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Health and Environmental Effects Health and Environmental Effects of Air Pollutionof Air Pollution
David Cole
U.S. EPA, OAQPS
Research Triangle Park, NC
Air Quality Management ProcessAir Quality Management Process
Implement Control StrategiesEvaluate Air Quality
- Air Quality Assessments•Emissions Inventory Data
•Ambient Air Monitoring Data
Choose Control Strategies
-Voluntary programs / Outreach
-Some strategies may be regulatory
Determine NecessaryEmissions Reductions
Set Air Quality Goals
2
Titles of the Clean Air ActTitles of the Clean Air Act
• Title I—National Ambient Air Quality Standards, Hazardous Air Pollutants(SIP, NSR and Technology Standards)
• Title II—Mobile Sources• Title III— Emergency Powers and Tribal
Authority, Public Involvement
3
Titles of the Clean Air Act (cont.)Titles of the Clean Air Act (cont.)
• Title IV—Acid Deposition• Title V—Operating Permits• Title VI—Stratospheric Ozone
4
NAAQSNAAQS
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) –
– Primary standard set to protect public health
– Secondary standard set to protect public and
welfare
• State Implementation Plans – State plans to attain
or maintain NAAQS
5
NAAQS (cont.)NAAQS (cont.)
• New Source Review and Prevention of Significant
Deterioration (PSD) permits part of SIPs
• Title V Permits take all requirements from SIPs,
technology standards, New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS), etc., combines in one permit
6
Six Six ““Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants””of the NAAQSof the NAAQS
• Ozone (O3)
• Particulate matter
– Coarse particles (PM10)
– Fine particles (PM2.5)
• Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Lead (Pb)7
Ground-level Ozone is… Ground-level Ozone is…
• Primary component of smog
• Sometimes called “bad ozone” to distinguish from “good ozone”
– Both types of ozone have same chemical composition (O3)
– “Good ozone” occurs naturally in upper portions of Earth’s atmosphere, forms layer that protects life from sun's harmful rays
– “Bad ozone” at ground level is harmful to breathe
8
• Not emitted directly into air
• Forms when emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) “cook” in sun
– Emissions from industrial facilities, electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are major man-made sources of NOx and VOCs
Ground-level Ozone (cont.)Ground-level Ozone (cont.)
9
• Mainly a summertime pollutant—sunlight and hot weather accelerate formation
• Ozone levels can be high in both urban and rural areas, often due to transport of ozone, or NOx and VOC emissions that form ozone
Ground-level Ozone (cont.)Ground-level Ozone (cont.)
10
• Ozone can penetrate deep into lungs and can– Interfere with breathing outdoors– Irritate airways, causing coughing, sore or scratchy
throat, pain when breathing deeply, shortness of breath– Increase asthma attacks and use of asthma medication– Inflame and damage lung lining by injuring cells– Increase susceptibility to respiratory infection – Aggravate chronic lung diseases such as asthma,
emphysema and bronchitis
Ozone and HealthOzone and Health
• Repeated exposure can cause permanent lung changes, long-term health effects, lower quality of life
11
Ozone Health Impacts: Ozone Health Impacts: ““ Pyramid of Effects Pyramid of Effects””
Susceptible and vulnerable groups include
– People with lung disease such as asthma
– Children– Older adults– People who are more
likely to be exposed, such as outdoor workers
Proportion of Population AffectedProportion of Population Affected
Severity of Effects
Many scientific studies have linked ozone exposure to serious health outcomes such as emergency department visits, hospitalizations for respiratory causes, mortality
12
Ozone and the EnvironmentOzone and the Environment• Ground-level ozone also associated with significant environmental
impacts
• Absorbed by leaves of plants, where it can
– Visibly injure leaves, affecting appearance of vegetation in national parks, recreation areas and cities
– Interfere with ability of sensitive plants to produce and store food, leading to reduced growth, biomass production and/or yields
– Increase plant susceptibility to diseases, insects, harsh weather, other pollutants, and competition
– Reduce or change diversity of plant species, damaging ecosystem
13
Particulate Matter: What is It?Particulate Matter: What is It?
A complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets
14
15
Fine ParticlesCombustion, gases to particlesSulfates/acidsNitrateAmmoniumOrganicsCarbonMetalsWater
Sources:Coal, oil, gasoline, diesel, wood combustionTransformation of SOx, NOx, organic gases including biogenicsHigh temperature industrial processes (smelters, steel mills)Forest fires
Exposure/Lifetime:Lifetime days to weeks, regional distribution over urban scale to 1000s of km
Inhalable Coarse ParticlesCrushing, grinding, dustResuspended dusts (soil, street dust)Coal/oil fly ashAluminum, silica,iron-oxidesTire and brake wearInhalable Biological Materials (e.g., from soils, plant fragments)Sources:Resuspension of dust tracked onto roadsSuspension from disturbed soil (farms, mines, unpaved roads)Construction/demolitionIndustrial fugitivesBiological sourcesExposure/Lifetime:Coarse fraction (2.5-10) lifetime of hours to days, distribution up to 100s km
PM Components: fine and coarsePM Components: fine and coarse
16
• Larger particles (> PM10) deposit in the upper respiratory tract
• Smaller, inhalable particles (≤ PM10) penetrate deep into the lungs
• Both coarse PM10 and fine PM2.5 can penetrate to lower lung
• Deposited particles may accumulate,
react, be cleared or absorbed
Particulate MatterParticulate Matter
17
Heath Effects of Particle PollutionHeath Effects of Particle Pollution• Particles can cause both respiratory and cardio-vascular
health problems, including – Aggravated asthma – Increases in respiratory symptoms like coughing and difficult or
painful breathing – Chronic bronchitis – Decreased lung function – Changes in heart rate and heart rate variability– Cardiac arrhythmias– Heart attacks– Premature death
• Types of studies– Epidemiology/Field– Controlled human exposure– Animal
18
lung function changes, immune cell responses, heart rate or heart rate variability responses
Asthma attacks, medication use, symptoms
Doctor visits
Hospital Admissions
Death
PM Health Impacts: PM Health Impacts: ““Pyramid of EffectsPyramid of Effects””
Some groups are at greater risk• People with heart or lung diseases
– Diseases make them vulnerable
– May include people with diabetes
• Older adults – May have undiagnosed disease
• Children– Bodies still developing
19
Particle pollution also impairs visibilityParticle pollution also impairs visibility
• “Visibility” degree to which atmosphere is transparent to visible light
• Particle pollution – Degrades the visual
appearance and perceived color of distant objects to an observer
– Reduces range at which distant objects can be distinguished from background
20
Historical PerspectiveHistorical Perspective
• For many years, urban visibility impairment has been the best understood effect of particulate matter
London – December 1952
New York City – Thanksgiving Day 1966 Los Angeles21
Urban visibility is valued across the country . . . Urban visibility is valued across the country . . .
