handbookofconduc00schriala

8/13/2019 handbookofconduc00schriala

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THE LIBRARYOFTHE UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIALOS ANGELESGIFT OF

Saul Abramovitch


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Printed in EnglandbyAUGENER LTD.,

287 Acton Lane, London. W. 4.


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LIBRARYMT8SPreface.

In the present work I have recorded some of myexperiences of the conductor's art, for its advancementand for general use, the ground over which the con-ductor must travel or the direction his musical studiesmust take. A few works already exist dealing withthe same subject, yet giving together with much thatis good, many obsolete ideas. Sometimes the infor-mation and advice (for instance, upon the movementsin beating time) is so primitive that the reader, insteadof eliciting therefrom anything of practical value, fallsinto error and confusion when literally applying theinstructions given. I have here tried to be as plainand clear as possible, so that nothing may remainunintelligible to the reader; and that he may alsoderive therefrom many practical hints, not to befound in any other book. Should this little work fallinto the hands of musicians who have formerly beenunder my leadership, they will be sure during itsperusal to be often reminded of our artistic co-operation.Willingly would I have spoken more fully on manymatters which, however, lay outside the direct purposeof this work. Perhaps on another occasion I mayreturn to some important aspects of the subject.

Hamburg, Whitsuntide 1889.Carl Schroeder.Table of Contents.

Introduction. pageDifference between timebeating and conducting IThe abilities and faculties necessary for a conductor iThe Musical Ear 2PART I.The Technique of Beating TimeAptitude for beating time . 3Attainment of a firm start . 3Preparatory motion of baton 4The beats in various species

of timeThe beats in the sub-divi-sions

The beats in pieces containing

bars of various times per-formed simultaneously . .18Co-operation of the left arm 25Holdingandterminatingpauses 25The movements in beating timewith reference to their effect

upon the musicians and thepublic 29


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PART II.Conducting.

Correct appreciation ofthe time 31Study of an orchestral work 31Bowing and fingering of the

strings in accordance withthe phrasing 32

Holding notes with sustainedpower 35Observance and performancetfP 36The crescendo and descres-cendo 37Difference between ff and / 39Performance and effect of pp 40The Ponticello . . . . 41The Tremolo 42

Study of a Choral work . . 43Study of an Opera . . .45Orchestral rehearsals . . .45Rehearsals for the revision of

parts 46The Opera Chorus .... 46Study of solo parts ... 47Going through the solo partswith half voice (markieren) 47Alterations of parts to suit the

singer (punktieren) ... 47

pngeDialect-free pronunciation ofthe text 49Translations of the text . . 5Ensemble practices for the

soloists 53Rehearsals for soloists, chorusand orchestra, seated (Sitz-

proben) 53Rehearsals with the scenery 53Rehearsals for full chorus andsoloists with orchestra. . 54Final Rehearsals .... 54

Giving of signs 54Conducting of Recitatives . 56Conducting of ballet music . 60Position of conductor and dis-

position of orchestra andchorus . . . . . . .61Concert orchestras .... 62Opera orchestras .... 62Self-control of the conductor

during performance ... 63Rise and fall of the curtain 65Tuning in the orchestra . . 65Fixing and removing ofmutes 65PART III.

The Conductor in his relations to the Management,Subordinates, etc.Conductor and Manager . . 66Conductor and Orchestral

Players ....... 67Conductor and Singers . . 68Opera Conductor and Stage

Manager 70APPENDIX.

Etiquette between -Conduc-tors 72The Conductor as Composer 72Conductor and Composers . 73Conductor and Critic ... 74

Percussion Instruments . 89Glockenspiel .... 89Harp, Mandoline and

76 Guitar 908 1 Concert Programmes . . 92TRANSLATOR'S APPENDIX.

Information most neces-sary for Conductors con-cerning Instrumentation

Stringed InstrumentsWind Instruments

Use of the left arm ... 95The Fermata 96Pronunciation of the text in

English 97

First use of the Baton inEngland 98

Position of the Conductor . 99


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Introduction,What is meant by Conducting.The mental and bodily activity of the conductor, bymeans of which the artists under his direction bring be-

fore the public a correct, clear, and poetic representationof a composition in accordance with the composer's inten-_tions, and his own individual artistic feeling.

Beating lime not identical with conducting.Not from the artistic standpoint If a conductor beatstime correctly and plainly to a piece of music so that itgoes well together, but without possessing an intimateknowledge of the composition through a correct appre-hension of its meaning, and so from out of his own ar-tistic perceptions breathing over it the breath of life,he has merely beat time for it, and not conducted it.

The faculties and special attributes a conductor mustpossess.From a modern conductor is demanded a naturalfeeling for time; above all, a good musical ear; a firm_ feeling for rhvthm: a good educatiofT In Harmony, Convposition^ reading from score; prohciency jn piano playing;accurate knowledge of the^techhiyie of all OfChestfal BPVstruments (if possible, some practical ability on a lew ot*the Same) , thorough understanding of the art of singing,and a feeling for clear pronunciation of the words. Heshould also possess a broad comprehensive glance, a men-tal superiority and repose, with the gift of bringing theideas of a composer within the comprehension of thelisteners through the medium . of the performers andhimself.

Schroeder, Handbook of Conducting. I


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INTRODUCTION.

The musical ear.The finest faculties of hearing differ in many respects.For example, there are musicians able to detect the slight-

est inaccuracy of any note in any interval from a givennote, who, nevertheless, in the absence of an instrumentor tuning fork cannot name correctly a note when desired.Another who can do this, and to whom it is a matter ofcertainty (the faculty being inborn), can hardly understandthat it is not also the case with everyone else.It is remarkable that, despite all the advantages be-fore one's eyes accruing from a ripened perception oftone, on the other hand some disadvantage may be en-gendered. If, for instance, a song has to be sung in somekey other than the original, it must be transposed. Asinger without a perfect feeling for tone sings it unwittingly,and, save that it is given in a different key to the origi-nal, merely notices by his voice that it is higher or lowerin pitch. The following has, for instance, often happened.A singer wishes to sing an air a semitone lower, deemingit more suitable to his voice. At the rehearsal the con-ductor directs the orchestra to transpose, yet in the even-ing allows it to be played in the original key, withoutthe vocalist's knowledge. The singer, in the belief thatit is transposed, sings it actually better than before, andis with difficulty afterwards disabused of his mistaken idea.In the same way, a violinist who lacks a perfect feelingfor tonality, will play his part just as easily on the violaas on the violin of course allowing for the widerdistances of the viola whereas another with keenerperceptions makes this difficulty, that he is compelled tothink of what he plays as being a fifth lower. To theauthor of this book it is difficult to

playon a piano that

varies more than a semitone from the normal pitch. Allthis tends to the conclusion that those who are not endow-ed with this keen perception of tone cannot be goodmusicians; none such can be said to possess the mostsensitive musical ear, if the ability to distinguish eachnote and each key be lacking.


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THE TECHNIQUE OF TIME BEATING.

PART I.The technique of time beating,

Just as in violin playing, or in dancing, gymnastics,or in any kind of activity demanding dexterity from anyof the bodily functions, a natural aptitude is necessary inorder to excel and be thoroughly at home in the per-formance of any of these acts, so for an accurate, flexible,and aesthetically pleasing manner of beating time, a cer-tain instinct is required. Failing this, the best musicianwill rarely become anything remarkable as a conductor,we have many instances of celebrated composers whowere not in a position to conduct even their own works.On the other hand, one meets with skilful conductors (asregards beating time) who are somewhat feeble as musi-cians, often being destitute of theoretical training. Thegift here consists in the innate capacity for reproducingthe motions requisite in time beating. This implies chieflya, light, easy motion of the arm, and a flexible wrist, inconjunction with a iaciiity lor lodowing with exactitudeeach modification of the time, as in song accompaniments,whether the same be indicated or not. It is, of course,quite possible to learn how to beat time, without anyspecial aptitude, with the help of correct information andopportunities, so that what cannot be imparted by teachingmay be mechanically acquired, but there is always a dif-ference to be observed between conductors with naturalaptitude for beating time, and those who have acquiredit by dint of much labour. Many things, as already re-marked, cannot be learnt and are the result of inner feel-ing. This is also the case in those other occupationspreviously alluded to, yet in greater degree with regardto beating time.The following instructions in the technique of beatingtime, arranged as progressively as possible, comprise theprincipal things to be acquired.

To obtain a firm start.To ensure this the conductor, instead of beginning

straight away with the baton upon the very beat which


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In bars containing two beats, this preparatorymovement is made from below, proceeding with a ^sharp curve to the second beat k If

a. Allegro. Armida.

b. Don Giovanni.

This plan answers best when the commencement isforte; for a //Vz0 beginning I recommend the method asgiven below for beginning on the last beat.In 4 /4 time (or 2/4 time when the subdivisions areindicated), if the beginning is on the thirdbeat, the preparatory movement will be J~made from the middle towards .he left

a. Arinida.

