Heritage Strain Brook Trout Remnants of Adirondack History

Jeffrey T Mogavero Justin R Dalaba

Biology Department St Lawrence University

23 Romoda Drive Canton NY 13617

1

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

INTRODUCTION 9

METHODS 11

INTERVIEWS 11

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION13 SYSTEMS MODELING11

LITERATURE REVIEW 12

PROBLEM DEFINITION 12

BROOK13 TROUT NATURAL HISTORY 13

HISTORICAL ADIRONDACK13 PARK CONTEXT 13

UNDERSTANDING HERITAGE13 STRAIN BROOK TROUT 16

GENETIC DIVERSITY 20

ACIDIFIED WATERS23

WARMING13 WATERS 25

NON-shy‐NATIVE COMPETITORS 27

FISHING PRESSURE 30

MANAGEMENT31

Stocking 31

Liming34

Pond reclamation35

Non-shy‐native species 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS 38

NATIVE BROOK13 TROUT AND13 THEIR13 HABITATS38

iii

NON-shy‐PROFIT13 GROUPS 38

GOVERNMENT 39

FISHING GUIDES SHOPS AND LODGES 39

RECREATIONALISTS AND VISITORS40

RESEARCHERS 41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES 42

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 44

PARAMETERIZING13 SOLUTIONS44

IDENTIFICATION13 AND EVALUATION13 OF POTENTIAL13 SOLUTIONS 45

Comprehensively update the current brook13 trout management plan 46

Remove all non-shy‐native fish13 species from the Adirondacks 46

Eliminate global warming47

Stop13 toxic emissions48

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook13 trout strains 48

Reclaim lotic waterways 49

Increase youth participation and education50

IDENTIFICATION13 OF FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS51

IDENTIFICATION13 OF BEST13 SOLUTIONS52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION 53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN 55

CONCLUSIONS 57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 59

LITERATURE CITED 61

TABLE AND FIGURE CITATIONS 64

iv

APPENDICES 65

APPENDIX A INTERVIEW MATERIALS65

Interview questions asked of13 stakeholders during interviews65

List of subjects interviewed13 for this study67

Other subjects contacted for interview67

v

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1 Status of brook trout in the Northeast (EBTJV 2006) 15

Figure 2 Nine heritage waters in the Adirondacks as defined by Keller (1979) 18

Figure 3 Two heritage strain brook trout Photos courtesy of David Crowne 19

Figure 4 DEC map of brook trout decline from Saranac Lakes Wild Forest 30

Figure 5 DEC catch limit sign for Black Pond Photo courtey of Justin Dalaba 32

Figure 6 Graph depicting the number of reclaimed ponds by year Data courtesy of DEC 36

Figure 7 DEC fish barrier dam at Long Pond Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba 37

6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a cold water fish native to the eastern

United States that survives best in high-quality lakes ponds and streams Widely regarded as a

symbol of clean freshwater the drastic decline of original brook trout population levels in

regions such as the Adirondacks has made the survival of the brook trout an important

conservation biology issue Within the Adirondack Park a number of heritage strain of brook

trout exist which represent a large portion of the genetic diversity among brook trout in the

eastern United States These strains are native wild naturally reproducing fish that have not

been influenced by domestic strain stocked brook trout of unknown origin The major threats to

the survival of heritage brook trout populations include but are not limited to competition for

resources with non-native or introduced species lake acidification increasing water temperatures

poor land management and insufficient enforcement of fishing regulations The biodiversity of

brook trout is of particular concern due to tremendous loss of heritage populations due to the

introduction of stocked domestic strain brook trout Heritage strain brook trout have evolved in

isolation and adapted to the environmental conditions unique to their habitats therefore the

addition of outside genes may reduce the fitness of heritage strain brook trout

Along with genetic diversity the beauty and varying coloration of brook trout makes this

species highly attractive as a sport fish to recreationists who have ventured to the Adirondacks

since the early 1800s in pursuit of these fish The importance of brook trout as a sport fish in the

Adirondacks has both positives and negatives for the health and abundance of brook trout within

the Park Human pressure has contributed to eastern brook trout decline through overharvest and

harmful fishing practices but at the same time the accompanied increase in involvement and

awareness about the issue has led to successful conservation programs Brook trout occupy the

7

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

INTRODUCTION 9

METHODS 11

INTERVIEWS 11

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION13 SYSTEMS MODELING11

LITERATURE REVIEW 12

PROBLEM DEFINITION 12

BROOK13 TROUT NATURAL HISTORY 13

HISTORICAL ADIRONDACK13 PARK CONTEXT 13

UNDERSTANDING HERITAGE13 STRAIN BROOK TROUT 16

GENETIC DIVERSITY 20

ACIDIFIED WATERS23

WARMING13 WATERS 25

NON-shy‐NATIVE COMPETITORS 27

FISHING PRESSURE 30

MANAGEMENT31

Stocking 31

Liming34

Pond reclamation35

Non-shy‐native species 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS 38

NATIVE BROOK13 TROUT AND13 THEIR13 HABITATS38

iii

NON-shy‐PROFIT13 GROUPS 38

GOVERNMENT 39

FISHING GUIDES SHOPS AND LODGES 39

RECREATIONALISTS AND VISITORS40

RESEARCHERS 41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES 42

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 44

PARAMETERIZING13 SOLUTIONS44

IDENTIFICATION13 AND EVALUATION13 OF POTENTIAL13 SOLUTIONS 45

Comprehensively update the current brook13 trout management plan 46

Remove all non-shy‐native fish13 species from the Adirondacks 46

Eliminate global warming47

Stop13 toxic emissions48

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook13 trout strains 48

Reclaim lotic waterways 49

Increase youth participation and education50

IDENTIFICATION13 OF FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS51

IDENTIFICATION13 OF BEST13 SOLUTIONS52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION 53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN 55

CONCLUSIONS 57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 59

LITERATURE CITED 61

TABLE AND FIGURE CITATIONS 64

iv

APPENDICES 65

APPENDIX A INTERVIEW MATERIALS65

Interview questions asked of13 stakeholders during interviews65

List of subjects interviewed13 for this study67

Other subjects contacted for interview67

v

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1 Status of brook trout in the Northeast (EBTJV 2006) 15

Figure 2 Nine heritage waters in the Adirondacks as defined by Keller (1979) 18

Figure 3 Two heritage strain brook trout Photos courtesy of David Crowne 19

Figure 4 DEC map of brook trout decline from Saranac Lakes Wild Forest 30

Figure 5 DEC catch limit sign for Black Pond Photo courtey of Justin Dalaba 32

Figure 6 Graph depicting the number of reclaimed ponds by year Data courtesy of DEC 36

Figure 7 DEC fish barrier dam at Long Pond Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba 37

6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a cold water fish native to the eastern

United States that survives best in high-quality lakes ponds and streams Widely regarded as a

symbol of clean freshwater the drastic decline of original brook trout population levels in

regions such as the Adirondacks has made the survival of the brook trout an important

conservation biology issue Within the Adirondack Park a number of heritage strain of brook

trout exist which represent a large portion of the genetic diversity among brook trout in the

eastern United States These strains are native wild naturally reproducing fish that have not

been influenced by domestic strain stocked brook trout of unknown origin The major threats to

the survival of heritage brook trout populations include but are not limited to competition for

resources with non-native or introduced species lake acidification increasing water temperatures

poor land management and insufficient enforcement of fishing regulations The biodiversity of

brook trout is of particular concern due to tremendous loss of heritage populations due to the

introduction of stocked domestic strain brook trout Heritage strain brook trout have evolved in

isolation and adapted to the environmental conditions unique to their habitats therefore the

addition of outside genes may reduce the fitness of heritage strain brook trout

Along with genetic diversity the beauty and varying coloration of brook trout makes this

species highly attractive as a sport fish to recreationists who have ventured to the Adirondacks

since the early 1800s in pursuit of these fish The importance of brook trout as a sport fish in the

Adirondacks has both positives and negatives for the health and abundance of brook trout within

the Park Human pressure has contributed to eastern brook trout decline through overharvest and

harmful fishing practices but at the same time the accompanied increase in involvement and

awareness about the issue has led to successful conservation programs Brook trout occupy the

7

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

INTRODUCTION 9

METHODS 11

INTERVIEWS 11

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION13 SYSTEMS MODELING11

LITERATURE REVIEW 12

PROBLEM DEFINITION 12

BROOK13 TROUT NATURAL HISTORY 13

HISTORICAL ADIRONDACK13 PARK CONTEXT 13

UNDERSTANDING HERITAGE13 STRAIN BROOK TROUT 16

GENETIC DIVERSITY 20

ACIDIFIED WATERS23

WARMING13 WATERS 25

NON-shy‐NATIVE COMPETITORS 27

FISHING PRESSURE 30

MANAGEMENT31

Stocking 31

Liming34

Pond reclamation35

Non-shy‐native species 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS 38

NATIVE BROOK13 TROUT AND13 THEIR13 HABITATS38

iii

NON-shy‐PROFIT13 GROUPS 38

GOVERNMENT 39

FISHING GUIDES SHOPS AND LODGES 39

RECREATIONALISTS AND VISITORS40

RESEARCHERS 41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES 42

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 44

PARAMETERIZING13 SOLUTIONS44

IDENTIFICATION13 AND EVALUATION13 OF POTENTIAL13 SOLUTIONS 45

Comprehensively update the current brook13 trout management plan 46

Remove all non-shy‐native fish13 species from the Adirondacks 46

Eliminate global warming47

Stop13 toxic emissions48

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook13 trout strains 48

Reclaim lotic waterways 49

Increase youth participation and education50

IDENTIFICATION13 OF FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS51

IDENTIFICATION13 OF BEST13 SOLUTIONS52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION 53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN 55

CONCLUSIONS 57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 59

LITERATURE CITED 61

TABLE AND FIGURE CITATIONS 64

iv

APPENDICES 65

APPENDIX A INTERVIEW MATERIALS65

Interview questions asked of13 stakeholders during interviews65

List of subjects interviewed13 for this study67

Other subjects contacted for interview67

v

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1 Status of brook trout in the Northeast (EBTJV 2006) 15

Figure 2 Nine heritage waters in the Adirondacks as defined by Keller (1979) 18

Figure 3 Two heritage strain brook trout Photos courtesy of David Crowne 19

Figure 4 DEC map of brook trout decline from Saranac Lakes Wild Forest 30

Figure 5 DEC catch limit sign for Black Pond Photo courtey of Justin Dalaba 32

Figure 6 Graph depicting the number of reclaimed ponds by year Data courtesy of DEC 36

Figure 7 DEC fish barrier dam at Long Pond Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba 37

6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a cold water fish native to the eastern

United States that survives best in high-quality lakes ponds and streams Widely regarded as a

symbol of clean freshwater the drastic decline of original brook trout population levels in

regions such as the Adirondacks has made the survival of the brook trout an important

conservation biology issue Within the Adirondack Park a number of heritage strain of brook

trout exist which represent a large portion of the genetic diversity among brook trout in the

eastern United States These strains are native wild naturally reproducing fish that have not

been influenced by domestic strain stocked brook trout of unknown origin The major threats to

the survival of heritage brook trout populations include but are not limited to competition for

resources with non-native or introduced species lake acidification increasing water temperatures

poor land management and insufficient enforcement of fishing regulations The biodiversity of

brook trout is of particular concern due to tremendous loss of heritage populations due to the

introduction of stocked domestic strain brook trout Heritage strain brook trout have evolved in

isolation and adapted to the environmental conditions unique to their habitats therefore the

addition of outside genes may reduce the fitness of heritage strain brook trout

Along with genetic diversity the beauty and varying coloration of brook trout makes this

species highly attractive as a sport fish to recreationists who have ventured to the Adirondacks

since the early 1800s in pursuit of these fish The importance of brook trout as a sport fish in the

