Distance Education CouncilHandbook

OnTransformation

Of Print Materials

Into Self Learning

Materials

Prepared

By:Manjulika Srivastava

AcknowledgementsI acknowledge the idea given by Dr. Sanjaya Mishra, Reader, STRIDE and Prof. P K Biswas. Prof. STRIDE to develop this CD-ROM along with the printed handbook. We have jointly done several workshops on transformation of print materials into SLMs and therefore a few slides have been borrowed from their presentations too.

Contents

Theoretical Base

Section 1: Defining Self Learning Materials Section 2: Student Learning and Instructional Design

Practical Guide

Section 3: Transformation into SLMs Section 4: Transformation of a Lesson/ Chapter into a SLM Unit

Section 1

Defining Self Learning Materials

Definition

• Self-Learning Materials (SLMs)

Self-learning materials (SLMs) are basically learner-centered materials. Open, distance and flexible learners usually depend a lot on SLMs because they have to learn on their own, at a time, pace and place of their own choice.

Forms of SLMs

BooksWorkbooks Worksheets Audio tapesVideo tapes Computer based packages Web based packagesCD-ROMsEtc

SLMs are different from other learning materials because

can they make a learner

“think, write and do”

For example

• Thinking can be stimulated by setting questions. Questions encourage a learner to stop and think for a while before moving to the next step.

• Writing exercises help learners to consolidate what they learnt. Writing notes / points also makes a learner attentive and active.

• Doing something practical helps in learning. It develops skills.

SLM s

Think - through questionsWrite - setting exercisesDo - through practical exercises / activities

Retention +Practice +Thinking +Application

= Learning

Special features of self learning materialsDerek Rowntree (1994)

• Clearly stated objectives

• Advice about how to study the material

• User-friendly, “You to study the material”

• Shortish, manageable chunks of learning

• Fewer words than usual per page (or screen)

• Plenty of helpful examples

• Reference to the learner’s experience

• Illustrations used where they are better than words

• Headings to help learners find their way around

• Links to other media where appropriate

• Obvious awareness of different learners to use the materials

• Space for learners to write down their own ideas

• Feedback to help learners check their own progress

• Suggestions about getting help from other people

• Summary and Glossary at the end of every unit.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-LEARNING MATERIALS

Self -Explanatory

Learner can understand without external support.

Self-Contained

Learner may not need additional materials

Self-Directed

Learner is given necessary guidance, hints, suggestions at each stage of learning

Self-Motivating

Materials arouse curiosity and are related to familiar situations

Self-Evaluating

Self assessment questions/ exercises, activities, unit-end questions, etc. for providing feedback on performance

Relationship between Access Devices and Interactive Instructional Steps

Production of SLMs

Stage 1 Course planning

Stage 2 Course development

Stage 3 Course production

Stage 1 Course planningNeed assessment Defining objectivesAnalyzing resources Selection of mediaEvaluation methodsDelivery mechanism

Stage 2 Course developmentArranging the topicsPreparing unit outlinesWriting the text

Stage 3 Course productionEditing LayoutPrintingMedia production

ACCESS DEVICES USED IN SLMs

OPENING SECTIONTitleUnit StructureObjectivesIntroductionStudy guidance

MAIN BODYThematic ContentIllustrations/ PhotosDiagrams/TablesGraphics/ChartsActivitiesReferences

ENDING SECTIONSummaryPossible AnswersList of ReferencesBibliographyGlossary

Further ReadingsModel Questions

SUMMARY

SLMs are a combination of interactive instructional steps and access devices, which help a learner to easily access and assimilate the contents. Access devices help the learners find their way into the text. The interactive instructional steps perform the task of tutoring by providing subject matter in sections and sub-sections, followed by in-text questions, activities and so on.