Examples :


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PART I.b. Waffenschmied.

-4 & 1,. -* 0- * * *

If the commencement occurs on the last beat,_f the preparatory movement proceeds from themiddle to the right

ft. Zauberflote.'

-*f

b.

j*For /


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THE TECHNIQUE OP TIME BEATING.a. Allegro. Merry Wives of Windsor. ''

b. Allegro. Zauberflote.

c. Allegro. Fidelio.

d. Allegro. Pastoral Symphony.

Before starting with the baton, it is to be ob-served that each beat following a down beat musttake its point of departure from the middle of thecourse described by the baton. To effect this, onemust with the first stroke of the baton, move it to-wards the middle immediately the lowest point isreached. Rapid tempi necessitate exceptions to thispractice.


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PART LThe Method of beating time in various rhythms per-mits an approximate demonstration by means of the sub-

joined diagrams, in which, however, the movement thatprecedes the first beat is not shown.Bars of two beats: (, 2/4 , also 8/8 and in

I quick times 6/4 .i

f .First beat down, the motion of the stick beingdirected towards the middle; second beat from the

middle with a slight, sharp bend of the stick on theup beat.a) Allegro (Fidelio.)

b) Allegro. (Freischiitz.)

1c) Allegretto. (Freischfltz.)

Bars of three beats: 3 /2 ; 8/4 ; 8/8 ', also 9/8 and in quicktimes */4.


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After the down beat, the second proceedsfrom the middle towards the right; the thirdIn a curve upwards.*)

a) Larghetto. (Israel in Egypt) .

And be - liev - ed the Lord

^'^-^^=^prs:b) Vivace. (Jessonda.)

hat es euch mit Grimm er - fiil - let.

c) Larghetto. (Martna.l K .

TVn. T. 1 T j.^-= i : n ; 1 *-*-*-* * T * * * ITi=^^P-z^^^^r

*) That is to say, to the original point of departure indicatedby the figure 3. The upward movement from I to the middle, re-presents not a part of the secend beat but the natural rapid recoilof the wrist from the lowest point reached by the stick, towardsthe centre from whence the second beat starts. If the reader willbeat a few imaginary bars, describing the three straight lines of atriangle, the more convenient and graceful method here indicatedby the author will be apparent If the second beat were made tostart from the lowest point reached by the stick in a straight linefrom I to 2, it would probably be not so easily seen by the per-formers. [Tr.]


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10 PART 1.d) Andante. (Beethoven's C major Symphony.)

Bars of 4 beats: */.; 4/o *ls , 12/s-

Second beat to ths left, thethird to the right, the fourth up-ward.

a) Moderato. (Armida.)*Fhrf&a

b) Andantino. (Hans Heiling.)

There are also pieces in which the whole bar is com-prised into one beat; down beats exclusively. Of thissort are Waltzes and Scherzi in 8/4 or 8/8 , likewise aliaBreve, 2/4 , and 6/8 time when very rapid.Here are some examples of bars properly consistingof one beat only each, and in many cases it would bebetter to take two bars as one.


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THE TECHNIQUE OF TIME BEATIfiG. IIa) Allegro molto. (Symphony in C, Beethoven.)

:g I |4-=3fc3Hg g^jlycresf.A

Qfr f:^=r^. ~R3~TL l=t=f=*=i=:]^~~J~f^^^=r=r-l^^

b) Allegro con brio. (Symphony in C minor, Beethoven.)

c) Presto. (Finale of same Symphony.)

Lj-i I TEEtt-U=t


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PART I.d) Allegro Vivace. (William Tell.)

^=^=^fJ^::=-44WiT:|~~'

dies hei - 1'ge Eh - ren - amt etc.

. _ it is sometimes necessary to indicatethe sub-divisions of the beats, but the principal divisionsor beats must always be more sharply marked. The move-ments will then be as follows:

Bars of 2 beats. If these are 2/2or 2/4 times, the beats will then be given3 as four, according to the method pre-viously explained. If a slow e/4 or 6/8bar, then i and z will be given as downbeats, 3 to the left, 4 and 5 to the right,and 6 up;

or T down, 2 and 3 to the left, 4 tothe right, 5 and 6 up.


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THE TECHNIQUE OF TIME BEATING.a) Allegretto. (Zauberflote.)

b) Moderate. (Rienzi.)

There are also compositions in these times in whichonly the ist, 3 rd , 4 th and 6 th quavers or crotchets aregiven, or in which from bar to bar one or more beatsare omitted; e. g.,

Tannhauser.

In the above instance the 6/4 time issues from aprevious 4 /4 time, and the three crotchets follow immedi-ately upon the previous two. It would be very pedanticto beat the six crotchets, whilst to give the time as aliabreve would lead to an incorrect and too quick tempo,and the ordinary time renders the performance of thecrotchets uncertain. In the following example also, onecan beat as follows with good results: 6/1 3 46.


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PART t.Der fliegende Hollander.

Bars of three beats in slow time.Subdivide thus:_ - first and second beats down, 3 and 4to the right, 5 and 6 up.

a) Grave. (Fidelio.)

3H3a=3T

mb) Moderate. (Jessonda.)

Each beat subdivided into three:

i, 2, 3 down, 4, 5, 6 to the right, 7, 8, 9 up.1.2.3.


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THE TECHNIQUE OP TIME BEATING.Les Huguenots

===fL-*-*-*-**-ifen-rrre*

Bars of 4 beats in slow time.

Each beat subdivided into two;

i, 2 down, 3, 4 left, 5, 6 right, 7, 8 up.

a) Largo maestoso. (Freischiitz.)

b) Adagio. (Zauberflote.)

*


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i6 PART t.

Each beat sub-divided into three:Three beats each, down, left, right

II Trovatore.

Beating the subdivisions is carried to excess by manyconductors, and many appear actually to shrink from con-

\ ducting in alia Breve time, \vhat one sometimes witnessesin this respect IS Inconceivable. Conductors of greatrepute, (even conductors of Wagner's music), will, forexample, boldly beat four crotchets at the beginning of

\ the Euryanthe overture; others will do the like in theIntroduction to the 3rd Act of Lohengrin. In Fideliomany sins of this sort are committed, notably in thechorus in 2/4 time, O what delight. Many similar in-stances could be quoted.Others, again, fall into the opposite_error. There areconductors who take the Prelude to Tristan 1 ' and the

extract from Tannhauser which we have just given, inalia breve time. But this fault is less common, and happensmostly in 6/s or 6/4 TImeI

Finally, we have still to mention the less frequent 5/4,and the still rarer 7 /4 times. The former, according to itsconstruction should be taken either i, 2, 3, i, 2, or i, 2,i, 2, 3, always 3/4 and 2 /4 , or the reverse; care beingtaken to accent more strongly the first crotchet. 7/4 timeis compounded of 4/ t and 8/4 .


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THE TECHNIQUE OF TIME BEATING. ,.a) La Dame Blanche.

D6-ja la nuit, d6 - ja la nuit plussombre sur? K htzzt

P ff f ii rrfffxV4 LT s^ [/ u u LT^

b) Meistersinger.Ein je - des Mei - ster - ge - san - ges

Bar stell or - dent - lich ein Ge - ma - sse

das aus un - ter-schiecl - li - chen Go - se - tzenf f t * *'


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PART I.In the first example i, 2, 3, i, 2 is given. In thesecond it is better to make an exception and beat the

second crotchet to the left, the third and fourth to theright, and the fifth up.

Pieces containing bars of various Times takensimultaneously.

The most familiar instance is the Ball Scene in thefirst Don Giovanni finale, wherein 3 /4 , a/4 and 8/8 areplayed together.

3rd Orchestra.

Violini

Bassi

Violini

Bassi

Violini

Bassi

feSs:&:

2nd Orchestra.

EF b

1st Orchestra.

=*=F


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THE TECHNIQUE OF TIME BEATIKG.

Here a crotchet in 2/ 4 time occurs against each crot-chet in the 8/4, and simultaneously with all three quaversin the 8/8 . The conductor can easily keep the three or-chestras together by giving a down beat to each of thethree crotchets of the minuet. Of greater difficulty is thePrelude to Wagner's Parsifal , to keep the 4 / time to-gether with the wind instruments that are playing in 6/4.One can here do no more than indicate the four crotchets,marking more distinctly the first and third, where theaccents of the two rhythms coincide. (To avoid beingmisunderstood, I must here observe that I am speakingnow solely with regard to the technique of time beating.)


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20 PART I.

Example from Prelude to ParsifalFlutes& Clari-nets.

Is* violin.

Oboes,trumpets,violins.

2nd violin.

Viola

Cello.

:J i L

^ ^=3

=F=Wi ^ind Instruments.