Adirondacks has both positives and negatives for the health and abundance of brook trout within

the Park Human pressure has contributed to eastern brook trout decline through overharvest and

harmful fishing practices but at the same time the accompanied increase in involvement and

awareness about the issue has led to successful conservation programs Brook trout occupy the

7

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

NON-shy‐PROFIT13 GROUPS 38

GOVERNMENT 39

FISHING GUIDES SHOPS AND LODGES 39

RECREATIONALISTS AND VISITORS40

RESEARCHERS 41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES 42

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 44

PARAMETERIZING13 SOLUTIONS44

IDENTIFICATION13 AND EVALUATION13 OF POTENTIAL13 SOLUTIONS 45

Comprehensively update the current brook13 trout management plan 46

Remove all non-shy‐native fish13 species from the Adirondacks 46

Eliminate global warming47

Stop13 toxic emissions48

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook13 trout strains 48

Reclaim lotic waterways 49

Increase youth participation and education50

IDENTIFICATION13 OF FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS51

IDENTIFICATION13 OF BEST13 SOLUTIONS52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION 53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN 55

CONCLUSIONS 57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 59

LITERATURE CITED 61

TABLE AND FIGURE CITATIONS 64

iv

APPENDICES 65

APPENDIX A INTERVIEW MATERIALS65

Interview questions asked of13 stakeholders during interviews65

List of subjects interviewed13 for this study67

Other subjects contacted for interview67

v

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1 Status of brook trout in the Northeast (EBTJV 2006) 15

Figure 2 Nine heritage waters in the Adirondacks as defined by Keller (1979) 18

Figure 3 Two heritage strain brook trout Photos courtesy of David Crowne 19

Figure 4 DEC map of brook trout decline from Saranac Lakes Wild Forest 30

Figure 5 DEC catch limit sign for Black Pond Photo courtey of Justin Dalaba 32

Figure 6 Graph depicting the number of reclaimed ponds by year Data courtesy of DEC 36

Figure 7 DEC fish barrier dam at Long Pond Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba 37

6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a cold water fish native to the eastern

United States that survives best in high-quality lakes ponds and streams Widely regarded as a

symbol of clean freshwater the drastic decline of original brook trout population levels in

regions such as the Adirondacks has made the survival of the brook trout an important

conservation biology issue Within the Adirondack Park a number of heritage strain of brook

trout exist which represent a large portion of the genetic diversity among brook trout in the

eastern United States These strains are native wild naturally reproducing fish that have not

been influenced by domestic strain stocked brook trout of unknown origin The major threats to

the survival of heritage brook trout populations include but are not limited to competition for

resources with non-native or introduced species lake acidification increasing water temperatures

poor land management and insufficient enforcement of fishing regulations The biodiversity of

brook trout is of particular concern due to tremendous loss of heritage populations due to the

introduction of stocked domestic strain brook trout Heritage strain brook trout have evolved in

isolation and adapted to the environmental conditions unique to their habitats therefore the

addition of outside genes may reduce the fitness of heritage strain brook trout

Along with genetic diversity the beauty and varying coloration of brook trout makes this

species highly attractive as a sport fish to recreationists who have ventured to the Adirondacks

since the early 1800s in pursuit of these fish The importance of brook trout as a sport fish in the

Adirondacks has both positives and negatives for the health and abundance of brook trout within

the Park Human pressure has contributed to eastern brook trout decline through overharvest and

harmful fishing practices but at the same time the accompanied increase in involvement and

awareness about the issue has led to successful conservation programs Brook trout occupy the

7

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

APPENDICES 65

APPENDIX A INTERVIEW MATERIALS65

Interview questions asked of13 stakeholders during interviews65

List of subjects interviewed13 for this study67

Other subjects contacted for interview67

v

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1 Status of brook trout in the Northeast (EBTJV 2006) 15

Figure 2 Nine heritage waters in the Adirondacks as defined by Keller (1979) 18

Figure 3 Two heritage strain brook trout Photos courtesy of David Crowne 19

Figure 4 DEC map of brook trout decline from Saranac Lakes Wild Forest 30

Figure 5 DEC catch limit sign for Black Pond Photo courtey of Justin Dalaba 32

Figure 6 Graph depicting the number of reclaimed ponds by year Data courtesy of DEC 36

Figure 7 DEC fish barrier dam at Long Pond Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba 37

6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a cold water fish native to the eastern

United States that survives best in high-quality lakes ponds and streams Widely regarded as a

symbol of clean freshwater the drastic decline of original brook trout population levels in

regions such as the Adirondacks has made the survival of the brook trout an important

conservation biology issue Within the Adirondack Park a number of heritage strain of brook

trout exist which represent a large portion of the genetic diversity among brook trout in the

eastern United States These strains are native wild naturally reproducing fish that have not

been influenced by domestic strain stocked brook trout of unknown origin The major threats to

the survival of heritage brook trout populations include but are not limited to competition for

resources with non-native or introduced species lake acidification increasing water temperatures

poor land management and insufficient enforcement of fishing regulations The biodiversity of

brook trout is of particular concern due to tremendous loss of heritage populations due to the

introduction of stocked domestic strain brook trout Heritage strain brook trout have evolved in

isolation and adapted to the environmental conditions unique to their habitats therefore the

addition of outside genes may reduce the fitness of heritage strain brook trout

Along with genetic diversity the beauty and varying coloration of brook trout makes this

species highly attractive as a sport fish to recreationists who have ventured to the Adirondacks

since the early 1800s in pursuit of these fish The importance of brook trout as a sport fish in the

Adirondacks has both positives and negatives for the health and abundance of brook trout within

the Park Human pressure has contributed to eastern brook trout decline through overharvest and

harmful fishing practices but at the same time the accompanied increase in involvement and

awareness about the issue has led to successful conservation programs Brook trout occupy the

7

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1 Status of brook trout in the Northeast (EBTJV 2006) 15

Figure 2 Nine heritage waters in the Adirondacks as defined by Keller (1979) 18

Figure 3 Two heritage strain brook trout Photos courtesy of David Crowne 19

Figure 4 DEC map of brook trout decline from Saranac Lakes Wild Forest 30

Figure 5 DEC catch limit sign for Black Pond Photo courtey of Justin Dalaba 32

Figure 6 Graph depicting the number of reclaimed ponds by year Data courtesy of DEC 36

Figure 7 DEC fish barrier dam at Long Pond Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba 37

6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a cold water fish native to the eastern

United States that survives best in high-quality lakes ponds and streams Widely regarded as a

symbol of clean freshwater the drastic decline of original brook trout population levels in

regions such as the Adirondacks has made the survival of the brook trout an important

conservation biology issue Within the Adirondack Park a number of heritage strain of brook

trout exist which represent a large portion of the genetic diversity among brook trout in the

eastern United States These strains are native wild naturally reproducing fish that have not

been influenced by domestic strain stocked brook trout of unknown origin The major threats to

the survival of heritage brook trout populations include but are not limited to competition for

resources with non-native or introduced species lake acidification increasing water temperatures

poor land management and insufficient enforcement of fishing regulations The biodiversity of

brook trout is of particular concern due to tremendous loss of heritage populations due to the

introduction of stocked domestic strain brook trout Heritage strain brook trout have evolved in

isolation and adapted to the environmental conditions unique to their habitats therefore the

addition of outside genes may reduce the fitness of heritage strain brook trout

Along with genetic diversity the beauty and varying coloration of brook trout makes this

species highly attractive as a sport fish to recreationists who have ventured to the Adirondacks

since the early 1800s in pursuit of these fish The importance of brook trout as a sport fish in the

Adirondacks has both positives and negatives for the health and abundance of brook trout within

the Park Human pressure has contributed to eastern brook trout decline through overharvest and

harmful fishing practices but at the same time the accompanied increase in involvement and

awareness about the issue has led to successful conservation programs Brook trout occupy the

7

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The eastern brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a cold water fish native to the eastern

United States that survives best in high-quality lakes ponds and streams Widely regarded as a

symbol of clean freshwater the drastic decline of original brook trout population levels in

regions such as the Adirondacks has made the survival of the brook trout an important

conservation biology issue Within the Adirondack Park a number of heritage strain of brook

trout exist which represent a large portion of the genetic diversity among brook trout in the

eastern United States These strains are native wild naturally reproducing fish that have not

been influenced by domestic strain stocked brook trout of unknown origin The major threats to

the survival of heritage brook trout populations include but are not limited to competition for

resources with non-native or introduced species lake acidification increasing water temperatures

poor land management and insufficient enforcement of fishing regulations The biodiversity of

brook trout is of particular concern due to tremendous loss of heritage populations due to the

introduction of stocked domestic strain brook trout Heritage strain brook trout have evolved in

isolation and adapted to the environmental conditions unique to their habitats therefore the

addition of outside genes may reduce the fitness of heritage strain brook trout

Along with genetic diversity the beauty and varying coloration of brook trout makes this

species highly attractive as a sport fish to recreationists who have ventured to the Adirondacks

since the early 1800s in pursuit of these fish The importance of brook trout as a sport fish in the

Adirondacks has both positives and negatives for the health and abundance of brook trout within

the Park Human pressure has contributed to eastern brook trout decline through overharvest and

harmful fishing practices but at the same time the accompanied increase in involvement and

awareness about the issue has led to successful conservation programs Brook trout occupy the

7

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

same waters as two non-native trout including brown and rainbow trout which have been

introduced through stocking as another important sport fish Due to their different life histories

and brook troutrsquos poor competitiveness with other species brook trout populations are

dramatically reduced when in the same water as introduced non-native fish

Management efforts have seemed to shift their focus toward favoring the reestablishment

of brook trout however this comes with trade-offs for the wild native brook trout Better

understanding of the issues Adirondack heritage brook trout face can help bring awareness about

how to best manage the remaining populations of these ice-age descendants In order to ensure

the continued success of Adirondack heritage strain brook trout we suggest comprehensively

updating the current management plan continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution

and global warming and increasing youth participation and education Sufficient funding for

research and management is crucial to ensure the preservation of remaining heritage brook trout

genetic diversity

8

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

INTRODUCTION

This comprehensive case study involves two stories The first story about the decline of

eastern brook trout in general sets the stage for the second story about heritage strain brook trout

which are biological remnants of Adirondack history In order to understand the problems that

heritage strain brook trout face it is important to first understand the larger context of the brook

trout decline that has occurred throughout this trout speciesrsquo native range in the eastern United

States To begin with we will first provide a brief natural history of eastern brook trout

including how the trout came about colonizing the northeast and how their extent has changed

significantly While exploring the natural history of eastern brook trout we will also address

what a heritage strain brook trout is and why these unique strains are important to biodiversity

After setting the stage to understand eastern brook trout natural history and the role it

plays in the decline of heritage strain brook trout we will then delve into the threats of

environmental stress and the human impacts on the persistence of heritage strain brook trout

Environmental threats include acid rain deposition from the burning of fossil fuels and rising

water temperature as a result of global climate change while human impacts include the

introduction of non-native competitors and overfishing pressure Each of these threats will be

discussed in their own section of the Problem Definition concluding with an examination of why

heritage strain brook trout conservation is a biodiversity issue The relation of each threat to the

management and solutions for restoring brook trout populations will be explored later in this case

study Also incorporated into the Problem Definition are the stories of success and failure for

heritage strain brook trout to recover from decline

Next the past and current management practices for brook trout in general will be

examined as well as those that exist for heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks The

