 1933: ‘Law for the Removal of Distress from People and 23 March 1933: ‘Law for the Removal of Distress from People and the Reich’the Reich’ Article 1:Article 1: In addition to the procedure prescribed by the constitution [i.e. In addition to the procedure prescribed by the constitution [i.e.

decision by parliament], laws of the Reich may also be enacted by the decision by parliament], laws of the Reich may also be enacted by the government of the Reich. This includes laws as referred to by Articles government of the Reich. This includes laws as referred to by Articles 85 sentence 2 and Article 87 of the constitution. 85 sentence 2 and Article 87 of the constitution.

Article 2:Article 2: Laws enacted by the government of the Reich may deviate Laws enacted by the government of the Reich may deviate from the constitution as long as they do not affect the institutions of the from the constitution as long as they do not affect the institutions of the Reichstag and the Reichsrat. The rights of the President remain Reichstag and the Reichsrat. The rights of the President remain undisturbed.undisturbed.

GleichschaltungGleichschaltung After the passage of the Enabling Law the Nazis acted to ‘co-After the passage of the Enabling Law the Nazis acted to ‘co-

ordinate’ as many areas of German life as possible and bring them ordinate’ as many areas of German life as possible and bring them into line with Nazi ideology.into line with Nazi ideology.

April 1933: Laws passed enabling Nazi-dominated State April 1933: Laws passed enabling Nazi-dominated State governments to pass legislation without the approval of provincial governments to pass legislation without the approval of provincial parliaments. parliaments.

Jan. 1934: State parliaments abolished & local government Jan. 1934: State parliaments abolished & local government subordinated to the federal Minister of the Interior.subordinated to the federal Minister of the Interior.

2 May 1933: Leading Trade Unionists arrested & workers’ 2 May 1933: Leading Trade Unionists arrested & workers’ organizations merged to form the organizations merged to form the Deutscher ArbeitsfrontDeutscher Arbeitsfront (German (German Labour Front, DAF).Labour Front, DAF).

22 June 1933: The SPD officially banned.22 June 1933: The SPD officially banned. June-July 1933: Other political parties dissolved themselves.June-July 1933: Other political parties dissolved themselves. 14 July 1933: The Nazi Party proclaimed the only legal political 14 July 1933: The Nazi Party proclaimed the only legal political

party in Germany.party in Germany.

The Night of the Long The Night of the Long Knives,Knives,

30 June 193430 June 1934 Pressure from the party rank-and-Pressure from the party rank-and-

file (and particularly from within file (and particularly from within the SA) for a ‘second revolution’.the SA) for a ‘second revolution’.

Fears that the radicalism of the SA Fears that the radicalism of the SA would bring about a military coup would bring about a military coup against the Nazis.against the Nazis.

This led to a purge of the party on This led to a purge of the party on 30 June 1934 – the SS carried out 30 June 1934 – the SS carried out raids against targets across raids against targets across Germany. Critics of the regime Germany. Critics of the regime such as Vice-Chancellor Papen such as Vice-Chancellor Papen were arrested, while old enemies were arrested, while old enemies such as Gregor Strasser & Gustav such as Gregor Strasser & Gustav Ritter von Kahr were summarily Ritter von Kahr were summarily executed. Over 1000 people were executed. Over 1000 people were arrested & at least 85 killed.arrested & at least 85 killed.

Ernst Röhm (1887-1934)

Party and StateParty and State In theory Germany was a one party state & that party In theory Germany was a one party state & that party

had a monopoly on power.had a monopoly on power. Dec. 1933: ‘Law to ensure the Unity of the Party and the Dec. 1933: ‘Law to ensure the Unity of the Party and the

State’ declared that the party and state were inseparably State’ declared that the party and state were inseparably linked, but exact relationship still vague.linked, but exact relationship still vague.

In practice parallel organizations & institutions.In practice parallel organizations & institutions.

Party and StateParty and State

Soucre: R. Overy, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Third Reich (1996)

Party and StateParty and State In theory Germany was a one party state & that party In theory Germany was a one party state & that party

had a monopoly on power.had a monopoly on power. Dec. 1933: ‘Law to ensure the Unity of the Party and the Dec. 1933: ‘Law to ensure the Unity of the Party and the

State’ declared that the party and state were inseparably State’ declared that the party and state were inseparably linked, but exact relationship still vague.linked, but exact relationship still vague.