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THE TECHNIQUE OF TIME BEATING. 21

ii:

r-ii'44 44

M*

.

JJ- I-C4 OJO^


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PART I.


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THE TECHNIQUE Of TIME BEATING.

:> \


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PART 1.


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On the use of the left arm in beating time.*)This must not be entirely neglected, and is in many

cases of great service, as, for instance, in indicating cer-tain shades of expression; but one must beware of exag-geration.JSometimes both hands are enraged in beating time,in the rendering ~oi tone groups which are placed at eachside of the conductor (as at the opera) and which mustbe made to go together with precision, aioeit the passagesin question dp^jiot permit of any great movement of the_right arm.

Overture to Fi

On holding and terminatingWe have next to consider pauses \(Fertnata) \ whichmust be prolonged and brought to a close by aff'lhe in-struments together, so that, when the piece is not therebyconcluded, a slight break (often not written) follows.

a. Overture to Freischfltz.:

*) See appendix.


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26 PART /.b. Symphony by Beethoven.

Pause.

So long as the fermata (pause on the note or chord)is intended to be sustained, the, baton is held hjgfa^ and

_.~. either made to drop with a rapid move-ment in token of finishing, or terminatesthe fermata with a certain side movement,which should be preceded by a slight pre-paratory motion upward.In the following example we cannotventure to finish the fermata with themovement as given above; rather the firstmotion takes its usual course, fulfilling both

purposes by means of the next movement, so that themusicians, upon the indication of the commencement ofthe next phrase, finish the fermata. In other words, bothmotions coincide.

C minor Symphony, Beethoven.Allegro. Wood-wind.

~T ^ I


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PARTI.a. C major Symphony, Beethoven.

b. Fidelio , Beethoven.

Andante con moto.

In the second example, the upper notes in the fcr~tnata must be held by the flutes until the other windinstruments begin the 6/8 time which follows, so that thenotes for the flutes appear to lose themselves in the keyof EK The effect will be good if the wind instrumentsin passing into the key of E|? connect the first quaver ofthis key with the fermata, thereby linking the phrase alsothe following bars.


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jO PART I.the baton, all unnecessary contortions of the body ordisagreeable grimaces.

A considerable portion of our audiences will be foundto approve of a conductor who possesses all these faults,and by many these things are considered becoming; themore enlightened portion of our audiences (and this,one in thankful to say, forms also a large class) ridiculessuch behaviour


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PART H.Conducting.

One of the chief requisites for conducting a pieceof music iswhich can ^8?HffOTQmuairinstinct If theconductor understands a musical composition, and thephrasing and the rendering are quite clear to him, hewill discover also the proper time and know how toconduct the work.The tempi and metronome signs of a piece are oftenmisleading^ and when they are correct only apply to thegeneral character of the piece, which in most cases issubject to various modifications 'in its course, which haveto be felt.

One must also be at pains to place one's ylf enrapport with the jj)irit_of the piece to be conducted,grasping its meaning,and making trie performance quiteclear melodically and rhythmically, with regard to thenatural phrasing, overlooking no imperfections or lack ofadequate marks or signs in the composition, and wheresuch are not plainly indicated, supplying the same fromone's own feeling and instinct. Then not only will thecorrect time for the piece as a whole be comprehended,but also a matter of great importance, those passagesin which the time is subject to modification, will be madeplain, each standing out in due proportion.

Study of an orchestral work.If the conductor has completed all these preparatory

studies, absorbing the music to such an extent that he is


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PART II.able to reproduce it as though it had been his own in-vention, it will then become his task to make the workintelligible

to the orchestral performers, interesting thein^in it; eliciting ifi performance its technical and innersignificance, so that when given at a concert, both con-ductor and orchestra unite to produce upon the hearersthe effect which the composer intended. If the conductorhas a good orchestra under his control, it will be desir-able, when the musicians have become acquainted withthe general contents and tempi of the work to be prac-tised, to permit them to play it at sight. In this taskone is occupied with the working out of the variousthemes, studying them until the conductor is satisfied thatthe players' feelings for, and conception of, that whichthey are playing, are identical with his own impressions.When technical difficulties are known to exist in thecomposition, before worKing at them with the wholeorchestra, and until they are completely conquered bythe instruments individually, they should be taken ingroups or families of instruments; i. e. strings . then~ tne wocxl wind. surjEeTJH5Hny* with the hprns^ finally withthe remaining brass^ and percussion instruments. Then in_combination , --still with regara to the various groups,such asT strings and wood wind, brass and wood wind, etc.

only proceeding to an ensemble rendering after thishas been done.It is advisable to include the youngest and weakestof the strings at the rehearsals of the wind instruments;one or two to each part. One is thereby assisted in the

frequent counting of bars' rest, and for the strings inquestion such practices are very helpful.Of the following matters the conductor must takeespecial care at the rehearsals:

i. Correct marks for bowing in agreement withthe phrasing, and suitable fingering for the strings,together with correct breath-taking of the wind instrumentplayers.Here it is assumed that the conductor knows (as heshould do) enough of the technique of the variousstringed instruments to be able to rectify any suchmistakes with respect to them as they occur. Unfortun-ately, this is only the case with a small percentage ofconductors, and in consequence the most annoying and


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CONDUCTING. 33even incredible mistakes are sometimes made, both atthe opera and at concerts.

In support of what has just been said, two examplesshall follow:

In the beginning of the Scherzo of Beethoven'sC minor Symphony, the 'Celli and Contra Bassi usuallychange the bowing at the third bar, and must then con-ceive it as sounding thus:

4-whereas it should be presented thus:

*

Had the piece been written in 6/4 time, no miscon-ception would arise, nor the inaccuracy in performancespringing from it:

Here the passage ought either to be played in onebow (which would be the best way), or, if the bow cannotInclude all the notes (as may happen with the Basses),by changing the bow after the first minim. Even moreapparent is the necessity for a correct change of bow atthe prolongation of the theme which subsequently occurs:

Schroeder, Handbook of Conducting.


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34 PART II.Usually the bow is changed here at the first C,whereas it should be changed once only, and this should

take place before the A[?. One observes here that theplayers think of the passage as follows, which false inter-relation becomes manifest in the performance:

The following passage would also be made moreintelligible if altered to 6 / 4 time:

r n

Example from Wagner's Siegfried.Violins.

In nearly all opera orchestras this passage is soplayed that the violinists change positions on the D$ of


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CONDUCTING. 35the second bar of the E major, thereby causing a dis-agreeable jerk which disturbs the phrasing if a few of theplayers fail to accomplish it neatly. The players shouldhere be prepared to take the last three notes of eachsection of the phrase (a, f$, dft) in one position, makingthe first change of position on the C$. Moreover, thestrokes are apt to fall into confusion in this example; oneplayer will change bows at the third note of the phrase,another at the fourth, others even at the last.

In the beginning of the violin passages in the follow-ing example, too, the greatest confusion reigns in thebowing. Many simply change bo\vs at each bar. Others,again, who take the first bow correctly before the twolast quavers of the second bar, change again at the B inthe next bar instead of at the CJJ.

Many similar cases yet remain, and with reference tothem some celebrated conductors have positively no idea,but allow the players to appear at cross purposes witheach other. Some may remark that these are trivial mat-ters, the essential thing being the great energy which sucha conductor will bring to bear upon the rendering of thework, and upon those under him. Such little matters,by no means trivial points, reveal the musician ofkeen perceptions, and when the artistic reproduction ofa work of art is concerned, this is emphatically not asmall matter.

2. One must see that the strings as well as the wind(especially, though, the former) hold a long note, or apause over a note (fermata) to the end with equal forcein a Forte.

3*


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PART II.Non-observance of this precaution is an oft recurring

piece of negligence chargeable to the strings, and onemust not fail to direct attention to it every time it happens.

3. Strings, as well as wind f have a habit of follow-ing a forte by a diminuendo, instead of a prescribed fp.This is one of the commonest Taults of nearly everyorchestra; many effects designed by the composer beingspoilt in consequence. In order to ensure that the loudbeginning shall be succeeded by a piano, let the strings,immediately after the first contact of the bow, keep itback, the wind instrument players doing likewise withregard to the breath.

Examples :

Le Nozzedi Figaro.

Strings.ab. Wind. Violins.


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CONDUCTING. 374. A crescendo proceeding from a piano, and extend-

ing over^a number of bars before a forte or jp is reached,must not be too strongly marked in the first few bars,lest a further considerable augmentation of tone be ren-dered impossible; but the chief increase in power mustalways be held in reserve for the last few bars.

Overture to Genoveva, Schumann.I-M.

L-F-

f~ Jam m hJ

5 I


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PART a.

The foregoing example is usually so played by theorchestra that the crescendo might be transcribed thus:

whereas it should be developed in this way:

On the same principle also should the reverse of thisbe executed, a diminuendo proceeding from f or ff\Pastoral Symphony, Beethoven.