22
Fine particles continue to impact Fine particles continue to impact visibility todayvisibility today
Chicago, < 10 ug/m3 PM2.5, 8/16/00 Chicago, 35 ug/m3 PM2.5, 8/26/00
23
CURRENT NAAQS CURRENT NAAQS Primary Standards Secondary Standards
Pollutant Level Averaging Time Level Averaging Time
Carbon Monoxide
9 ppm (10 mg/m3)
8-hour
None 35 ppm (40 mg/m3)
1-hour
Lead 0.15 µg/m3 Rolling 3-Month Average Same as Primary
Nitrogen Dioxide
100 ppb 1-hour Same as Annual Primary
0.053 ppm (100 µg/m3)
Annual (Arithmetic Mean)
Particulate Matter (PM10)
150 µg/m3 24-hour Same as Primary
Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
15.0 µg/m3 Annual (Arithmetic Mean)
Same as Primary
35 µg/m3 24-hour Same as Primary
Ozone 0.075 ppm (2008 std) 8-hour Same as Primary
0.08 ppm (1997 std) 8-hour Same as Primary
0.12 ppm 1-hour Same as Primary
Sulfur Dioxide
75 ppb 1-hour 0.5 ppm (1300 µg/m3)
3-hour
24
NAAQS Reviews: Status Update(as of March 9, 2015)
Ozone LeadPrimary
NO2
Primary SO2
Secondary NO2 and
SO2
PM CO
Last Review Completed
(final rule signed)Mar 2008 Oct 2008 Jan 2010 Jun 2010 Mar 2012 Dec 2012 Aug 2011
Recent or Upcoming
Major Milestone(s)1
August 2014Final REAs
Final PA
Nov 25, 2014Proposed rule
Oct 1, 2015 2
Final rule
May 2014Final PA
Dec 2014 Proposed decision
June 2014Final IRP
January 20152nd Draft ISA
Spring 2015REA Planning
Document
October 2014Final IRP
Summer 20151st Draft ISA
Fall 2015REA Planning
Document
Summer 2015Draft IRP
Winter 2015/2016Draft IRP TBD3
1 IRP – Integrated Review Plan; ISA – Integrated Science Assessment; REA – Risk and Exposure Assessment; PA – Policy Assessment2 Bold and underlined dates indicate court-ordered or settlement agreement deadlines3 TBD = to be determined
Additional information regarding current and previous NAAQS reviews is available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/
AppendixAppendixEnvironmental Effects Environmental Effects of Nitrogen and Sulfurof Nitrogen and Sulfur
26
Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur
• Acid Deposition: Combinations of NOx and/or SOx emissions react to form acidic compounds in atmosphere, deposited onto ecosystems
• Nutrient Enrichment: Deposited NOx can act as fertilizer where nitrogen historically limited; can cause imbalances in ecosystems
• Mercury methylation: Sulfur enrichment can increase mercury bioaccumulation in wildlife
• Climate change: Nitrous Oxide (N2O) is potent greenhouse gas
• NOx and SOx in the air can be directly toxic to plants
27
Sources of Nitrogen and Sulfur
• Burning of fossil fuels in vehicles and stationary sources
• Agriculture: fertilizers and livestock.• Natural emissions from microbiological
processes• Biomass burning
28
Nitrogen & Sulfur Sources & Effects
29
Nitrogen & Sulfur Sources & Effects
30
Surface Water AcidificationSurface Water Acidification
• Direct effects– Decreases in pH (i.e. increases acidity) and lowers acid
neutralizing capacity (ANC)
– Increases Aluminum concentrations
• Indirect effects– watershed-scale impacts, such as nitrogen saturation, forest
decline, or soil acidification
31
Biological Effects of Acid RainBiological Effects of Acid Rain
• Terrestrial– Decline of red spruce trees (eastern U.S.), sugar maple
(central and western PA) – Tree decline: poor crown condition, reduced tree
growth, unusually high tree mortality
• Aquatic– Susceptible fish and macro-invertebrates cannot
survive, reproduce or compete in acidic waters (zooplankton, mayfly, fathead minnow)
– High acidity and aluminum levels disrupt salt and water balance in fish, causing red blood cells to rupture and blood viscosity to increase, resulting in a lethal heart attack
32
Nitrogen EnrichmentNitrogen Enrichment
Atmospheric N depositionNOx, NHx, Other Nr
Nr effects onterrestrial ecosystems
Nr effects on estuarine ecosystems
Fertilizer•Land runoff•Soil leaching (Nr)
Waste water effluent (Nr)
Atmospheric N deposition causes a cascade of ecological effects at multiple scales
• At smallest scale, increased growth of individual species• Not all species can take advantage of additional N; some lose
competitive advantage• Causes a suite of terrestrial and aquatic ecological problems
including biodiversity losses, community shifts, eutrophication, and harmful algal blooms
33
Ecological Indicators of EutrophicationEcological Indicators of Eutrophication
34