9

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

current New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) management plan

for wild and hybrid brook trout was established in 1979 as a 15-year plan and it is still used and

referenced today (Fieroh personal communication1 Keller 1979) Within the management

section of this case study we will discuss DEC efforts to reduce lake acidification through the

use of liming projects the reclamation of lakes and ponds to reestablish these waterbodies with

heritage brook trout and baitfish restrictions In addition to protecting the diminished number

heritage strain brook trout waters the goal of DEC management efforts is to restore heritage

strain brook trout populations so that the trout will continue to breed naturally in wild

populations providing rich angling experiences to fishermen

After management efforts are presented we will transition to the stakeholders involved in

the issue of brook trout decline and the role that these stakeholders play in the future of heritage

brook trout in the Adirondacks For the purpose of this case study we identify a stakeholder as

any individual organization of individuals or animal that has a direct or indirect interest or

reliance upon heritage strain brook trout populations throughout the Adirondacks and the

northeast The stakeholders may range from the ecosystems supporting brook trout to those who

study and appreciate the existence of heritage strain brook trout or those making legislation to

reduce fossil fuel emissions and contribute to the recovery of acidified waters

Finally this case study will identify the potential solutions feasible solutions and best

solutions for restoring heritage strain brook trout in the Adirondacks Along with parameterizing

and identifying satisfactory solutions we suggest how to best implement these solutions In order

to ensure ease of implementation for our proposed solutions we lay out a step-by-step

implementation plan This plan takes into consideration the importance of improving heritage

1 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

strain brook trout populations as well as the value in maintaining healthy ecosystems and

fisheries within the Adirondacks The conservation of heritage brook trout the last remnants of

once prolific brook trout populations should be a priority to conservation biologists because

without better management and restoration efforts an important genetic resource will be on the

brink of being lost forever

METHODS

In order to complete this comprehensive case study we utilized several research methods

in order to better understand and critically analyze the conservation issues surrounding heritage

brook trout

Interviews

We reached out to a number of stakeholders to conduct phone interviews including fly-

fishing shops DEC personnel university researchers and fly-fishermen The purpose of these

interviews was to understand the multitude of stakeholders and the perspectives of those who are

deeply engaged in the management and use of heritage brook trout Interviews were conducted

via phone after initial email contact When necessary we followed up with the stakeholders we

interviewed by email for additional questions and resources A list of questions asked during

each phone interview can be found in Appendix A

Geographic information systems modeling

Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was conducted using ESRIrsquos ArcGIS

version 1031 software All data was provided by courtesy of the St Lawrence University GIS

Program the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the Eastern Brook Trout

Joint Venture (EBTJV)

11

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Literature review

We conducted a comprehensive literature review utilizing sources from online databases

DEC publications and web pages newspaper articles North Country Public Radio (NCPR)

reports magazine articles fishing forum posts and non-profit organization publications Peer-

reviewed scientific literature was obtained using Web of Science JSTOR and Google Scholar

DEC publications and web pages were retrieved from either the DEC website or from personal

communication with Jon Fieroh the DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist Newspaper articles were

retrieved through the St Lawrence University web search platforms and general web searches

NCPR reports were found by searching the NCPR website Magazine articles were located via

Google searches Publications from non-profit organizations including reports presentations and

conservation action plans were obtained from Trout Unlimited and the EBTJV

PROBLEM DEFINITION

The pertinent threats to New York brook trout that the EBTJV identifies in descending

order include high water temperature the spread of one or more non-native fish brown trout

poor land management beavers and riparian habitat impairment and destruction (EBTJV 2006)

The two major threats to Adirondack brook trout in particular which the DEC manages include

the effects of acid deposition and the introduction of non-native competitors In order to

understand all of the potential environmental stressors and problems facing heritage strain brook

trout one must first have a sense of how the eastern brook trout colonized the Adirondack region

and the speciesrsquo importance to the history of the Park Exactly what a heritage strain brook trout

is and their unique genetic diversity will also be explored Brook trout natural history and the

importance of heritage strain brook trout contextualize the vulnerability of these fish to

12

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

environmental stress and human pressure Finally we will present information to understand the

management efforts that are necessary to conserve this biodiverse species

Brook trout natural history

The ancient order of fish that eastern brook trout belong to had its beginnings more than

100 million years ago in the Oligocene Epoch Today the Salmonidae include the salmons

trouts chars whitefishes and ciscos all varying in outward appearance (Karas 1997) On one

side of the Salmonidae family tree are the two genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus which include

brown and rainbow trout what many consider to be the only ldquotrue troutsrdquo On the other side of

the family tree is the genus Salvelinus which includes the S alpinus species (Arctic char) S

fontinalis species (brook trout) and the S namaycush species (lake trout) Lake trout prefer deep

landlocked waters and dwell in the depths of Adirondack lakes where cold dark and highly

oxygenated water is found Brook trout also require highly oxygenated water but can be found

in both lentic (stillwater) and lotic (moving water) systems including stillwater lakes and flowing

streams or rivers respectively (Earl 2010) Two other trout species are found in the Adirondacks

brown trout (Salmo trutta) which is a European trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

from the western United States both introduced for sport fishing purposes (McCullough and

Stegemann 1991) Although rainbow trout brown trout and brook trout all belong to the

Salmonidae family they each belong to a different genus and species In summary brook trout

are not truly a trout but are close relatives of the Arctic char which influences their life history

and the types of cold water habitats they prefer to live in (Foley 2015)

Historical Adirondack Park context

Eastern brook trout populations once spanned from Georgia to the Hudson Bay however

their range has been significantly diminished from their previous extent (EBTJV 2006)

13

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Unfortunately their original extent in the northeast has been reduced to very few intact regions

with the Adirondacks holding important remnant populations (Fig 1)

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture showing the current range of brook trout in the Northeastern United States as of 2006 Green regions represent where original brook trout populations remain intact red regions represent where there has been a significant reduction in population levels and grey regions show where eastern brook trout no longer exist

14

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Given the prevalence of original populations of brook trout in the Adirondacks few

places remain as synonymous with brook trout fishing as the Adirondacks of New York State To

fully understand the role that brook trout have played throughout the history of the Adirondack

Park it is imperative to first understand how brook trout came to be in the lakes ponds and

streams of the Adirondacks

Spotted with glacial scars and mountainous peaks the Adirondacks are home to many

unique waters where brook trout have come to be considered different strains due to their

isolation within specific waterways and watersheds The last glacier to have covered the

Adirondack region which began about 55000 years ago has shaped the current distribution of

brook trout (Karas 1997) The retreat of the last glacier to cover the Adirondacks was uneven

causing repeated scouring of that land that created the many ponds and lakes that the

Adirondacks now contain After a long period of melting and re-entering valleys then melting

again through climatic shifts this glacier made a new range of habitats available for brook trout

as it moved northward resulting in the opportunity for brook trout to inhabit the northeastern

United States (Karas 1997) Such geologic activity dictated what water bodies would exist

therefore predetermining the distribution of brook trout populations still prevalent today

Brook trout were assigned as the official New York state fish in 1975 and have come to

symbolize cold clean waters throughout Appalachia and north into Canada including the remote

Adirondack wilderness (Hackett 2013) Not all aquatic ecosystems have remained pristine in the

Adirondack State Park due to acid deposition and habitat destruction Such negative habitat

impacts have led to efforts by the DEC to stock brook trout in water bodies that have

experienced population decline which will be explained more in the coming sections

Unfortunately for brook trout present today the glacier-scarred terrain of the Adirondacks has a

15

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

geology prone to acidification and waters with sparse aquatic insect life two components that

reduce the chances of waters producing large brook trout (Karas 1997)

In addition to the natural history it is important to understand the history of human

activity within the Adirondack region The opportunity for land development among the dense

forests and mountains brought people to the region and resulted in the economic exploitation of

minerals timber water hydroelectric and tourism resources The Adirondack Park and Preserve

which encompasses over six million acres has largely been stripped of the original forest and

many of its rivers have been harnessed for electricity (Karas 1997) The money from early

development and exploitation had both opened the door to brook trout fishing and eventually

destroyed the fishery Logging and wood harvesting have been identified as major threats to

brook trout in the past due to the resulting habitat disturbance and siltation contributing to the

reduced populations at present in comparison to historic levels (NYS DEC 2015) Some studies

have pointed to fragmentation of habitats by dams and roads as having a local or regional effect

on brook trout decline (Hudy et al 2008) however this fragmentation does not appear to be a

major threat to Adirondack brook trout at present The natural and developmental history of the

Adirondacks provides the basis for understanding how brook trout have become tremendously

depleted from their historical levels and why there is such a large need for management of their

population levels today

Understanding heritage strain brook trout

In 1979 DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist Walt Keller published the brook trout

management plan that defined 11 unique heritage brook trout strains in New York State Of these

11 strains nine strains were native to Adirondack waters whereas the other two strains could be

found in the Catskill Mountains When establishing the 11 heritage strains in the state Keller

16

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

defined a strain as ldquoa genetically distinct group of individuals of common origin and identified

by the water(s) of origin of the parent stock(s)rdquo (Keller 1979) Similarly the Cornell Department

of Natural Resources (DNR) defines heritage brook trout populations as ldquowild strains of brook

trout that maintain the original genetic characteristics of a specific lake populationrdquo (Honnedaga

Lakehellip2016) Each of these heritage strains contain phenotypic differences and genetic studies

of brook trout populations confirmed that the 11 heritage strains are genetically unique (Perkins

et al 1993) The eleven New York strains were named according to the lake that they were found

in including Balsam Lake Dix Pond Honnedaga Lake Horn Lake Little Tupper Lake Nate

Pond Stink Lake Tamarack Pond Tunis Lake and two Windfall Ponds (Keller 1979) All but

Balsam Lake and Tunis Lake exist within the Adirondacks (Fig 2)

17

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Tamarack Pond

~ 160 320 Meters

Windfall Pond (Herkimer County)

100 200 P1etes

stink Lake

250 500 Metergt

Heritage brook trout wa ters in the Adirondack State Park

1 875 3 750 Meters 2550 5100 Meters

60 Kilom eters ___

Legend

Windfall Pond (Franklin County)

r 500 1000 Meters

Dix Pond

~ 60 120 Meters

Nate Pond

3) 0 400 Me ters

~ Heritage Brno k Tri ut Waters

D Adirondack State Park Blue line

D NYS County Bour daries

Cre ated by Justin Dalaba April 28 20 16

Da ta source Keller 1979 amp St Lawrence Universit y GIS Lab

Figure 2 Source ponds for the original nine strains of Adirondack heritage brook trout as defined by Keller (1979) Map created in ArcMap GIS software

Since the original distinction of the nine Adirondack heritage strains the Tamarack Pond strain

has been lost and one Windfall Pond strain and the Nate Pond strain are endangered or close to

extinction (Earl 2010)

Heritage brook trout from these source ponds are known to vary in their outward

characteristics or phenotype based off of strain (Fig 3)

18

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Figure 3 Adirondack heritage strain brook trout from two different water bodies On the left is a Windfall heritage strain and on the right is a Little Tupper heritage strain Note phenotypic differences in coloration between the two different strains Photos courtesy of David Crowne

Fishermen claim that heritage brook trout coloration varies noticeably depending upon the

environment or body of water they live in even within the Adirondacks which is one reason that

the trout are so attractive as a sport fish (Natural Selections 2006) It is important to note that all

of the heritage brook trout strains in the Adirondacks are from ponded waters Keller (1979) did

not address potential heritage strains in flowing waters However it suspected that there very

well may be heritage strains of brook trout in a number of remote Adirondack streams and rivers

such as the Cold River (Braico personal communication2) A lack of funding lack of adequate

personnel and large geographic area required for a complete study are reasons why the DEC has

not conducted stream and river surveys of potential new heritage strains (Braico personal

communication3)

As far as heritage brook trout are concerned small ponded waters act as a last refuge

because the brook trout that once inhabited the large bodies of water in the Adirondacks have

2 Email 10 March 2016 3 Email 10 March 2016

19

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

been lost forever and are now stocked (Radovich personal communication4) The eastern United

States has a long history of trout stocking programs which have led to a dramatic decrease in the

number of original (pre-stocking) brook trout populations While stocking programs will be

covered more in-depth when reviewing management practices it is important to understand the

role that past stocking practices have played in diminishing brook trout genetic diversity

The effects of stocking practices have made it necessary to define specific strains as ldquoheritagerdquo