- ^^_j,o-


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CONDUCTING. 39

isfe-^ti4rfcr?:

5. It is also a great fault with the majority of or-chestras that ff is not distinguished from f.To attain a distinction in this respect should be theconductor's unremitting endeavour, as grand effects canthen be produced. In the following extract from Beet-hoven's C minor Symphony many conductors think ofthe middle part, the entry of piii forte, as proceed-ing almost from a piano, which by means of a crescendoworks up again to a forte. We maintain that in suchplaces the musicians should not already at the forte exerttheir whole strength, but should so far modify it that theff only is played with full strength of tone.


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&E=(^=&fe=iEtr==gQuick bows in pianissimo demand, for the most part,shorTsfroEes with the wrist, and flexible playing.

Allegro (Zauberflote).Stringed instruments.

rr**-

The mysterious effect produced so often by the em-ployment of the ponticello must be got from very near thebridge, and with the upper half of the bow, which mustrest on the string. One of the most effective instancesof its use is found in Tristan :


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4* PART It.Horns.

7. 7/fo tremolo of the strings is rarely produced withsufficient rapidity, but sounds generally like demi-semi-quavers against semiquavers. The finest effects are oftenlost thereby. This must also be taken with the upperhalf of the bow resting on the string, and it must be seento that the players use the wrist only, and do not makethe strokes too long.

a) Armida, Gluck. Ver - dop - pelt sei der - de

Viola

Bassi

-fr-4 fr I fr-i^g * ^1tremulando

Schrek - ken durch neu - en schwar-zen Zau-ber.

1


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CONDUCTINGb) Siegfried, Wagner.

43

Viola

Celli

tremulo

XXX

Many other matters might be noticed, but in theforegoing examples the principal weaknesses of the modernorchestra are exhibited.

The Study of a Choral Work for Concert orChurch Performance.Generally we have here to deal with amateurs, and

the practice of a great choral work is often a difficulttask.


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44 PART II.In an assemblage of would-be singers there willnot fail to be found a large proportion of ladies, yet a

great part of them often may scarcely be reckoned, manyhaving scarcely any voice for singing*), and others beingso unmusical that in spite of the existence of good singingmaterial it is rendered consequently useless. Many othersattend the practices too irregularly. A proportion of avail-able singers will, however, remain, and upon these theother part will have to rely, as will also the conductor.At any rate, all without voices and otherwise unmusi-cal persons must be relentlessly eliminated, though this isnot in every case practicable; with many discriminationmust be exercised, as, for example, if one person has abrother or sister whose co-operation one would not willinglydo without, one cannot well exclude the other.As only in rare cases will a choral work be sungstraight off at sight, one proceeds to study it by takingeach part separately, then the women's voices togetherand then the men's. Having exercised the voices, thus far,'one of the parts for female voices should be combinedwith one part for male voices, and finally all the partstogether. Before the separate voice parts are practised,the contents, barring, and rhythm should be explained, andthe words read out rhythmically, care being taken to pre-serve a clear, pure, enunciation. Correct and naturalbreathing must next be seen to, and marks indicating itmade in the voice parts. It is a good plan to numberevery bar previous to a practice, so that each desiredrepetition may easily be found. In places where a notemust be held for many bars, let the taking of breath bemade alternately, if the breath supply cannot extend overthe whole, so that no break is noticeable by simultaneousstopping.

Points especially to be observed are:i. Whatever applies naturally to the technique of*) The percentage of good voices will be found to vary greatlywith the locality. Hilly districts are considered more favorable to

the voice than low countries or the sea level. The percentage ofuseful voices for chorus purposes, and the compass, will be foundgreater generally in England than in Germany, whilst in districtswhere vocal music is assiduously cultivated, as in many parts ofWales and Yorkshire, utterly useless voices would be almost theexception. Tr.


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CONDUCTING. . -45singing with regard to dynamic signs in performance, asshown on pages 35 39 must be explained by the conductor;

2. The singers must not sing into the music sheet,nor into the back of those standing in front of them;3. That the_\vords are clearly pronounced in singing;4. That the singers become accustomed to count

bars' rests for themselves, instead of being anxiously de-pendent upon the conductor's signs, which, nevertheless,must be given at each entry;

5. That the singers attack the notes and watch theconductor, and particularly at the beginning and also atthe close all ey^s are directed towards him.^_Hie_ practising should b erwith a piano, and the voice

part which is being practised should be played loudly,with firm rhythm and with the underlying harmony. Thosenot actively occupied should read through their part whenresting during the practice of other parts, so that when itcomes to their turn a certain amount of preparedness will beperceptible. As soon as the notes are accurately sung, omitthe piano and take the choir unaccompanied ( a capella, )when great care must be taken that the singing does notbecome flat, and that the intonation remains pure.

On Studying an Opera.This divides itself into three chief departments, soli,

choir, and orchestra. With respect to the last, the in-formation previously given under Studying an orchestralwork is applicable, only the conductor at the opera ortheatre seldom has the time to attain a really expressiveand forcible rendering, and the orchestral conducting atoperatic performances is often in this respect miserablyprovided for. The responsibility and blame for this doesnot always rest upon the conductor or upon the orchestra.Much might be said concerning it, but this is not theplace, and we must here pass over the existing relationswith regard to it.One endeavours, then, at the rehearsals set apart forthe orchestra, as conscientiously as possible, yet withoutpedantry and tediousness, to study the general intentionsof the composer in the orchestral part, taking especialpains to observe the needful modifications of the dynamicsigns in the vocal accompaniments. A sympathetic yield-ing and subordination of the orchestra to the singing is


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46 PART 11.essential in opera \ the orchestra must emulate the vocalistsin expressive singing . The orchestral parts not indicatingthe contents of the work in hand, it is desirable to acquaintthe musicians with its leading features, particularly at thosepoints where a correct interpretation must precede the action.

If written orchestral parts are not used, it is necessaryto hold practices for the correction of mistakes, whenerrors in the score will often be detected. It must bestrongly insisted upon that mistakes discovered at practiceare to be immediately corrected by the players. If ofconsiderable extent, let them be marked for after correc-tion by the copyist. At these practices for correction, aconductor reveals what sort of musical ear he has, andwhether he possesses a fine capacity for distinguishing thetone colour of the various instruments or not. That thisis not in any marked manner the case with many conductorsis demonstrated by the almost incredible errors to bediscerned in the parts, and which are, nevertheless, playedfor many years, even in such operas as Fidelia, Figaro, etc.Involuntarily must many others shake their heads and askthemselves Did thy predecessors really never hear them?

The Opera Chorus.The task of preparing the chorus of an opera usuallydevolves upon the chorus-master, who, after arriving at an

understanding with the conductor as to the tempi, mustfirst endeavour to get the_text of each voice part committedtomgmory^when the notes also wfll be taken more easily.In the chorus roiom7 at the piano generally a long sufferinginstrument the chorus-master will not play too manynotes, but let the harmony and rhythm be the principalthings. He must also make the chorus acquainted withthe action, and impress upon them their cues, with therespective notes, until firmly fixed upon the memory.Further, the correct rests must be given, so that after eachshort rest in the chorus not a single voice is solely dependentupon the conductor's signs.A painstaking chorus-master whose taste and feelingfor the beautiful has not been lost, may here effect muchgood; and let him not abstain therefrom, even thoughhis labours seldom or never receive thanks. A conductorwho is not altogether apathetic will be always grateful tosuch a chorus-master.


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CONDUCTING. ,.

Studying the Solo Parts in an Opera.Herein lies the chief work of the operatic conductor.Where there are auxiliary helpers or sub-conductors ( Kor-

repititoren ) these must first be made acquainted with theintentions of the conductor. Amongst the soloists onehas to deal with both musical and often, unfortunately,quite unmusical singers. The first class, after the respectiveparts have been gone through so that the singers knowtheir conductor's mind with respect to them, may be leftto study them with the assistance of their own artisticindividuality, until the solo parts are required to be unitedwith the chorus. With the other sort one has a difficulttask, and every note must be drummed into them at thepiano, until a firm impression is made.But many soloists, however, who learn their parts inthis way, and who possess some intelligence, retain thatwhich they have learnt better, and are more certain inperformance than those who sing easily at sight, and onlystudy their oft-times unsympathetic parts half as much;because the same must eventually be sung from memory.The conductor must be careful about the followingmatters at the practices for the solo parts singly:

1. One allows the singer to run over the part, merelyindicating it with half-voice, but on that account the con-ductor must listen all the more attentively. When a numberis completely grasped, the performance of it follows,polishing it until the singer acquires the proper rendering,so far as his vocal powers permit.

2. It often happens that a vocalist, otherwise very wellqualified for the part assigned, finds just a few bars toohigh or too low. In such a case the conductor himselfmust make the necessary alterations in the style of thecomposition, and not leave this to the singers, who areseldom sufficiently permeated with the spirit of the entirework, even though understanding their own individual parts.In practice this kind of alteration is termed punk-rieren (lit. to punctuate ).