In practice parallel organizations & institutions.In practice parallel organizations & institutions. Attempts to extend control over the organs of the State Attempts to extend control over the organs of the State

from the mid-1930s onwards:from the mid-1930s onwards: In 1935 Deputy Fuhrer Rudolf Hess given special powers to vet In 1935 Deputy Fuhrer Rudolf Hess given special powers to vet

the appointment & promotion of civil servants.the appointment & promotion of civil servants. From 1939 all civil servants had to be Party members.From 1939 all civil servants had to be Party members. Department of Internal Party Affairs.Department of Internal Party Affairs. Department for Affairs of State.Department for Affairs of State.

The Role of HitlerThe Role of Hitler August 1934: After the death of August 1934: After the death of

Hindenburg the posts of President Hindenburg the posts of President & Chancellor were combined & & Chancellor were combined & Hitler formally adopted the title Hitler formally adopted the title Fuhrer.Fuhrer.

He was both Head of State & He was both Head of State & Head of Government, as well as Head of Government, as well as Commander-in-Chief of the armed Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, head of the civil service & forces, head of the civil service & party leader.party leader.

In theory he had unlimited power.In theory he had unlimited power. But the demands of running a But the demands of running a

country as large as Germany & country as large as Germany & Hitler’s personality and lifestyle Hitler’s personality and lifestyle meant his actual influence was meant his actual influence was more limited.more limited.

One of the central debates One of the central debates surrounds Hitler’s role.surrounds Hitler’s role.

“I swear by God this sacred oath: I will render unconditional obedience to Adolf Hitler, the Führer of the German nation and people, Supreme Commander of the armed forces, and will be ready as a true soldier to risk my life at any time for this oath”.

Military Oath of Allegiance

Relations with the ArmyRelations with the Army The Army one of the few The Army one of the few

institutions with the power to institutions with the power to challenge the Nazi regime.challenge the Nazi regime.

It enjoyed a degree of It enjoyed a degree of independence until 1937.independence until 1937.

Feb. 1938: War Minister Werner Feb. 1938: War Minister Werner von Blomberg & Commander-in-von Blomberg & Commander-in-Chief of the Army General von Chief of the Army General von Fritsch dismissed.Fritsch dismissed.

Reorganization of the Army Reorganization of the Army command to bring it under Nazi command to bring it under Nazi control.control.

The post of War Minister The post of War Minister abolished, Hitler assumed abolished, Hitler assumed personal command of the armed personal command of the armed forces. 16 generals retired & 44 forces. 16 generals retired & 44 transferred. transferred.

General Werner von Fritsch (centre) and

General Werner von Blomberg (right), 1 June 1934

Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler

(1900-1945)SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard

Heydrich (1904-1942)

HimmlerReichsführer SSChief of Police

SSOrdnungspolizei

(order police)Municipal police

SipoSecurity Police

Heydrich

SDSecurity Service

Heydrich

KripoCriminal Police

GestapoSecret state police

Foreign intelligence

Domestic intelligence

The Debate on the The Debate on the Functioning of the Third Functioning of the Third

ReichReichIntentionalist Interpretation Functionalist Interpretation

1.Hitler's roleStrong dictator; can implement his will

Weak dictator; depends on competing organizations

2.Structure of the state

Obedience to the dictator

Four competing and relatively independent power blocks: economy, army, Nazi party/SS, state administration

3.Implementation of policies

Hitler's willLong-term planningRealization of long-term goalsPrimacy of ideology

Spontaneous initiatives of organizations, improvisation, primacy of opportunism

4.Critique

Too personalistic, too much centred on Hitler, too rational, too apologetic of Germans in general

Ignores deliberate policies and the popularity of Hitler, overestimates independence of single organizations and apparatuses, too much focused on anonymous structures

Synthesis (according to Bracher and Jäckel): Hitler derived much of his strength from the rivalry and the overlapping responsibilities of state and party institutions. He thus could assume the role of a mediator. Single offices competed to win him over to their policies. Often they tried to implement what was considered to be his wish ...

http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/GermanyE5.html

Current consensus (Ian Kershaw) (see Hinton: Weimar & Nazi Germany, p. 190)

Hitler is the key activator

Policy reflects Hitler‘s overall vision

His decisions are accepted by rivals

Mobiliser and legitimator but not necessarily initiator of many policies