Domesticated brook trout were first stocked by the DEC in New York State in 1879-1880 These

domesticated brook trout were selected for stocking programs based not off of their ability to

survive in the wild but their ability to thrive in the hatchery system (Fieroh personal

communication5) The introduction of domesticated brook trout led to intraspecific breeding

between wild strain brook trout and domestic strain brook trout harming the fitness of wild

strain brook trout After well over a century of stocking domestic strain brook trout wild strain

brook trout are so unique as to require a separate definition as a ldquoheritagerdquo strain brook trout

Such heritage strain brook trout have no known stocking history Throughout the entire native

range of brook trout in the eastern US heritage strains exist only in a limited number of places

including Maine northern New Hampshire and Vermont and the Adirondacks (TU

Conservation Success Index2007)

Genetic diversity

In the interest of conservation biology the preservation of the unique resource of heritage

strain brook trout biodiversity is of primary importance As previously alluded to intraspecific

breeding that results from the introduction of domesticated brook trout is a threat to the overall

4 Phone Interview 8 April 20165 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

20

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

genetic diversity among heritage strain brook trout as well as the fitness of these unique

individuals When a population of fish has been isolated for many years and has adapted to the

specific conditions of their local environment the introduction of outside genes can result in

reduction of fitness which means populations are not able to maintain or increase their numbers

in succeeding generations

It has been suggested that individual heritage populations should be the primary

ecological units on which management strategies are based due to the unique genetic differences

that have been confirmed among most of the heritage waters outlined by Walt Keller in 1979

(Perkins et al 1993) While brook trout are not the only trout species present in Adirondack

waters the differing life histories between brook trout rainbow trout and brown trout prevent

interspecific breeding to form hybrid trout except for in rare unusual cases that do not occur

often in the wild These three trout species may spawn in the some of the same waters however

their physical characteristics and variances in spawning times and location of nests create a

barrier for hybridization among species (Phares 2005)

Genetic variation is what allows part of a population to survive should environmental

conditions change in a way that favors one genetic composition over another based on greater

individual fitness (Frankham 2005) Low-diversity populations are more likely to suffer from

loss of adaptive genetic diversity as a result of inevitable inbreeding for small closed

reproducing populations (Frankham et al 2014) Furthermore there is compelling evidence to

support the hypothesis that inbreeding depression loss of adaptive genetic diversity and the

accumulation of deleterious alleles in wild species can increase extinction risk (Frankham 2005)

In the context of heritage brook trout populations that have been isolated for many generations

inbreeding depression and loss of allelic richness from mutation accumulation could be

21

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

indicative of suppressed ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress However lack of

funding for scientific research in this area has resulted in a lack of complete understanding for

Adirondack brook trout genetic diversity Some researchers have not been able to distinguish

between different life history strategies or examine possible genetic differences among eastern

brook trout populations because the data were unavailable for 80 percent of sub watersheds

suggesting a significant lack of knowledge around genetic variation (Hudy et al 2008)

When heritage strain brook trout that exist in isolation are managed through stocking of

additional brook trout they could perhaps become more vulnerable to environmental stress due

to a reduced pool of adaptive genes For these reasons the conservation of biodiversity among

heritage strain brook trout that have long evolved to survive in their unique habitats should be a

priority Early studies examined overall longevity of wild domestic and hybrid (intraspecific)

strains of brook trout in the Adirondacks and found wild and hybrid strains to consistently

exhibit greater longevity to domestically-produced fish in the absence of fishing pressure (Flick

and Webster 1976) The gross production and lifespan per unit of wild and hybrid groups was 50

percent greater than domestic strains per unit of fish stocked This preliminary research may

demonstrate greater ability of hybrids to survive in the wild however their resilience is not

reflected in their ability to reproduce successfully (Flick and Webster1976)

There is some confidence to be gained in understanding the effectiveness of management

at supporting longer-lived more environmentally tolerant individuals yet hybridization also

comes at a cost of losing the original genetics of a population More importantly the threat to

biodiversity of Adirondack brook trout due to their long-term isolation in some waters will likely

have implications for brook troutrsquos ability to respond to environmental change There appears to

be an existing gap in the scientific knowledge due to lack of funding for specialized biologists to

22

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

study these special fish (Crowne personal communication6) Overall it is important to

understand the amount of genetic diversity of brook trout in the Adirondacks that may have been

lost for various reasons which will be explored further in the next sections

Acidified waters

The environment brook trout originally colonized became more acidic as brook trout

range expanded northward following melting continental ice sheets increasing brook trout range

to include waterways surrounded by coniferous forests and leading to the development of the

ability to cope with waters high in tannic acid leaching into the surrounding water Eastern brook

trout can generally survive a fairly wide pH range depending on their environment but their

ability to function and reproduce becomes greatly suppressed when pH falls below five (Warren

et al 2005) From 1984 to 1987 research showed that nearly twenty five percent of waters in the

Adirondacks had pH values of five or less representing critically hazardous conditions for the

survival of brook trout (Roy et al 2012) Acid rain deposition in the Adirondacks has historically

led to pH levels that push the lower limit of brook trout survival in the already acidic coniferous-

leachate filled waters with low buffering capacity

The watersheds within the Adirondacks composed largely of crystalline bedrock are

much more susceptible to acidification Adirondack highland waters that are located above

granite or other igneous bedrock have relatively low capacity to buffer acidity in comparison to

lowland regions with higher buffering capacity due to limestone or marble bedrock composition

(Chiarenzelli et al 2012) Additionally the elevated terrain impermeable bedrock and relatively

high amounts of rain make this region one of the most sensitive to acidification in North America

6 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 23

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

(Roy et al 2012) Fossil fuel emissions are a major source of acid and mercury deposition in

Adirondack waters due to the release of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from industrial activity

in the Midwest travelling downwind to the Adirondacks (Roy et al 2012) High mercury

concentrations and their sub-lethal effects on food chains are also identified as a potential

problem facing heritage strain brook trout from fossil fuel emissions (Josephson personal

communication7) All of this has contributed to greater acidification of the unique heritage brook

trout habitats over the past century

There are success stories however as some Adirondack waters have made a significant

recovery from acidification As an example the natural recovery of Honnedaga Lake stands as

an homage to the resiliency of both Adirondack waters and brook trout Keller (1979) identified

the Honnedaga heritage strain of brook trout to be in grave danger of being lost due to

acidification of Honnedaga Lake When Keller (1979) assessed heritage strains the Honnedaga

strain was predicted to go extinct For several decades there was no sign of the trout and the

brook trout were thought to be lost from this habitat (Fieroh personal communication8) The lake

never received pH-raising lime treatments yet managed to naturally recover from acidification

over time After little attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s the native strain brook

trout were again observed in the lake (Honnedaga Lake2016) The Honnedaga strain brook

trout likely sought refuge in feeder streams to the lake where waters contained more tolerable

pH levels Once the lake naturally recovered from acidification the trout began returning to

repopulate its waters

7 Phone Interview ndash 31 March 2016 8 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

24

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Other acidified waters have improved through DEC management efforts which will be

explored later in the management section There is sufficient evidence that there has been an

overall improvement in acidified brook trout waters however data reflect a tendency for greater

acidification of the westernmost Adirondacks where acid rain had a larger impact in the past

(Fieroh personal communication9 Chiarenzelli et al 2012) The general understanding by the

scientists and conservationists who were interviewed for this case study seems to be that

Adirondack waters have not all been impacted equally but there still has been a great overall

decline in heritage brook trout populations of the Adirondacks

Warming waters

Climate change is an environmental issue that is global in scope but one that affects local

habitats and ecosystems in many different ways In the Adirondacks one of the biggest effects

that climate change has on brook trout is the elevation of maximum daily summertime water

temperatures Increasing summer temperatures from climate change is a danger to the persistence

of the cold water brook trout (Josephson personal communication10)

Studies have been able to suggest that stocked brook trout tend to be more sensitive to

warmer water temperatures and acidification than brown and rainbow trout which are the two

other commonly stocked species Interestingly one study recovered samples of brook trout after

stocking and found that high water temperatures above 68 degrees Fahrenheit did not seem to

affect angler catch rates and made stocked brook trout especially vulnerable to angling pressure

as they concentrated in cold water refuges (Baird et al 2006) Brook trout generally have an

ideal temperature range between 35 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit which is why they concentrated to

9 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 10 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

25

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

seek the most tolerable water conditions (Robinson et al 2010) By pooling in cool water

however brook trout thus become more vulnerable to angling pressure Additionally warmer

water temperatures are shown to impact brook trout spawning activity as brook trout usually

select sites to construct redds (nests) based on the presence of constant-temperature discharging

water One study showed elevated summer temperatures of maximum daily increase by one

degree Celsius delayed spawning by approximately one week and resulted in a significant

decrease in the number of redds constructed in a given year (Warren et al 2012)

It is important to note that anthropogenic impacts on water temperature in aquatic

ecosystems may occur at small levels from land management practices or at large spatial extents

such as climate change impacts on stratification In the case of stratified (layered) lakes the

Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy outlines several concerns associated with

warming water that could be applied to brook trout including oxygen depletion from prolonged

stratification smaller cold water habitats increased predation from introduced warm-tolerant fish

and possible increase in metabolism resulting in higher food demands and smaller less-vigorous

fish (Thill 2014) One 8-year study on a stratified lake used number of degree days exceeding

stress level as an index of cumulative annual thermal stress and provided empirical evidence that

summer temperatures strongly influence brook trout consumption reproduction and mortality

(Robinson et al 2010) This study also observed that warmer summer water temperatures

negatively impacted larger older age-classes of brook trout more than younger age classes

which supports prior literature that the greater metabolic demands of larger fish make larger fish

more vulnerable to warmer water temperatures (Robinson et al 2010) As most fishermen will

tell you it is the larger brook trout that are more desirable to catch and there is some concern

26

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

with a lack of older age-classes of these fish in some isolated waters (Crowne personal

communication11)

Non-native competitors

The introduction of non-native fish species to the Adirondacks has been extremely

detrimental to native brook trout The EBTJV has identified the introduction of one or more non-

native fish species as one of the top five threats facing the eastern brook trout (EBTJV 2006)

With the introduction of non-native trout species (such as brown trout and rainbow trout) as well

as other non-native warmer water fish (largemouth and smallmouth bass yellow perch northern

pike golden shiners rock bass black crappie and others) brook trout suddenly must face drastic

increased competition for resources (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) Such non-native warmer

water species are often referred to as ldquorough fishrdquo When brook trout share waters and compete

with rough fish brook trout are known to become infertile and show greatly reduced

reproduction (Flick and Webster 1992) In regards to non-native trout species brown and

rainbow trout have a higher tolerance for varying water conditions which allows these trout

species to establish themselves in the same locales as brook trout and prove to be highly

successful competitors to native brook trout (McCullough and Stegemann 1991) The devastating

impacts of introduced non-native species are exemplified in an ongoing heritage brook trout

crisis in Little Tupper Lake

Little Tupper Lake is a 2300 acre water body in the William C Whitney Wilderness and

Round Lake Wilderness that is home to the Little Tupper Lake strain of brook trout (William C

Whitney2016) Little Tupper Lake escaped the introduction of non-native species for decades

11 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 27

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

as it was once private property owned by the Whitney family (Stager 2016) When the lake was

acquired by New York State the DEC put in regulations that mandated a catch limit and bait fish

restrictions (Stager 2016) The DEC received warnings from a disgruntled local that if the

regulations were not changed heshe would release smallmouth bass into the lake (Crowne

personal communication12) The DEC upheld their regulations as they were considered the best

practices available for that body of water Soon thereafter smallmouth bass appeared in the lake

(Stager 2008 Fieroh personal communication13 Stephenson personal communication14

Crowne personal communication15) Debate over the smallmouth bass introduction continues

today with members of the public claiming that they know what local released the bass and also

claiming that the DEC is aware of what local committed the crime (Crowne personal

communication16)

In 1979 the Little Tupper Lake strain was identified as being in no apparent danger of

loss (Keller 1979) However as one fisherman said if you put bass in a pond like Little Tupper

ldquoin 15 minutes you lose 15000 yearsrdquo as brook trout are displaced by the non-native species