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PART 11.Example (from William Tell).

a) Original. Rudolf.*r. f- * N S ~

A.. 5 it IY t * m m f m


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CONDUCTING.

b) Altered thus:49

Euch 1st der Tod ge-schworen, dein Mor-der

Tod Fluch und Tod Nennt den Ver-

ra-ter, Al-lenEuch droht der Tod

3. Here also one will not play the part of pianovirtuoso, but in playing lay the chief stress upon correctharmonies and firm rhythm, for of the many figures andruns played by the orchestra the singer, when, later, heis on the stage, will hear nothing. It is otherwise withinterludes and important motives; here the vocalist shouldbe made acquainted with some of the instrumentation,which knowledge is often a support when singing frommemory.

4. The conductor should likewise accustom the solo-ists to count the rests for themselves-, he should, however,give them their cues distinctly, singing for them the mostimportant of the parts which fill up their shorter periodsof rest.

5. It is very important that the enunciation of thewords shall be distinct and free from dialect*). In singing,faulty pronunciation does not appear quite so marked asin speaking, but all singers when studying should aim ata clear pronunciation of the words, and where, as at theopera, the vocalists come together from all parts of theglobe, it is the duty of the conductor to enforce a cleardialect-free speech in song. Especially necessary is thisin Wagner's dramas. The conductor's requirements willperhaps appear strange to many, yet at all events only on

*) See Appendix.Schioeder, Handbook of Conducting.


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PAST II.this ground, that it so seldom happens that he is equalto such a demand upon his capacities. Many Austrianconductors, who chatter Viennese all day long, oftenpossess very little understanding of the real high-Germanspeech.

6. In Italian and French operas one often meets withthe most dreadful translations of the text into German,made by people who do not trouble themselves aboutthe musical composition, and often are quite unacquaintedwith it. Other cases may be cited where, in arrangingthe translation underneath the vocalparts,

the most uncoutherrors occur with respect to the declamation.The following examples out of Verdi's Aida give onlya slight specimen of this:

a) Allegro. Radames.

mit Wut - ge - ber - de.b) Radames.

Wennichzu dir A - I - da dannheim mit Lor-beern

keh - re und sag: ich kampft filr

i Ifdich | dein ist die Eh - re


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CONDUCTING. 5 1c) Aida.

DieSkla-vin wie ein Strahl dcr Sonn' er -warm tc

Kami froh ich wie - der wer - den

m =*: mso fern der Hei - mat Er - den.

Also in Mozart's operas similar instances are to befound:Le Nozze di Figaro.

ho chi mo - daIn the German translation of the above, if one doesnot alter the voice part the syllables become unnaturally

separated:

Und sii - sses Schmach-ten Sehn - suchtIt would here sound more natural and be also more

favorable for breath-taking, if the vocal part were alteredthus:

Und sii - sses Schmachten Sehn -suchtMany conductors appear afraid to make these correc-

tions, lest others reproach them for lack of respect tothe composer. Since this German translation is becoming4*


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5 2 PART a.naturalized and almost universally adopted, it would betruly no sin thus to adapt the voice part, seeing thatMozart himself was by no means so great a pedant in suchmatters. Again, in a more recent translation of the Reci-tativo secco in Don Giovanni, we find many clumsy andtasteless twistings about of the text; for instance:

Tau-send sch5- ne Din-ge dem Freund Ma - set - to sagt' ichinstead of Dem Freund Masetio sagf ich tausend schone Dinge,um ihn von seiner Eifersucht zu heilen .

In the first example from A'ida, the voice part restsupon an Amphibrach (a long syllable between two shortones). Since, however, the principal emphasis must notlie upon the auxiliary verb hat , as here placed uponthe accented beat, but on the adverb aufs neue , (herefound on the unaccented beat), the words can be betteradapted to the rhythm of the voice part, by allowing itto be sung Es hat aufs neu' zum Kampf, The threelast notes in triplets of the second bar form a Tribrach(three short syllables), whilst the translator has here placedan Amphibrach underneath, and it would be better hereto alter the voice part and so attain conformity with thetext, in such a manner that the notes appear as follows:

Es hat aufs neu'zumKampf, mitWut -ge-ber- deIn like manner, at b in the example from A'ida, acorrect declamation is easily substituted by placing theword und in the third bar one quaver earlier, and puttingthe word sag in its place*, also making a quaver ofdein instead of a semiquaver, on the note e in the fourth

bar. In example c, the words might be re-arranged inthis manner: -

Die Skla-vin wie einStrahlder Son - ne er-warm-te


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CONDUCTING. 53In the last example (d), take the word so again onthe unaccented beat, giving the word fern the same

value that froh has in the first bar.The conductor, in studying a work originally composed

in a foreign language, should not neglect to examine thearrangement of the words, and make the needful alterationsin the text or in the voice part previous to the practicewith the piano.When all the parts are, individually, studied sufficiently,ensemble rehearsals for all the soloists are held, and muchstress must be laid upon fine shades of expression; lettingno voice, particularly not the tenor, have undue prominencein the ensemble without some special intention; studyingthus until everything is firmly fixed in the memory.The soli and chorus will next be united at therehearsals, taking first all Scenas in which the chorusparticipates, afterwards repeating, when the chorus isreleased, the solo parts which may still need polishing.If it is a particularly difficult work, sitting rehearsals withorchestra are next held, the singers singing their partsfrom the front of the stage in order to learn the instru-mentation, and become accustomed to it. When this hasbeen done, rehearsals with piano, on the stage, will follow,for arrangement and grouping. These, particularly ingrand opera, are of great importance where the attentionis divided, resting often upon the scenic progress, in es-pecially lively play, etc., so that the correct musicalrendering, particularly in the ensemble pieces, revealsdifficulties where previously everything appeared to gowith smoothness and precision. At these rehearsals it ismuch to the purpose for the conductor to have a sub-stitute at the piano, himself conducting from the score,when, of course, the piano must be so placed that theplayer can see him.

When there are choruses or instrumental pieces tobe given behind the scenes, these must take place underthe direction of the chorus-master, eventually under thedirector of stage music, who in elaborate and complicatedpassages is connected with the conductor by means ofan p}p^tric time beater. This is often the case if theorgan is required; Wlien everything connected withthe scenic arrangements has been set in order by thestage manager, and when the dialogue goes fluently,


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54 PART II.the full rehearsals for soli, chorus and orchestra are pro-ceeded with.

It is best when the orchestra has been made readybeforehand, as the work becomes so much lighter for theconductor, and he can, therefore, overlook with his eyeand command the whole with all the more certainty. Anabsolute command over the whole machinery is essentialfor the operatic conductor-, he must possess eyes andears for everything, giving the necessary signs with cer-tainty, and letting no mistakes be passed over unnoticed.It is not always necessary to stop, but when a mistakeoccurs at a general rehearsal in a scene or number whichis going fluently, the mistake may be pointed out after,and the particular bars repeated.In great and difficult operas of considerable length,it is advisable so as not to weary the performers, to takeone or two acts at these rehearsals, on this accountstudying them all the more thoroughly } but at the finalrehearsal the whole work is taken without a break, whensmaU errors will again be remarked. Very important inopera is:

The giving of signs.These must be so managed that they are not madenoticeable to the audience generally, though this cannotalways be accomplished. One is often obliged to raisethe arm exceptionally high to enable those standing atthe back (of the stage) to see the baton; for instance, inthe second Act of Lohengrin, at the entry of the King's

Herald, unless it has been arranged for him to standhigher.Many such instances will occur with regard to thesoloists; one will need only a slight nod, another a rerymarked movement to indicate the entry of his part. Thechorus must have each entry clearly given, in the orchestrathe most important instruments, and chiefly those whichhave long pauses, such as the harp, the brass and per-cussion instruments.

In giving signs in opera and at vocal concerts, onedoes not mark more plainly the beats before the entrythan the entry itself, as is necessary at orchestral con-certs; but, first looking at those concerned, with a dis-


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CONDUCTING. 55tinct preparatory movement the note of the entry of thepart itself is at once given.

Example.Molto agitato. Oberon.

:*=*=:Schre - ckens - schwur

dein wil - des Qua - len selbst im

In the above example the first sign g ;ven is that ofthe second beat; in the third bar the upward motion ofthe stick after the first down beat indicates the entry.In the following example the second beat, distinctlyindicated, is given with and made to serve as an entryfor the voice parts.


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Oberon.

PART U.An Bord denn

=^=4==:y *^ZZ*=:g=3==1

The conductor's glance must here have effect, only,as previously remarked, the expression of his countenanceought not to degenerate into

agrimace.

It is essentialfor the conductor always to know the positions of thesingers on the stage, so that in entries which follow inquick succession he does not give the signs to the wrongperson. Finally, he must see that the singers have beenaccustomed to understand the signs; also when not directlyfacing him it is very disturbing, and also comical ineffect, if the singers at each entry stare anxiously at theconductor, as though they would devour him with their eyes.

On conducting recitatives.These occasion difficulties to many conductors, yet,

if thought out in a rational manner, the difficulties areby no means so great as they appear. One importantrule is that the conductor knows accurately the wordingand the rise and fall of the recitative, so that it is notnecessary for him to be anxiously following the score.In many operas, especially French and Italian, aconductor may be frequently placed in a dilemma owingto the variety of texts used by the singers, and in sucha case he must observe the rise and fall of the voice,relying upon his musical feeling and instinct. It is alsoof importance that in beating time the chief accents beplaced upon the chords accompanying the recitative, thepreceding beats being given only as preparatory move-


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PART II.When from out of the whole note in a bar some

crotchets stand forth, or little figures issue, only the beatswhich concern them are given, and one then waits forthe next down beat.

Example from Die Jiidin (Marschner)

Ein Ju - de ret - te - te dein

Kind, ein Ju - de zog es

f i

In recitatives which are accompanied only by stringorchestra, as, for instance, the recitative between Fordand Falstaff in the Merry Wives of Windsor , or therecitativo secco in Don Giovanni , it is not at all neces-sary to indicate the whole bar rests, only where the brassis employed between, in order that the latter may correctly


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CONDUCTING. 59count their rests. Thecomposer might often make it

easier for the^conguctor and the orchestra by notfcompressing the recitative in{o~bars, but perhaps only

~ln355R 5g^5y~means of a rest wRfiT 'fermata in theor7^chestral parts, that the players await anew the conductor'ssigns, or, where a sustained chord accompanies therecitative for many bars, by noting it as one compre-hensive beat with fermata. Much greater ease wouldresult in such places where, at present, the conductor mustindicate each bar, and often if the singer hurries and doesnot observe his rests, this has to be done with greaterhaste, merely in order that each bar may be properlycounted.

Raoul. Margar.y jw -^~


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6o PART II.

, ,a I l

-1Und sie wagt es Ihr Gat-te

- 0- --i-a^- - * i a IT

werd ich nie nein, nie

In the first example one bar with fermata would havesufficed, for the beats have no object at all; and in thesecond, the two bars' rests might have been eliminated,and a pause placed over the rests of three crotchets' valuein the second (complete) bar, for the passage is neversung as it stands above.

On the conducting of Ballet music.When a Ballet occurs in an opera, it is necessary forthe conductor to acquaint the Ballet-master with the tempi,

according to which the latter has to make his arrange-ments. The conductor must regard carefully the move-ments of the dancers, modifying the time, so far as thenature of the music will permit, for the more difficultmovements, such as a high spring, quick gyrations, etc.,observing that the principal beats coincide with the ex-pressive movements of the dance.


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CONDUCTING.

Position of the conductor and of the performeis.At concerts, as well as at the opera, the conductormust choose a position which enables him to overlook

all the performers, and which also enables each of themto see him. Entirely to be discountenanced is the prac-tice, prevailing amongst many concert conductors, ofturning the back to the orchestra, and conducting withthe face towards the audience, coquetting with them whenpossible, as many Band conductors and Promenade Con-cert conductors are in the habit of doing. Concerningthe disposition of the orchestra, it is always an advantageto the conductor to place the stringed instruments at thesides, at concerts, partly enclosing the wind instrumentsat the back. A departure from this practice is difficultto avoid at the opera. ^Usually the wood-wind and hornplayers sit together behind the first violins, to the con^ductor's left, the rest__pj^ the^ w nd_ ^nc^ tfi5^ percussionInstruments on jhe~ngnt hand side, behinoTtrfe violas ancTvloloncelli.^TThKS entails a little unsteadiness between thehorns and the other brass instruments, when they areunited in the orchestration. The trumpets commonlyexhibit a tendency to drag, occasioned frequently by takingbreath too late. It must be noted that this be done suf-ficiently early, the instruments not being abruptly liftedjust before the entry of their part. The latter part of thisremark applies equally to the stringed instruments. Inmany works it is necessary in some passages for one ofthe wind instruments to occupy another seat; for instance,at the beginning of the 3rd Act of Der Freischiitz. Herethe bass trombone plays his part upon the side wherethe horns are located.When arrangements have to be made for a choir ata concert, the orchestra closes up in wedge shape betweenthe choral masses, taking from the strings one, perhapstwo, rows in the front. The remaining strings on eachside follow behind, so that the wood-wind is placed be-tween them, the brass and instruments of percussionbringing up the rear.


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62 PART 11.

Tenor

feroLssioit

/Sdla. Bass VMai.

fflol 2.}lol.

Sass

SoliMto_

S oil

At the Opera, the conductor chooses his position sothat only one row of desks is placed behind him, and inthis way he is enabled to overlook nearly the wholeorchestra.

Contra-Jtcbss

VTrombones

S-

2nd Violins


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CONDUCTING. 63In small theatres, or where the company through a

frequently changing ensemble is not very sure, the con-ductor will do better to take a position close to the stage,in order to render the utmost assistance in any failureof memory that may happen. In large theatres, placingthe conductor in the middle of the orchestra, or stillnearer the Parquet, has of course the disadvantage thathe can with difficulty give explanations to the singers atthe rehearsals, if perhaps a necessity arises to speak aboutanything, particularly if he wishes to point out a mistaketo the latter, who, as happens in many cases, do not hearhim. To remedy this annoyance there should be, in largetheatres, some kind of speaking tube set up between theconductor and a place behind the wings. Without this,lowering the orchestra, at least half being hidden, isaltogether inadvisable, as many disadvantages ensue thereby.The position of the chorus in an opera is arranged inaccordance with the dramatic action, and is the businessof the stage manager; only it must be seen to that thevoices which have to sing together are not unnecessarilyseparated from each other. With regard to the arrange-ment and mobility of the chorus, much remains in mostopera houses that is vexatious. Even to-day, in one ofthe chief opera houses, it can be seen in the 2 nd Act ofLohengrin, where the pages, knights and people cry,Make way for Elsa of Brabant 1 that the stage is reallyquite empty, only the chorus in the background standshuddled together like a flock of sheep. Again, in Fidelia,at the arrival of the Minister, one often meets with aregular parade exhibition of the chorus, men to theright, women to the left, in rank and file. An intelligentconductor should energetically insist upon such an errorbeing remedied. When, however, the principal leader onthe stage has himself no understanding of such matters,it is a vain and thankless task to try and bring about somelittle improvement, whilst the public receives all incon-sistencies in opera with a truly angelic forbearance, andthe critics very rarely take notice of such matters.Self-restraint of the conductor during a performance.

The conductor must observe the greatest possiblerepose of manner, that he may be able to inspire thewhole company with ease and confidence. If the conductor


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54 PART II.appears restless and nervous, the entire performance suf-fers, and numerous mistakes will occur, both in the or-chestra and on the stage, simply on account of the artistsbeing to some extent infected by the nervousness of theconductor. If a mistake should occur at any time, andit is found impossible to rectify it, one should ignore it,proceeding as though nothing had happened. In mostcases the public will not then have noticed it. The singersalso ought not to have their mistakes pointed out to thembetween the Acts, for it should be remembered that untilthe close of then respective parts, they will need to keepquite collected and undisturbed, and everything else alsowhich might tend to excite must be avoided. The con-ductor must not, however, seem apathetic or phlegmatic,but, on the contrary, with all ease of manner, alive, andenergetic, and animated, in the discharge of his duties.Even in works which, to him, as a good musician, areunsympathetic, he fulfils his duty, for, just as the actorswill notice that the conductor takes no interest, so speedilywill all, orchestra as well, become negligent, andthe performance will be tedious to those who take partin it, as well as to the audience. In grand opera manyconductors allow themselves during the spoken dialoguesto give instructions to the musicians sitting nearest, or tolook around and inspect the audience. This has a disturb-ing influence upon those who are following the work withclose attention, for which reason it is to be as far aspossible avoided. The conductor must also in operaticperformances see that the singers look at him frequently,(but not in too marked a manner), particularly in ensembles,pauses (fermata), or entries after such. Also an under-standing is necessary to indicate during a performance ifthe singing should become too flat or too sharp. Signsshould be previously agreed upon, unnoticeable to thepublic; but not the favorite lifting of the finger in the air,which might become too noticeable.All tapping with the stick or rude stamping of thefoot must, of course, be avoided during a performance.As to the first matter, it may occur now and then withthe quietest of conductors, so that it is well to see thatthe upper edge of the desk is padded with leather, inorder that the knocks may at least be muffled.Where the conductor has to give the signs for the


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CONDUCTING. 5.rise and fall of the curtain, it must be done in accordancewith the stage management, so that (as actually happensin many theatres) those of the company who have notto take part in the Scene, have not to run precipitatelyto either side, but that, at the drawing up of the curtain,everything on the stage is in order. With the fall of thecurtain, the conductor must beware lest it be allowed todrop after the music has reached its close. Should it beat any time thus delayed, he may, by adopting a broadertempo, or by a longer holding of the last notes of theclose, retard the music until the complete drop is effected,as it makes a bad impression if the music ceases, and themembers of the orchestra, when possible, already begin toleave whilst the curtain still hangs midway.Before the beginning of the performance let all theinstruments, under the direction of the principals, tunecarefully. And this should be done not from one of thewind instruments, (generally the oboe), but from a tuningfork, and it is advisable to have several in the orchestra, -a few for the strings, and a few for the wind.The musicians should be accustomed to be seated intheir places 15 minutes before the commencement of aconcert or opera, to examine their instruments, removefrayed strings, and to finish tuning a few minutes beforethe beginning, so that from this time complete silencereigns in the orchestra. All preluding must be avoided;the wind can warm their instruments by breathing intothem, should this be necessary. Further, it must be seento that the strings fix and remove their mutes as noiselesslyas possible.