(Crowne personal communication17) The outlook is not good for Little Tupper Lake and the

brook trout fishing is said to be nothing like what it used to be (Fieroh personal

communication18) Little Tupper Lake is a perfect example of what can happen when non-native

species are introduced into a brook trout monoculture and of how delicate brook trout

ecosystems are The change reduction of brook trout populations in Little Tupper Lake is not an

12 Phone Interview 2 April 201613 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 14 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 15 Phone Interview 2 April 201616 Phone Interview 2 April 201617 Phone Interview 2 April 201618 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

28

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

isolated occurrence as Weidel et al (2007) found from in-situ experiments that smallmouth bass

have significant negative impacts on brook trout populations

As a another dramatic example of brook trout decline the brook trout populations within

the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest are reduced to roughly three percent compared to 94 percent of

historical acreage of the waters in that area (Fig4)

Figure 4 Map depicting the historic and current range of native brook trout populations within the Saranac Lakes Wild Forest (Protecting Adirondackhellip 2016)

The loss of brook trout waters is primarily a result of non-native fish introduction (Protecting

Adirondackhellip2016) Brook trout generally ldquodonrsquot play well with othersrdquo and tend to do best

29

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

where they exist as a monoculture (Fieroh personal communication19) We see one of the

greatest concerns to heritage brook troutrsquos continued success as the prevention of non-native fish

species introductions Non-native fish species and their capabilities to out-compete brook trout

make the prevention of establishment and removal of such non-native species vital to the

continuation of heritage brook trout in Adirondack waterways

Fishing pressure

Heritage strain brook trout are a special concord of colors which helps to make them

very appealing to fishermen The brook troutrsquos blood-orange coloration is amplified during the

spawning season resulting in an even more eye-catching fish for the lucky fisherman For

anglers of the mid-1850s who vacationed from Long Island New Jersey Pennsylvania and

southern New England the once-horde of Adirondack brook trout was likely seen as a

fishermenrsquos paradise (Karas 1997) At the time fishing pressure was unregulated and likely took

a toll on some numbers of fish Today there is still fishing pressure but better regulations are in

place to limit the impact of recreational fishing on heritage brook trout populations There is

however a potential issue of enforcement for the take limit and fishing practices Active

fishermen have noted that their fishing licenses have rarely been checked likely a result of the

DEC lacking personnel to do so (Crowne personal communication20 Radovich personal

communication21) A lack of DEC presence at Adirondack waters could mean that some

fishermen may be taking more than the recommended limit In addition many fishermen utilize

potentially harmful fishing practices such as the Lake Clear Wobbler and worm Harmful

19 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 20 Phone Interview 2 April 201621 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

30

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

fishing practices such as the use of treble hooks reduce the survival of released trout At some

ponds such as Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College voluntary

catch limits have been put in place by the DEC to reduce brook trout population decreases (Fig

5)

Figure 5 A sign calling for the voluntary reduction of catch limits posted by the DEC at Black Pond in the Visitorrsquos Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The DEC found that between 2010 and 2012 the overall brook trout population had seemed reduced by two thirds which prompted the DEC to recommend a voluntary catch limit of two or three fish Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

Management

Stocking

The DEC first outlined their management practices for heritage strain brook trout in the

Adirondacks in the comprehensive report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New

31

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

York Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams The management plan was crafted by Walt Keller

former DEC Associate Aquatic Biologist in October 1979 The document presents a 15-year

management plan to guide DEC policies and conservation efforts pertaining to wild and heritage

strain brook trout (Keller 1979) This management plan is still in use today to guide and inform

DEC policy though it is currently under consideration for updates to include current

recommendations for heritage brook trout management (NYS DEC 2015 Fieroh personal

communication22) As previously mentioned Keller identified 11 strains of New York heritage

brook trout nine of which could be found in waters currently within the boundaries of the

Adirondack State Park Key management practices of the plan include stocking policies acid

waters management and pond reclamation (Keller 1979)

Early efforts of trout stocking by the DEC began around 1879-80 with trout selected for

breeding that grew fast had strong disease resistance grew well in the hatchery system and

matured quickly (Fieroh personal communication23) The stocking program policies put in place

by Keller after 1979 are largely still utilized at present The DEC currently operates a number of

brook trout stocking programs including the stocking of hybrid brook trout (a domestic strain

crossed with a Temiscamie strain and a domestic strain crossed with a Windfall strain)

domestic-strain brook rainbow and brown trout and heritage strain brook trout (Lynch 2015)

Early hatchery-raised brook trout produced fish that did not live as long as native

Adirondack brook trout when released into the wild In the 1950s Dr Dwight Webster of

Cornell University retrieved a Canadian strain of brook trout from northern Quebec the

Temiscamie strain and introduced it first to Cornell hatchery systems and later DEC hatchery

22 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 23 Phone Interview 16 March 2016

32

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

systems Temiscamie strain brook trout were unlike former hatchery-raised fish in their ability to

live long and get large once released into the wild Temiscamie hybrids are stocked as fingerlings

at four inches in lakes which generally have non-native species and would be unable to support

heritage brook trout populations The stocked trout are not expected to reproduce but instead

only to provide recreational fishing opportunities In addition Temiscamie hybrids are known to

be easy to catch and survive very well in the wild making them an ideal sport fish (Fieroh

personal communication24)

Domestic-strain brook trout which are hatchery-bred trout of unknown origin are

stocked in rivers and streams in addition to lakes and ponds There is debate over current DEC

stocking practices pertaining to waters that may have potential for natural brook trout

reproduction However a DEC spokesperson in 2015 reported that the New York State DEC

does not stock any species of trout when there is a population of wild brook trout that represent

75 percent or more the waterrsquos carrying capacity (Lynch 2015)

The DEC Region 5 is presently stocking 67000 heritage brook trout annually of the

Horn Lake strain one Windfall strain and Little Tupper Lake strain in lakes and ponds deemed

suitable for natural reproduction Heritage brook trout are maintained as a ldquowild strainrdquo with the

DEC catching spawning trout and retaining the eggs and milt to spawn raise to fingerling size in

hatcheries and then release into heritage waters (Demong 2001) Some trout are raised to be

yearlings prior to release Heritage strain brook trout are stocked in ponds which have been

determined to be capable of supporting natural reproduction and with the hopes of creating self-

sustaining populations (Keller 1979) Keller (1979) identified hybrid and wild strain trout as

24 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 33

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

offering the best future for sustaining New Yorkrsquos brook trout fisheries due to the fishrsquos

ldquosuperior survival yield longevity in-pond growth size and natural reproductionrdquo

Liming

The DEC has been liming lakes since the 1960s as another large form of management in

order to addresses the acidification of Adirondack lakes However due to reductions in the

amount of airborne nitrates formerly acidified Adirondack lakes have been recovering from

acidification far quicker than previously thought possible (Fieroh personal communication25

Crowne personal communication26) The success of natural recovery is often attributed to the

implementation of the Clean Air Act in 1955 as well as the continued enforcement of cleaner air

policy which will be reviewed in the Government section (Fieroh personal communication27

Josephson personal communication28 Crowne personal communication29) The natural

recovery from acidification in some Adirondack ponds has been successful enough that the

Cornell Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has stopped liming many of their historically-

limed lakes over the past three years There are examples of at least 17 lakes through the

Adirondacks that have exhibited natural recovery without the use of liming techniques

(Josephson personal communication30) The DEC continues to lime lakes via boat and helicopter

optimistic of continued success with the program (The Associated Press 2015)

25 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 26 Phone Interview 2 April 201627 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 28 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 29 Phone Interview 2 April 201630 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

34

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Pond reclamation

In lakes and ponds which have been infiltrated by invasive species native brook trout

fare very poorly When feasible the DEC reclaims such ponds through the use of the piscicide

rotenone The DEC has reclaimed trout ponds since 1951 currently reclaiming on average one

body of water per year though restorations were once more frequent (Fig 6) (Fieroh personal

communication31 Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010) Rotenone kills fish by disrupting respiratory

processes when the chemical is absorbed through the gills (Ott 2015) The half-life of rotenone in

both soil and water is very short only about one to three days (Pesticide1993) By killing all

piscine species in an impoundment the DEC is able to stock heritage strain trout (Horn Windfall

or Little Tupper strains) with the hopes of reestablishing a naturally reproducing brook trout

population However the use of rotenone is controversial and has been seen as a violation of

Wilderness Area policy and a disregard for native non-trout species (Verhovek 1990)

31 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 35

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Figure 6 Number of reclaimed trout ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks Number of reclaimed waters per year were highest in the mid-1950s late 1960s and mid-1990s Data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

In order for a lake to be suitable for reclamation the lake must contain a downstream barrier to

keep non-trout species from re-entering the water body When a natural downstream barrier is

not present a fish barrier dam can be constructed (Fig 7)

Figure 7 A fish barrier dam constructed by the DEC at Long Pond at the Visitor Interpretive Center at Paul Smithrsquos College The sign reads ldquoFisher Barrier Dam This dam has been constructed to prevent upstream migration of undesirable fish in the interest of better fishing Keep off - please do not molest NYS Dept of Environmental Conservationrdquo Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

36

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

If a lake or pond has the presence of wetlands and a significant tributary system those lakes or

ponds are no longer considered for reclamation due to the challenge of preventing unwanted fish

species from colonizing the lake (Fieroh personal communication32 Demong 2001)

Non-native species

In addition to reclamation regulations are in place to prevent the colonization of brook

trout ponds with non-native baitfish such as golden shiners The DEC currently maintains three

recommendations that seek to limit the spread of baitfish First it is illegal to transport fish

between water bodies Second it is prohibited to use bait fish on specific Adirondack waters

Finally when the use of bait fish is permitted releasing unused baitfish is not allowed

(Protecting Adirondackhellip2016) It is clear from a review of current management practices that

active management efforts must be undertaken to ensure continued existence of Adirondack

heritage strain brook trout The DECs restoration program integrates a number of management

activities to protect and restore Adirondack ecosystems and their native fisheries

32 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

Native brook trout and their habitats

Brook trout have inhabited Adirondack lakes ponds and streams as some of the first

colonizers after the last glaciation period ended The habitats that brook trout occupy kettle

ponds headwater streams lakes of all sizes and rivers are all unique habitats situated within the

largest area of protected land in the contiguous 48 states Original wild naturally reproducing

populations of eastern brook trout exist in very few places within their native range in the United

States (EBTJV 2006) Such populations of wild naturally reproducing brook trout have

remained free from the introduction of genetic material from domestic strain brook trout

Heritage brook trout are genetic heirlooms that demand to be preserved for their own sake Due

to their largely isolated population within the ponds lakes and watersheds Adirondack heritage

strain brook trout are an imperiled group of brook trout that have a stake in their survival and

perseverance into the future

Non-profit groups

The non-profit groups with the mission to encourage recreation in the outdoors conserve

species and their respective habitats as well as to improve trout fishing are stakeholders in

heritage brook trout recovery In the Adirondacks Trout Unlimited has been active in engaging

the local population to take part in trout fishing and has contributed to or completed a number of

conservation projects The Wild Center located in Tupper Lake is a non-profit organization that

seeks to bridge the gap between people and the natural world The Wild Center uses a large

heritage brook trout aquarium display to help people engage with local environmental issues In

the case of heritage brook trout the Wild Center exhibit demonstrates an example of when

conservation measures can lead to conservation success The Eastern Brook Joint Venture 38

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

(EBTJV) is a consortium of 17 state agencies six federal agencies and numerous conservation

organizations working to assess and ensure the success of brook trout into the future (EBTJV

2006) Through research and collaboration the EBTJV identifies the current environmental

stressors on eastern brook trout as a whole as well as New York State brook trout in specific

and develops conservation strategies for their recovery

Government

The New York State Legislature has a direct interest in the Adirondack Park as the Park

is a conglomeration of state-owned and public land trusted to the State to protect for future

generations Included in the mandate for protection is the protection of the species within the

Parkrsquos borders Heritage brook trout already declared a symbol of New York State and

enshrined as the New York State fish are an important part of both the history of the