It is certainly remarkable that in superior orchestrasmutes fixed to the instruments (at least to the violins) havenot been introduced. Instead of making this small outlay,everything remains as of old, and the mutes are allowedto be fixed at leisure. It would seem as though theintervention of the hand in fixing it could not be dispensedwith.

Schroeder, HandbooV of Conducting.


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PART m.The conductor in his relations to themanagement, and to those placedunder him.

Conductor and Director, or Manager.If about to undertake an engagement to a Societywith the Direction of the same included, it is necessary

first to become well acquainted with all the circumstancesaffecting the situation according to reports. If there areany special artistic or material conditions in the under-standing, which are not usually stipulated for in suchcontracts or terms of service, it should be seen to thatthey are put down upon the agreement before signing it.On merely verbal engagements one should not reckon,as a time might come when the management might becomehard pressed, and only recognize the written part of theagreement; or a change in the management might takeplace, etc. From the day on which the contract of stipu-lated service takes effect, one should in every way furtherthe interests of the Society.

It is not advisable at once to introduce many un-called-for novelties. From an artistic standpoint muchinconvenience may arise on this account to the publicwhich has to submit to them, and the critics will hold theConductor responsible for them, so that such mattersshould be laid before the management or Intendant.If he is not to be moved, or is not in a position torender assistance, one must guard oneself against everyresponsibility, seeking to do the best that is possible underthe existing circumstances and with the forces at command.If called on to consult with the management upon artistic


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CONDUCTOR. 6 7questions, one's views should be given with fidelity toone's own convictions, to the best of one's knowledgeand without reference to any personal matters. If theConductor observes that the management is inclined toDC backward in artistic matters affecting the institution orSociety, or that more confidence is placed by them inanother, he should remain quite passive under such con-ditions, if not called upon to reply; occupying himself inhis particular duties.The management or the Intendant should not beimportuned over trifles that turn up in carrying out one'sduties, but order and discipline should be as far as maybe practicable striven for within the conductor's sphereof activity. Over discussions with the management con-cerning the duties especially in occurences of a per-sonal or artistic nature it should be understood thatsilence is kept, and that such matters are not carriedoutside.

Conductor and Players.The Conductor should not conceive of his relations

to the musicians under him as being analogous to that ofthe Corporal to the soldiers, but should show them thesame consideration and politeness which they manifesttowards him, or which he claims from them. In thedicharge of his duties, when necessary, he should be firmand decided, yet always with the manners of a gentleman,aiming at creating not merely a feeling of respect, butthe affection of his orchestral colleagues. An experienced,well practised orchestra should not be rendered negligentand unwilling through superfluous rehearsals, but, speakingnow of opera, should be excused from attending suchrehearsals as may be held with the piano.The Conductor should not appear too unwilling, ifsometimes he should receive a request for one of thesoloists of his orchestra to take part in some other artisticenterprise, provided he is already discharging his fullduties. He should reflect that the musicians are therebyalways gaining further experience, and a certain refine-ment in technique is acquired or maintained that is againof benefit to the orchestral playing; and such memberswill return to their routine of duties with all the greaterzest after having been released from daily routine, if only


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68 PART ///.for a short time. No member, however, should be speciallyprivileged so as to cause offence, and the Conductor mustkeep himself at a distance from all gossip and tittle-tattle.Musicians who, on the occasion of a change of con-ductors, seek to insinuate to the new conductor that hispredecessors were incapable, are not to be trusted; oneimagines they would act in similar fashion if one left thepost. As in nearly every society, one finds in the orchestragood' and bad characters. The most dangerous of thelatter are, however, those who press forward in apparentlythe most devoted way, to make pretty speeches to theConductor about his renderings. This species (chiefly tobe found at Court theatres) one should keep at arm'slength as much as possible if one would avoid an un-pleasant experience. Those who quietly do their dutyand are polite, but the reverse of forward, one may gener-ally regard as the most honorable.After performances in which the orchestra has mater-ially contributed towards a successful result, or on occa-sions when some of the musicians have distinguishedthemselves with a specially artistic rendering of solo parts,one should not neglect to say a word in recognitionand expression of satisfaction. And on occasions when theapplause of the public follows an orchestral performance,one should not take it as though meant entirely for oneself,but should allow the orchestra to receive its due share.

In cases of neglect of duty, watch the member inquestion very closely, and if repeated, make an exampleof him before the whole orchestra, dwelling on the senseof duty and obligation. If this proves of no avail, onemust proceed with all strictness in accordance with theprescribed rules or articles of agreement.Outside the round of duties, without permitting toogreat familiarity, behave as man to man, and one will, ifrespect is based upon his artistic attainments and knowledgeas well as a strong sense of duty, also earn the sympathyand affection of the orchestral players.

Conductor and Singers.Much of what has been previously said is applicablein this connection also, yet many things have here to beobserved, as one has not only to deal with one's own


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CONDUCTOR. 69sex, but with the fair sex as well. If the Conductor isnot only musically superior to the singers, as is almostinvariably the case, but is also able to give practicaldemonstration of a knowledge of the art of singing, showingthat it is no sealed book to him, he should not alwayspersist in his own individual conceptions in artistic matters,but allow an intelligent and thoughtful artist to create hispart from out of his own individuality. And if the Con-ductor appreciates the artistic qualities of each one, criti-cising gently the weak side, and during the performancesnot making small mistakes which may occur appear tooconspicuous, he will in most cases be regarded andesteemed by the singers of both sexes. Inartistic behaviouror presumption towards himself must be energeticallydealt with. There are vocalists who, through the encoreswith which the public overwhelm them, are so muchenamoured of themselves that they will recognize oracknowledge nothing that does not tally with their ownway of thinking or comprehension. These are the subtlePharisees, who would have all the world believe that theyand their performances are unimpeachable, but who, inreal matters of art, flounder in Egyptian darkness, sup-ported by the arrogance of infallibility conceded to themby the public.The utmost circumspection on the Conductor's partis needed with respect to singers who are flatterers, forone reflects, especially with lady vocalists, that self-interest is nearly always the motive: to earn in this waythe friendly disposition of the Conductor, and that suchsingers, if it happens that on purely artistic grounds theConductor is compelled to make provision for a changein the distribution of parts, will bear a grudge againsthim, and lose no opportunity of intriguing in secret againsthim. In the majority of cases such singers do not feelso much wounded in their artistic pride, as grieved at theloss of fees.

Particularly at such theatres where other Conductorsare engaged, must caution be exercised with respect tothe vocalists, as it is a practice with many to assure theConductor for the time being that they sing best underhis direction, whereby the absent one is, as a rule, madeto appear more or less inferior. Young conductors allowthemselves to be easily taken by such baits and reckon


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y PART III.such flattery as genuine recognition, whereas it is advis-able that it should be coolly received ( kiihl bis ansHerz hinan ).As the vocalists in an opera are often drawn fromvery varied spheres of life, a great many differences incharacter and disposition will be noticeable. Art shouldcertainly assist in ennobling men's hearts and souls, butwhoever has long been in contact with theatrical or oper-atic affairs will know in what aspect nobility of disposi-tion, firmness of character, and delicacy of feeling usuallythere appear.For the honour of art it must nevertheless be saidthat there are noble exceptions amongst great as well assmall and that art possesses in these, priests of highclear intellect, who have their ideal, following it as aguiding star all the way, and without arrogance strivemodestly to attain the goal. Towards these the Conductorshould entertain reciprocal sentiments.