Adirondacks in specific and New York State in general Just as heritage brook trout are part of

brook troutrsquos heritage they are also a part of New York Statersquos heritage The role that

government plays in brook trout conservation will be reviewed in the Governmental Issues

section

Fishing guides shops and lodges

There are numerous fly fishing shops tackle shops fishing lodges and fishing guide

services within the Adirondack Park All of these vendors rely on the quality of trout fisheries of

the Adirondacks to continue to encourage residents and visitors to fish the lakes and streams in

the search of brook trout and other sport fishes Fishing stores employ Adirondack Park residents

and encourage environmental tourism thanks to the quality of fishing within the Park The guides

shops and lodges of the Adirondacks have a vested economic interest in the quality and type of

39

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

fishing available Given that economic interest the desire for clients to pursue wild heritage

strain brook trout is of importance to these fishing outfitters

Recreationalists and visitors

The Adirondack Park has been a vacation destination since the early 1800s and quickly

became famous among fly fishers for its outstanding brook trout fishing (Wilcox 2011) At

present fly fishermen enjoy visiting the Park to try their hand at the varied fisheries of the

Adirondacks including catching heritage brook trout from backcountry ponds In addition many

others ply the waters with spin fishing equipment using a classic technique the Lake Clear

Wobbler and worm Fishing for heritage brook trout requires dedication and perseverance on

behalf of the fisherman A number of methods are used to catch brook trout but most methods

involve fishing beneath the surface of a pond (unless fish are rising to hatching insects) utilizing

fly or spin fishing gear Due to the dense woods surrounding some ponds and the necessity for

mobility in order to fish different parts of the water body some sort of boat is generally required

for successful outings Canoes kayaks personal pontoons and float-tubes are all common

methods of fishing transportation (Crowne personal communication33) Many recreational

anglers also fish for the joy of consuming nutritious and tasty brook trout Recreationalists and

visitors to the Park passionately pursue heritage brook trout for a number of reasons and the

interest of these anglers makes them stakeholders in the preservation of heritage brook trout and

their respective habitats

33 Phone Interview 2 April 2016 40

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Researchers

There are a number of institutions currently conducting research on heritage brook trout

and their habitats in the Adirondack Park Currently Cornell University Paul Smithrsquos College

and Syracuse University all conduct research that yields results which help to inform DEC policy

Researchers are stakeholders of heritage brook trout as they have scientific and likely personal

interest on the matter and contribute to the knowledge base surrounding heritage brook trout In

addition to generating knowledge about brook trout and the problems threatening brook trout

survival the work of researchers often provides insight about what can be done to further help

heritage brook trout populations and advise new conservation efforts

41

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

GOVERNMENTAL ISSUES

In order to understand the governmental issues surrounding heritage brook trout

management it is first important to understand the structure of governmental bodies that

influence the management of the fish There are multiple levels of governmental oversight that

influence policy within the Adirondack Park and policy concerning heritage brook trout The

broadest is the United States Congress which has the ability to pass nation-wide legislation that

has effects on the environment in New York State such as the Clean Air Act At the state level

the Adirondack Park was established in 1892 by the New York State Legislature and in 1894 the

protection of the Forest Preserve was written into the new State constitution (History of the

Adirondack Park 2016) In 1971 the New York State Legislature established the Adirondack

Park Agency (APA) to oversee land use plans within and ensure the protection of the

Adirondack Park (About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency 2016) The DEC operates

alongside the APA with similar missions to preserve the resources of the Park in an

environmentally and fiscally responsible manner However both of these agencies are

notoriously underfunded

A press release from the New York State Comptroller in 2014 reported that since 2003

the DEC has experienced constrained funding and staff cuts coupled with an increase in

responsibilities As the State Comptroller noted ldquoDECrsquos staff has declined while funding has

barely kept pace with inflation and now is projected to declinerdquo (DiNapoli Releases

Report2014) Without proper funding the DEC will be unable to continue its conservation

efforts or expand its efforts to new areas as need arises As one fisherman that we spoke with

pointed out the benefits to heritage brook trout that the state now sees are a results of work done

42

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

when funding for such projects was higher decades ago (Radovich personal communication34)

In addition reduced funding and personnel can also equate to less enforcement of existing DEC

regulations that are meant conserve brook trout populations While funding is vital at the state

level many of the issues that the DEC needs to address are linked to legislation at the national

level

The US Congress has enacted many laws that mandate the types of pollutants and

quantity of such pollutants that can be emitted into the atmosphere In 1955 the US Congress

signed into law the Clean Air Act which became the first sweeping pollution control policy The

Clean Air Act restricted the amount of pollutants that could be emitted from power plants The

result of implementing the Clean Air Act and its many amendments since the acts initial

inception has been a significant downward trend in the amount of acid deposition that falls on the

Adirondacks correlated with increases in acid-neutralizing capacity (Baldigo et al 2007)

Continued enforcement of regulations and the addition of new regulations and legislation from

the US Congress will result in a decrease in the responsibilities of the DEC With less acid

deposition caused from power plant emissions there will be fewer lakes and ponds to continually

lime and monitor In addition the US Congress stands at an important point in history where

this governing body has the opportunity to address global climate change If laws are signed into

action to reduce the effects of global climate change the DEC will not need to focus on

addressing the increasingly present threat of warming summer water temperatures

34 Phone Interview 8 April 2016 43

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Parameterizing solutions

An acceptable solution to heritage brook trout management would be comprehensive

multifaceted and look to the future Such a solution would first work to put in place methods to

maintain current heritage brook trout populations continue reclamation work expand studies to

include moving bodies of water and the reestablishment of heritage populations there and lay

groundwork for conservation management far into the future However solutions must also take

into account the value of non-brook trout native species that compete with brook trout Heritage

brook trout management is overseen by the DEC which must have a sufficient funding and

research base to guide proper decision making and implement conservation plans and

management efforts

Heritage brook trout currently face threats from multiple fronts as identified in our

Problem Definition Loss of genetic diversity environmental and human impacts all threaten the

success of heritage brook troutrsquos continued survival into the future In addressing these threats

best solutions must be comprehensive address all of threats to heritage brook trout and ensure

preservation into the future Oftentimes hasty conservation efforts lack the foresight to address

the conservation issues that will arise many generations into the future Research must be done to

assure the continued success of implemented solutions for years to come However a large factor

in the success of any solution is adequate and predictable funding

Much of the research that guides the DECrsquos heritage brook trout management efforts was

completed decades ago when state funding was far more abundant than it is today as evidenced

by a lack of an update to Kellerrsquos 1979 management plan DEC budgets and staff in Region 5

have decreased since the 1950s when there were numerous aquatic biologists and more time

44

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

could be spent ensuring the protection of resources into the future Currently the state budget

does not allocate adequate funds to the DEC to invest in heritage brook trout research and

monitoring that will allow for forward-thinking and long-term management plans (DiNapoli

Releases Report 2014) Solutions that aim to ensure abundant heritage brook trout populations

must be able to function on a low budget However such solutions must also produce results that

will show state legislators that an investment in heritage brook trout is a valuable one

Heritage brook trout are incredibly vulnerable on a number of fronts Without well-

informed management and proper protection these unique strains could very well soon be lost

Regardless of the solution(s) chosen an increased amount of research must be done in order to

revise and update management practices Without the capability to review the success of heritage

brook trout programs it will be impossible to address new issues that arise Short term solutions

will help prevent immediate collapse of heritage brook trout populations within the Adirondacks

but will fail to ensure their continuation as policies public interests and government interests all

change With proper management and solutions the preservation of heritage brook trout will

help to guarantee that these fish will occupy the waters of the Adirondacks for generations to

come

Identification and evaluation of potential solutions

Here we explore potential solutions to maintaining and increasing heritage brook trout

populations A myriad of solutions exist however all have varying degrees of feasibility based

on personnel monetary time and practicality restrictions We list all solutions regardless of

feasibility in order to understand all potential manners to address the issue and ensure a proper

evaluation of each solution We then evaluate the best most feasible solutions assess the ease of

implementation and construct a step-by-step plan

45

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Comprehensively update the current brook trout management plan

Walt Kellerrsquos 1979 report Management of Wild and Hybrid Brook Trout in New York

Lakes Ponds and Coastal Streams set the stage for the management of heritage brook trout The

DEC still uses this report as its guide for brook trout management within the Adirondack Park

(Fieroh personal communication35) As stated in the section on Management this plan calls for

the liming of acidified lakes reclaiming ponds through the use of rotenone when possible

stocking hybrid brook trout in lakes which will not support natural reproduction and stocking

heritage brook trout in lakes which will likely support natural trout reproduction The 1979

report is now out-dated by 22 years yet the DEC continues with the management plan

incorporating new scientific findings as they become available (Fieroh personal

communication36 Josephson personal communication37) While the current management plan is

still able to protect and enhance many heritage brook trout waters new comprehensive studies

and long-term goals are necessary in order to ensure heritage brook trout protection far into the

future In order to make these sweeping changes to the current management plan possible the

DEC must receive significantly more funding and resources to field a larger aquatic biologist

staff and conduct groundbreaking studies on brook trout habitat and genetics

Remove all non-native fish species from the Adirondacks

As identified in our Problem Definition non-native fish species in Adirondack waterways

result in significant negative impacts on heritage brook trout populations and will continue to do

35 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 36 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 37 Phone Interview 31 March 2016

46

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

so into the future In order to restore brook trout throughout their entire native range the removal

of non-native warm water species such as large- and smallmouth bass as well as cold water

species such as brown and rainbow trout is necessary The removal of these fishes could occur

through immense amounts of gill-netting liberal use of rotenone and unlimited catch limits on

such species Even with the most aggressive policies however full reclamation of Adirondack

waterways would be extremely unlikely if at all possible The DEC does not have enough staff

time or monetary resources to invest in extensive non-native removal efforts In addition non-

native species have colonized Adirondack waterways to the extent that the removal of these

species could cause widespread ecosystem collapse Finally a significant portion of the fishing

done in the Adirondacks is in pursuit of non-native species such as large- and smallmouth bass

and rainbow and brown trout Local residents as well as vacation-goers could find many of their

normal fishing outings fundamentally changed In lakes that may remain too warm for brook

trout during high summer temperatures they would be void of brook trout and any non-native

species that may be able to survive there The loss of fishing opportunities could have the

potential to have damage the economy of the region

Eliminate global warming

Global warming poses a serious threat to heritage brook trout As mentioned in the

Problem Definition higher summer temperatures in Adirondack waterways will begin to exceed

the threshold tolerated by brook trout Eliminating global warming would ensure that maximum

summer water temperatures do not exceed those tolerated by brook trout Tolerable temperatures

would ensure the possibility of high reproductive success and result in less angler-caused and

stress-caused mortality during the warmer summer months Eliminating global warming and

climate change would require national and international agreements to drastically cut greenhouse

47

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

gas emissions and transition from a fossil-fuel based economy to a world entirely powered by

highly efficient renewable resources

Stop toxic emissions

The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1955 was the first national legislation that sought

sweeping changes to levels of airborne pollutants To completely stop the emissions of

compounds that cause acid deposition and mercury pollution even more significant legislation

would be required It has been documented that biota can recover in acidified lakes when

emission are reduced especially after 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (Sutherland et al

2015) Comprehensive and sweeping amendments to the Clean Air Act and the introduction of

new legislation is required to make the emission of any and all toxins into the atmosphere illegal

Josephson and Fieroh have given a positive outlook on the reduced threat of acid deposition

stating that acid rain has been reduced by about 80 percent from previous levels of deposition in

1980 and that there generally appears to be a more stable water chemistry in Adirondack lakes

in the past few years (Fieroh personal communication38 Josephson personal communication39)

Survey lotic waterways for heritage brook trout strains

When the DECrsquos guiding management plan was created it did not establish any heritage

brook trout strains in lotic or flowing waterways However there is good reason to believe that

many headwater streams and remote sub watersheds many indeed harbor their own genetically

unique strain of heritage brook trout (Crowne personal communication40) Fishermen note that

there are likely unique and new heritage strains in a number of headwater river systems The