Opera Conductor and Stage Manager.These two chief directors of opera must act in con-

sort, in order that the author's intentions, each in hisown field, in the fusion of the music with what ispassing on the stage, may be properly brought out.If the Stage Manager is also a musician, or at least suffi-ciently musical to feel what the composition to be stagedby him signifies in all its dramatic properties, (withoutwhich no stage manager is really to be thought of), anagreement is not difficult of attainment. But where, asunfortunately is the case in many theatres, this importantpost is filled by old singers whose voices are gone, andwho have no musical education; or by theatre directorswho were formerly actors, an irreconcilable state of affairsbetween either of these and the Conductor may easilyoccur. Be the Conductor ever so peace loving, he mayat times have his blood up upon seeing, as in modernoperas and music dramas, for example, the author's di-rections so seldom rightly understood, everything beingviewed by such stage managers from a superficial, old-fashioned standpoint, merely as seen from the side wings,and treated as in the routine of provincial comedy, fromwhich all feeling for a really noble reproduction in thespirit of an art-work has departed. But if such stage


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CONDUCTOR. 7'managers are not too proud, but will allow themselves tobe advised concerning the author's intentions by the con-ductor (assuming that he possesses the requisite knowledge),in such works as are outside their artistic capacity andordinary routine, being beyond their range of vision,then matters may be arranged. Frequently, however, thisis not the case, and the stage manager, in case he hasreally given himself the trouble to search into the mysteriesof the libretto, will then make his arrangements accordingto this only, without reflecting that the same yet lacksthe soul, and that much may be first created from musicalperception and experience. In such a case the conductorshould interpose for the realization of the composer'sintentions, which may, of course, evoke many unpleasantscenes between conductor and stage manager.

If one would avoid such before the company, oneshould, previous to the rehearsals, endeavour prudentlyto arrive at any rate at an approximate understanding,without disparaging the stage manager in his official capa-city. If this is impracticable, nothing remains but for theconductor to try to carry out his own, or rather the author's,intentions at any cost, or to reconcile himself to the in-evitable. This last happens, as a rule, where the conduc-tor's authority does not extend to the stage, and wherethe management itself is lacking in correct perception andaltogether true artistic spirit. It is, therefore, finally, notto be wondered at if conductors gradually become con-firmed in a humdrum style, efforts and sacrifices dedicatedto art being relaxed, and a barrier set up by the absurdamount of common-place ideas and mediocrity in taste.For the establishment of a good understanding betweenconductor and stage manager, it is necessary that theformer should maintain complete silence in the orchestrawhen operas with dialogue are being rehearsed, duringthe spoken part, manifesting no impatience if such a scenehas to be repeated. If, however, it should happen thatthe singers are very imperfect in their speeches, or per-haps do not know them at all, all the musical numbersshould be first practised in succession, after which thedialogue may be taken by the stage manager. In assigningthe parts of an opera, conductor and stage manager mustconsult together, yet the final word rests with the conductojas he must know best the capabilities of the singers.


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j 2 PART 111.Etiquette between Conductors.

If two Conductors are engaged by the management,a certain amount of rivalry will almost invariably takeplace, even if both stand in the best of relations to oneanother. Often without the knowledge or wish of the Con-ductors, public factions are formed, in which artistic per-formances are not taken into consideration, but many othercircumstances supply the occasion for a certain amountof party division.The good understanding and cordial agreement betweenthe conductors need not, however, be really disturbed bymatters outside their official duties, if they themselves areopen and honorable, and not seeking to gain at any costan advantage the one over the other. Especially shouldyoung conductors, even though their aspirations be justand lawful, refrain from an offensive and arrogant mannertowards their older colleagues. This would be to putdown the performances of the latter as inefficient, thoughendorsed by the public and by musicians; whereas everyone knows that a young conductor, even though he beas clever, cannot possess the knowledge of life or theexperience in his own calling, which are needful to makehis authority respected. Young conductors should reflectupon this, and not cause themselves to be ridiculed throughforwardness or presumption, thereby spoiling the goodand loyal understanding which should exist. A youngmusician, upon commencing the career of conductor, shouldalways prudently discharge the duties of his calling, ob-serving his older colleague, imitating all that is good inhim, and upon occasions which may present themselvesgetting useful advice from him, without placing himself ina dependent position. Such things, connected with theconductor's office, as may not please him in his colleague,he should strive in a modest manner and without boastingto better.

The Conductor as Composer.If the conductor is also a composer, he should en-deavour to have the value of his compositions first tested

in other localities, if practicable. This will prove muchmore profitable to him, and give him a better standingas composer, than if he in his position were to utilizeevery opportunity of producing his compositions. Generally


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CONDUCTOR, 73the possibly successful notices which may there followare received at a distance with distrust, as one thinks, asa rule, that it is merely a local success which has beenachieved, in which the friends and acquaintances of thecomposer have participated. It is, for a composer, ofgreater significance if one work of his has met with agenuine success away, than if he had produced ten suchin his own place. Many conductors commit the mistakeof giving their audiences a composition of their own atevery available opportunity; a small circle of admirersmay perhaps be enthusiastic over the work, another sectionof the public and the critics may praise the same out ofpoliteness, but generally it will not be thought well of thecomposer that he so specially favours his own works, andthe public will often think that they have in this way lostthe performance of some other important work. If com-posers of this sort, even if they already enjoy a reputation,were to hear now and then what is said about them andabout their compositions, they would certainly come for-ward less frequently in their own localities with theirown works.

Conductor and Composers.If the work of a living composer, who will himselfattend the performance, has to be studied, the conductorcannot be sufficiently careful in the reproduction of the

composition, as a composer whose work has not pleasedmostly throws the blame upon him. Either he has mis-understood the tempi, or, out of interest for the success ofthe work, he has made some quite necessary cuts, andthereby, in the opinion of the composer, omitted the finestpassages or numbers, etc. Eventually, in such cases, afterthe conductor has taken all the trouble conceivable atrehearsal, and done all that is possible to ensure successfor the composer, the latter nevertheless often complainsthat the conductor has intrigued against the work, if ithas been unsuccessful. With true artists and mature com-posers such things can scarcely occur, or at least veryrarely; for these know how to express their ideas on paperso that a good conductor cannot err in comprehendingthem, and all technical matters, for example, the or-chestration, and the practicability of the vocal part,evince consummate knowledge.


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t,. PART ///.Usually possessing also so much insight and know-

ledge, they thoroughly understand why alterations 01omissions are made, the necessity being apparent to them.By many novices in orchestral and vocal composition,especially in opera music, the conductor is placed in theposition which we have previously described. If such acomposer has both means and opportunities for influenc-ing some willing critic to this end, the latter proceedsto fall upon the conductor without consideration in thenotices referring to him. To avoid such an occurence,conductors ought really to seize the opportunity at thelast general rehearsal before the performance of obtainingin writing from the composer his honest and candidopinion concerning the study of the work, with regard tothe conception and choice of tempi, distribution of thevocal parts, the cuts to be made, and every other pointof consequence. If a composer has thus explained himselfin writing, he will scarcely be able, after a possible non-success of his work, to shift the blame on to the conductor.Conductor and Critic.A young conductor should not omit to read all thecriticisms upon performances conducted by him. Althougha conductor best knows how the performance has gone,whilst the best and most accomplished critic cannot beso familiar with all the details as himself, it is alwaysinteresting and eventually profitable to see how differentthe effect and impression produced by the performanceoften is upon the representatives of the press. Thatwhich one critic finds intensely interesting and full offeeling, is to another insipid and in bad taste. One findsthat the time was taken much too quickly, another wouldhave preferred it yet faster, whilst a third is perhaps infull agreement with the conductor concerning the time.Matters of individual feeling are repeatedly a factor inthe case, and if the other critic, whose perceptions arenot the same as the conductor's, will allow that his differ-ent opinion represents his own personal feeling (it mustthen be a totally mistaken tempo by a incompetent con-ductor) nothing can be said against it. All the same, ayoung conductor will do well to compare the critic's im-pressions with his own. If he has to do with reportersof intelligence in their department, he may perhaps often


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CONDUCTOR. 75adopt this or that view. A conductor occasionally is notso well able to judge of the effect as the audience, becausehe is surrounded by the performers where much soundsdifferently to what it does in the auditorium, which fora correct estimate is really the determinative position. Anexpert and practised conductor will, however, generally inhis early studies calculate the effect with reference to theacoustics of the place.

It is only from the honest, unbiassed critic, who givessentence solely in accordance with his best judgment andknowledge, that satisfaction is to be derived; but unfor-tunately in this department an odious clique, unworthy ofa noble art, often exists, which instead of preserving thenecessary objectivity and freedom from prejudice in itsopinions, permits itself to be influenced by personal matters,and is not ashamed openly to view everything with refer-ence to them, even making them a rule of conduct,whilst art and its obligations should alone claim the alle-giance of those serving it. Unhappily, the artist who isattacked by these offshoots of criticism, is powerless againstsuch doings, and in a possible paper war the cl

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