38 Phone Interview 16 March 2016 39 Phone Interview 31 March 2016 40 Phone Interview 2 April 2016

48

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Cold River watershed is one such area where fishermen have contacted the DEC and found no

record of the area ever being stocked yet brook trout are present (Crown personal

communication41 Radovich personal communication42) Surveying the flowing waters within

the Park is a vital step toward better understanding heritage brook trout populations and their

breadth of genetic diversity

Reclaim lotic waterways

In addition to lack of assessment of lotic waterways for heritage brook trout there are

currently no active stocking and reclamation protocols in place to reestablish heritage strain

brook trout in streams and rivers that may be able to support naturally reproducing populations

There are examples of moving waters such as the Ausable River that may be able to support

heritage brook trout reproduction but due to existing non-native trout populations reclamation

has not occurred (Lynch 2015) In other regions of the eastern US such as the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park populations of rainbow and brown trout have been reduced in favor of

brook trout (Karas 1997) While pursuing the solution of reclaiming lotic waterways sufficient

thought must be given to addressing the potential lack of downstream barriers and the migration

of unwanted fishes from downstream back into the reclaimed section of river This solution

would involve identifying all lotic waterways that have the potential for heritage brook trout

reproduction regardless of non-native fish and trout populations and assessing the waterwaysrsquo

heritage strain potential and proceed with reclamation accordingly

41 Phone Interview 2 April 201642 Phone Interview 8 April 2016

49

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Increase youth participation and education

If there is no interest in the resource there is no incentive to protect the resource Fishing

license numbers have been declining nationwide for years (Decline in hunting fishing2008) In

addition DEC Region 5 is faced with fewer and fewer resources and personnel (DiNapoli

Releases Report2014) By investing in the youth of the Adirondacks a new generation of

people with connections to nature can lead the charge to protect natural resources Currently

Trout Unlimited has been a leader nationwide in introducing students to trout and cold water fish

conservation through their Trout in the Classroom program and various camps and programs

Trout in the Classroom is a Trout Unlimited-sponsored program that allies with schools and

teachers to raise trout in the classroom and then release the trout into a local water body The

Trout in the Classroom website states that ldquothis act of raising monitoring and caring for young

trout fosters a conservation ethic within participating students and promotes an understanding of

their shared water resourcesrdquo (Trout in the Classroom2016) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to proactively seek and encourage schools to implement Trout in the

Classroom programs

In addition to Trout in the Classroom many Trout Unlimited chapters sponsor youth

camps and programs One camp the Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp in

Pennsylvania engages high school students in both conservation projects and fly fishing

instruction contributing to practical conservation skills and an invested interest in the success of

cold water fishes (Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation2015) We encourage Adirondack-based

chapters of Trout Unlimited to establish youth conservation and fly fishing camps that encourage

youth to learn about and come to love the fabled waters of the Adirondack Park In addition

50

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

these camps should be made open to low-income and non-Park residents in order to generate

interest from a diverse group of future stakeholders

Identification of feasible solutions

Many of the solutions offered above would be successful if implemented in an ideal

world However heritage brook trout conservation is limited by time funding interest and

feasibility of carrying out a solution Of the solutions offered we feel that the most feasible

include comprehensively updating the current brook trout management plan supporting

legislation to reduce global warming and toxic emissions surveying lotic waterways reclaiming

lotic waterways and increasing youth participation and education Comprehensively updating

the current brook trout management plan would involve significantly boosting current funding

for the DEC and launching many new research projects Supporting legislation to reduce global

warming and toxic emissions would require environmental groups government agencies and

other stakeholders to continue pressuring their government representatives to update and make

more stringent air pollution legislation This would also involve the support of efforts to

introduce more air pollution legislation Surveying lotic waterways is an addition to the current

management plan but one that requires utilizing other DEC resources Similarly reclaiming lotic

waterways involves a practical application of pond reclamation techniques in conjunction with

stream and river conservation protocol Increasing youth participation and education is highly

feasible and would involve collaboration between nonprofit groups (such as Trout Unlimited and

other river conservation groups) the DEC and local schools with little overall cost While all of

these solutions are feasible several are best solutions that will provide a clear way forward to

ensuring heritage brook trout preservation

51

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Identification of best solutions

The best solutions outlined above to ensure the preservation of heritage brook trout

include comprehensively updating the current management plan continuing to support

legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing youth participation and

education While the current wild brook trout management plan has conserved many populations

of heritage brook trout the DEC has produced very little new research and does not have a long-

range view that will address issues to come in the future We recommend that the DEC use Walt

Kellerrsquos approach by suggesting a path forward for a specific amount of time The DEC must

review brook trout management and establish historically relevant baselines to craft a new and

updated management plan The updated management plan would address issues such as current

fishing pressure mercury pollution reduction in the number of acidified lakes warming summer

water temperatures and the lack of comprehensive genetic studies The updated management

plan would likely recognize how important nationwide legislation has been in reducing air

pollution and its effects on acid deposition The continued support for air pollution legislation is

crucial in order to maintain water conditions that heritage brook trout thrive in rather than

struggle to survive in Finally educating the youth of the Adirondacks and across New York

State will secure interest and individual investment in preserving brook trout populations into the

future Creating a connection between youth and the environment will create the next generation

of conservationists and responsible citizens

52

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Heritage brook trout conservation involves the cooperation of government agencies non-

profit groups universities fishermen and the general public Because the DEC is largely

responsible for the management of heritage brook trout the DEC will be one of the most

important stakeholders in implementing solutions The DEC especially in Region 5 lacks an

abundance of resources to put into heritage trout conservation and management Lack of funding

could prove to be a large challenge to the implementation of comprehensive updates to the

current management plan If adequate funding is acquired updating the current plan might

require several years-worth of research and experimental management procedures before the

construction of an updated management plan could be completed Supporting air pollution

legislation is relatively easy but will require continued education of the general public and all

stakeholders in order to boost effectiveness and acceptance of any new legislation

Communication about the importance of clean air and its effects on aquatic ecosystems is vital to

promoting a better understanding of the issue There are currently programs and curricula

available to facilitate educating youth on the importance of trout conservation and showing them

the joy of fishing By utilizing Trout in the Classroom protocol the DEC will be able to partner

with Trout Unlimited and local schools in a mutually beneficial coalition that supports the

interests of each group involved While funding will be an issue non-state funding would be

made available by utilizing the resources of Trout Unlimited and other river conservation groups

53

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The first step toward implementing this plan is to succeed in acquiring more funding for

the DEC to use on heritage brook trout management Funding is a perennial issue for government

agencies In order for the DEC to successfully manage heritage brook trout into the future the

State Legislature will need to approve a larger budget for the DEC with specific funds allocated

to the heritage brook trout management plan for Region 5 Once proper funding is acquired the

DEC will be able to increase personnel and spend several years expanding the current research

base assessing more waters and creating plans to guide management for decades into the future

Non-governmental research such as that done by Cornellrsquos DNR and Paul Smithrsquos College will

also help to better inform the DECrsquos updated plan A part of securing the funding for the DEC

involves ensuring continued interest in heritage brook trout conservation Educating youth on

brook trout through Trout Unlimitedrsquos Trout in the Classroom program and establishing

conservation and fishing camps will help to ensure that future generations will support heritage

brook trout conservation In addition little funding for these programs will come from the state

but instead will be supplied by the anglers and conservationist stakeholders via non-profit groups

that hold wild trout populations dear Ample communication between the DEC and Trout

Unlimited will need to take place in order for these programs to work to their full potential

Finally all stakeholders will be able to join behind the push for stricter legislation limiting air

pollutant emissions With proper management into the future along with engaged and supportive

future generations we feel that heritage brook trout populations will be maintained and increased

in the coming years

55

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

CONCLUSIONS

Adirondack heritage strain brook trout are unique populations of the original strains of

the brook trout that once dominated the eastern seaboard Since the last glaciation period ended

the range of eastern brook trout has decreased precipitously to only a fraction of historic

populations The Adirondack Park harbors lakes and streams within its boundaries that contain

some of the few genetically pure strains of brook trout that remain in the lower 48 states In the

past century alone the heritage brook trout of the Adirondacks have faced pressures from the

acidification of lakes overfishing competition from non-native trout and non-trout species

warmer summer water temperatures from global warming and massive declines in genetic

diversity Efforts from the DEC in the last 50 years have saved heritage brook trout populations

but funding has stagnated leaving new research and updated management plans slim to

nonexistent Reinvesting in heritage brook trout is necessary in order to ensure their presence in

Adirondack lakes and streams into the coming centuries

We outline a number of possible solution to maintaining heritage brook trout biodiversity

As the best solutions we encourage comprehensively updating the current management plan

continuing to support legislation to reduce air pollution and global warming and increasing

youth participation and education The implementation of these solutions will allow heritage

brook trout to continue to maintain and increase their populations in the Adirondacks for years to

come Heritage strain brook trout are the last remnants of once prolific populations of brook trout

in the eastern United States The preservation of heritage brook trout is not only preserving an

Adirondack and New York State icon but a genetic resource that is greatly threatened

57

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded and supported by the St Lawrence University Biology

Department We would like to thank Erika Barthelmess our advisor for her support and

guidance throughout our research This research was also made possible by the stakeholders who

provided useful information and insight throughout the process We give many thanks to those

who were willing to interview and contribute to this case study

59

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

LITERATURE CITED

About the New York State Adirondack Park Agency [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 March 25] Available from httpapanygovAbout_Agencyindexhtml

Baird OE Krueger CC Josephson DC 2006 Growth movement and catch of brook rainbow and brown trout after stocking into a large marginally suitable Adirondack river North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26(1)180-9

Baldigo BP Lawrence G Simonin H 2007 Persistent mortality of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the southwestern Adirondack Mountains New York Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136(1)121-134

Chiarenzelli J Lock R Cady C Bregani A Whitney B 2012 Variation in river multi-element chemistry related to bedrock buffering an example from the Adirondack region of Northern New York USA Environmental Earth Sciences 67(1)189-204

Decline in hunting fishing hurts state coffers [Internet] NBC News c2008 [cited 2016 March 29] Available from httpwwwnbcnewscomid23860020nsus_news-lifetdecline-hu nting-fishing-hurts-state-coffersVw24ZPkrKUk

Demong L 2001 The use of rotenone to restore native brook trout in the mountains of New York - an overview American Fisheries Society

DiNapoli Releases Report on Environmental Funding in New York State [Internet] Office of the New York State Comptroller c2014 [cited 2016 April 30] Available from httpswwwoscstatenyuspressreleasesdec14121014bhtm

Earl G 2010 Tragedy of the trout Adirondack Explorer Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstoriestragedy-of-the-trout

EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture) 2006 Eastern brook trout status and threats [Internet] Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture [cited 2016 Feb 24] Available from httpwwweasternbrooktroutorg

Flick WA Webster DA 1992 Standing crops of brook trout in Adirondack waters before and after removal of non-trout species North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 783-796

Flick WA Webster DA 1976 Production of wild domestic and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in natural ponds Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 33(7) 1525-1539

Foley M 2015 Native Adirondack trout No such animal technically North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

61

Frankham R 2005 Genetics and extinction Biological Conservation 126 131-140

Frankham R Bradshaw CJA Brook BW 2014 Genetics in conservation management revised recommendations for the 50500 rules Red List criteria and population viability analyses Biological Conservation 170 56-63

Hackett J 2013 The basics of backcountry brook trout Adirondack Outdoors Magazine

History of the Adirondack Park [Internet] New York State [cited 2016 April 1] Available from httpapanygovabout_parkhistoryhtm

Honnedaga Lake and Heritage Strain Brook Trout [Internet] Cornell Department of Natural Resources [cited 2016 April 1] Available from httpfishdnrcornelledutrouthonnedagahtm

Hudy M Thieling TM Gillespie N Smith EP 2008 Distribution status and land use characteristics of sub watersheds within the native range of brook trout in the eastern united states North American Journal of Fisheries Management 28(4)1069-1085

Karas N Brook trout 1997 The Lyons Press

Keller WT 1979 Management of wild and hybrid brook trout in New York lakes ponds and coastal streams New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

Lynch M 2015 Lure of the Wild Trout [Internet] Adirondack Explorer [cited 2016 March 20] Available from httpwwwadirondackexplorerorgstorieswild-trout-stock

McCullough R and Stegemann EC 1991 The trout of New York The Conservationist MarchApril

Natural Selections 2006 Trout variations North Country Public Radio Sect Natural Selections

NYS DEC (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation) 2015 New york state wildlife action plan NYS DEC

Ott KC 2015 Rotenone a brief review of its chemistry environmental fate and the toxicity of rotenone formulations New Mexico Trout Unlimited

Pennsylvania Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Camp [Internet] Rivers Conservation and Fly Fishing Youth Camp c2015 [cited 2016 April 1] Available from httpwwwriverscampcomindexhtml

Perkins DL Krueger CC May B 1993 Heritage brook trout in northeastern USA Genetic

62

variability within and among populations Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 122(4)512-232

Pesticide information profile rotenone [Internet] Extension Toxicology Network c1993 [cited 2016 May 8] Available from httppmepccecornelleduprofilesextoxnetpyrethrins-ziramrotenone-exthtml

Phares D 2005 Brookies browns why donrsquot they interbreed West Virginia Wildlife Magazine

Protecting Adirondack fish [Internet] New York State Department of Environmental Conservation c2016 [cited 2016 Feb 8] Available from httpwwwdecnygovoutdoor31920html

Reclaimed Trout Ponds in the Eastern Adirondacks [Internet] NYS Department of Environmental Conservation c2010 [cited 2016 April 1] Available from httpwwwdecnygovoutdoor64503html

Robinson JM Josephson DC Weidel BC Kraft CE 2010 Influence of variable interannual summer water temperatures on brook trout growth consumption reproduction and mortality in an unstratified Adirondack lake Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 139(3)685 - 699

Roy K Dukett J Houck N Lawrence GB 2012 A long-term monitoring program for evaluating changes in water quality in selected Adirondack waters Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation p 1-43

Stager JC In search of Adirondack heritage lakesrdquo [Internet] EPA Archive Document Cite c2008 [cited 2016 April 12] Available from httpsarchiveepagovregion1neaeb2008webpdf17_heritage2008pdf

Sutherland JW Acker FW Bloomfield JA Boylen CW Charles DF Daniels RA Eichler LW Farrell JL Feranec RS Hare MP et al 2015 Brooktrout Lake case study biotic recovery from acid deposition 20 years after the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments Environmental Science Technology 49(5)2665 - 2674

The Associated Press 2015 NY helicopters dump lime on Adirondack pond to help trout North Country Public Radio Sect Regional News

Thill M 2014 Lake trout and climate change in the Adirondacks status and long-term viability The Nature Conservancy

Trout in the Classroom Overview [Internet] Trout Unlimited c2016 [cited 2016 April 1] Available from httpwwwtroutintheclassroomorgaboutoverview

TU Conservation Success Index Brook Trout [Internet] Trout Unlimited c2007 [cited 2016 May 9] Available from httptucsituorgBrookTrout_GeneralaspxSpKey=2

63

Verhovek SH Adirondacks to help trout by poisoning rivals The New York Times July 16 1990 httpwwwnytimescom19900716nyregionadirondacks-to-help-trout-by-poiso ning-rivalshtml

Warren DR Sebestyen SD Josephson DC Lepak JM Kraft CE 2005 Acidic groundwater discharge and in situ egg survival in redds of lake-spawning brook trout Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 134 1193ndash1201 DOI 101577T04-1801

Warren DR Robinson JM Josephson DC Sheldon DR Kraft CE 2012 Elevated summer temperatures delay spawning and reduce redd construction for resident brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Global Change Biology 18(6)1804 - 1811

Weidel BC Josephson DC Kraft CE 2007 Littoral fish community response to smallmouth bass removal from an Adirondack lake Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136 778ndash789 DOI 101577T06-0911

Wilcox V 2011 Destinations Adirondack Park Fly Fisherman Magazine

William C Whitney Wilderness amp Round Lake Wilderness [Internet] Department of Environmental Conservation [cited 2016 April 1] Available from httpwwwdecnygovlands9165html

TABLE AND FIGURE CITATIONS

Figure 1 Map from the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture (2006) Figure 2 Source ponds defined by Keller (1979)

Figure 3 Photos courtesy of David Crowne Figure 4 DEC map from (Protecting Adirondackhellip2016)

Figure 5 Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba Figure 6 Graph created in excel using data courtesy of the DEC (Reclaimed Trout Ponds2010)

Figure 7 Photo courtesy of Justin Dalaba

64

APPENDICES

Appendix A Interview Materials

Interview questions asked of stakeholders during interviews

Questions for Jon Fieroh and Daniel Josephson

General profile questions

1 What is your first and last name and what is your work title

2 Where are you from originally and where do you live now

3 How long have you been working with the DEC

Brook trout questions

1 During your time working in the Adirondacks have you seen a change in brook trout

levels

2 Do you think there are many heritage strain brook trout remaining in the Adirondacks If

so how many strains do you think there are and what type of habitat do they generally

live in

3 Do you think many people know what a heritage strain of brook trout is Has anyone

ever asked you about heritage strain brook trout

4 How many trout are typically stocked in the Adirondacks each year and what type of

trout are they

5 In what ways might stocking trout be harmful and in what ways might it be beneficial

More specific questions

1 What sorts of environmental stressors are you concerned with that be impacting trout

populations and what does the DEC do to manage these concerns

65

How have these management efforts been effective or ineffective

2 Where do you see brook trout populations headed in the future

3 If brook trout populations were restored to historical levels how do you think this might

impact fishing in the area

4 How are brook trout regulations perceived by the public

5 Is there anyone else you know that we might be able to contact about this issue

Questions for David Crowne and Glen Radovich

General profile questions

1 Where are you from and what is your current employment

2 Where are you from originally

3 How did you end up fishing in the Adirondacks

4 How long have you been fishing in the Adirondacks

5 When you fish for trout do you typically catch-and-release

6 What is your favorite heritage strain to fish for

7 Could you share with us your favorite experience or story of fishing in the Adirondacks

Brook trout questions

1 Do you think there has been a change in brook trout or trout fishing in general during

your time in the Adirondacks

2 What would you say is the most popular gamefish in the Adirondacks to catch What is

the most common fish that you catch on a typical fishing trip

3 Do you think many non-fishermen know what a heritage strain of brook trout is

More specific questions

1 Where do you see trout fishing headed in the future

66

2 What are your opinions on DEC management efforts In your opinion do you think their

management efforts are effective (ie - Lime application to reduce acidification

stocking brookies)

3 How many heritage strain brook trout are you currently aware of and do you think there

are more out there

4 Are there heritage strains in rivers and streams

5 In general do you think that many fishermen care whether trout have been stocked or not

6 If brook trout populations were restored to historical levels how do you think this might

impact fishing in the area

7 Is there anyone else you know that we might be able to contact about this issue

List of subjects interviewed for this study

Daniel Josephson ndash Research Associate at Cornell University DNR

David Crowne ndash Avid Adirondack fly fisherman

Glen Radovich ndash Avid Adirondack fly fisherman

Jon Fieroh ndash DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist

Other subjects contacted for interview

AuSable River Two-Fly Shop

bull No response received

Dr Brad Baldwin ndash St Lawrence University

bull Response received

Dr Clifford Kraft ndash Cornell University

bull No response received

67

Dr Craig Milewski ndash Paul Smithrsquos College

bull No response received

Hungry Trout Fly Shop

bull No response received

Joe Hackett ndash Tahawus Limited Guides

bull No response received

John Braico ndash NYS Trout Unlimited Resource Management VP

bull Response received

WILD Center

bull Response received

Wileyrsquos Fly Shop

bull Response received

68

How have these management efforts been effective or ineffective

2 Where do you see brook trout populations headed in the future

3 If brook trout populations were restored to historical levels how do you think this might

impact fishing in the area

4 How are brook trout regulations perceived by the public

5 Is there anyone else you know that we might be able to contact about this issue

Questions for David Crowne and Glen Radovich

General profile questions

1 Where are you from and what is your current employment

2 Where are you from originally

3 How did you end up fishing in the Adirondacks

4 How long have you been fishing in the Adirondacks

5 When you fish for trout do you typically catch-and-release

6 What is your favorite heritage strain to fish for

7 Could you share with us your favorite experience or story of fishing in the Adirondacks

Brook trout questions

1 Do you think there has been a change in brook trout or trout fishing in general during

your time in the Adirondacks

2 What would you say is the most popular gamefish in the Adirondacks to catch What is

the most common fish that you catch on a typical fishing trip

3 Do you think many non-fishermen know what a heritage strain of brook trout is

More specific questions

1 Where do you see trout fishing headed in the future

66

2 What are your opinions on DEC management efforts In your opinion do you think their

management efforts are effective (ie - Lime application to reduce acidification

stocking brookies)

3 How many heritage strain brook trout are you currently aware of and do you think there

are more out there

4 Are there heritage strains in rivers and streams

5 In general do you think that many fishermen care whether trout have been stocked or not

6 If brook trout populations were restored to historical levels how do you think this might

impact fishing in the area

7 Is there anyone else you know that we might be able to contact about this issue

List of subjects interviewed for this study

Daniel Josephson ndash Research Associate at Cornell University DNR

David Crowne ndash Avid Adirondack fly fisherman

Glen Radovich ndash Avid Adirondack fly fisherman

Jon Fieroh ndash DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist

Other subjects contacted for interview

AuSable River Two-Fly Shop

bull No response received

Dr Brad Baldwin ndash St Lawrence University

bull Response received

Dr Clifford Kraft ndash Cornell University

bull No response received

67

Dr Craig Milewski ndash Paul Smithrsquos College

bull No response received

Hungry Trout Fly Shop

bull No response received

Joe Hackett ndash Tahawus Limited Guides

bull No response received

John Braico ndash NYS Trout Unlimited Resource Management VP

bull Response received

WILD Center

bull Response received

Wileyrsquos Fly Shop

bull Response received

68

2 What are your opinions on DEC management efforts In your opinion do you think their

management efforts are effective (ie - Lime application to reduce acidification

stocking brookies)

3 How many heritage strain brook trout are you currently aware of and do you think there

are more out there

4 Are there heritage strains in rivers and streams

5 In general do you think that many fishermen care whether trout have been stocked or not

6 If brook trout populations were restored to historical levels how do you think this might

impact fishing in the area

7 Is there anyone else you know that we might be able to contact about this issue

List of subjects interviewed for this study

Daniel Josephson ndash Research Associate at Cornell University DNR

David Crowne ndash Avid Adirondack fly fisherman

Glen Radovich ndash Avid Adirondack fly fisherman

Jon Fieroh ndash DEC Region 5 Aquatic Biologist

Other subjects contacted for interview

AuSable River Two-Fly Shop

bull No response received

Dr Brad Baldwin ndash St Lawrence University

bull Response received

Dr Clifford Kraft ndash Cornell University

bull No response received

67

Dr Craig Milewski ndash Paul Smithrsquos College

bull No response received

Hungry Trout Fly Shop

bull No response received

Joe Hackett ndash Tahawus Limited Guides

bull No response received

John Braico ndash NYS Trout Unlimited Resource Management VP

bull Response received

WILD Center

bull Response received

Wileyrsquos Fly Shop

bull Response received

68

Dr Craig Milewski ndash Paul Smithrsquos College

bull No response received

Hungry Trout Fly Shop

bull No response received

Joe Hackett ndash Tahawus Limited Guides

bull No response received

John Braico ndash NYS Trout Unlimited Resource Management VP

bull Response received

WILD Center

bull Response received

Wileyrsquos Fly Shop

bull Response received

68