Section 2

Student Learning and Instructional

Design

Concept of Learning

SLMs are developed on the principles of Instructional Design

The term learning denotes the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes to do something. Generally speaking there are two important statements about learning and instruction:

One learns by doing somethingOne learns by pursuing an instructional goal

Domains of Learning

Cognitive Domain

Affective Domain

Psychomotor Domain

•Measures the knowledge acquired

•Demonstrates the desired feelings and attitudes

•Relates to skill development through practice sessions/ training

Blooms Taxonomy Basic Principle: Simple to Complex

Sequencing in Cognitive Domain

COGNITIVE

Evaluation

Analysis

Synthesis

Application

Comprehension

Knowledge

Levels of Learning

COGNITIVE

Evaluation

Analysis

Synthesis

Application

Comprehension

Knowledge

Evaluate or judge the value of the content, compare and contrast, reason out, logically argue, etc.

Form new structures and patterns, generalize, arrive at conclusions, etc.

Able of determine the relationship between parts, identify various components, etc.

Apply the knowledge gained in new situations, solve problems, etc.

Grasp or comprehend the content or be able to summarize it, interpret facts, infer causes and visualize consequences, etc.

Recall previously acquired knowledge i.e.- facts, concepts, dates, events, places, ideas, etc.

How Adult Learners Learn Problem-centered: seek educational solutions to where they are

compared to where they want to be in life. Results-oriented: have specific results in mind for education-will

drop out if education does not lead to those results because their participation is usually voluntary.

Self-directed: typically not dependent on others for direction. Often skeptical about new information: prefer to try it out before

accepting it. Seek education that relates or applies directly to their perceived

needs: that is timely and appropriate for their current lives. Accept responsibility for their own learning: i.e learning is

perceived as timely and appropriate.

How Young Learners Learn Subject-oriented: seek to Successfully complete each course,

regardless of how course relates to their own goals. Future-oriented: Youth education is often a mandatory and

expected activity in a youth’s life and design for the youth’s future.

Often depend on adults for direction. Likely to accept new information without trying it out or seriously

questioning it. Seek education that prepares them for an often unclear future:

accept postponed application of what is being learned. Depend on others to design their learning: reluctant to accept

responsibility for their own learning.

Instructional Design

“A” Science

Rooted in learning theories which are drawn from psychology, sociology, philosophy and education.

“An”Art

Designing of instructional materials is a highly creative process.

A process used to create instructional materials. Tested, well researched mechanism of enhancing human

learning.

What is Instructional Design?

Thorough pre-planning of delivery of instruction in a proper sequence of events is known as instructional design. As you know the literal meaning of instruction is a set of events that facilitate creative pattern. The purpose of instructional design is to plan and create situations that enhance learning opportunity of individual learners.

Instructional Design

• - Description of the target group.• - Programme/course specifications (syllabus)• - Selection of the media to be utilized• - Design of the courses/lessons (units)• - Specification of objectives• - Development of test items• - Development of draft lessons• - Pre-testing of the materials • - Revision of the materials before their launch

Models of Instructional Design

Addie

Gagne-Briggs Model

David Merrill

Dick and Carey

Hannafin and Pack

Gerlach and Ely

More than hundred models exist.

Systems Approach to IDAnalyze: define the needs and constraintsDesign: specify learning activities, assessment

and choose methods and mediaDevelop: begin production, formative

evaluation, and reviseImplement: put the plan into actionEvaluate: evaluate the plan from all levels for

next implementation

Theories of Learning

•Behaviourism: Based on observable changes in behaviour. Behaviourism focuses on a new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.

•Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind behaviour. Changes in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s mind.

•Constructivism: Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and Schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations.

•Experiential Learning: Based on the fact that adults use the experience to create and construct their knowledge through observation, reflection, generalization, and testing.

Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Experiential

According to Behaviorists learning is a process similar to habit formation

through conditioning which links desired responses to stimuli

Synthesis The cognitivist approach takes into

consideration activities such as

perception, concept formation, language

use, thinking, understanding

problem solving, attention and memory

The term refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves, each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning as he or she learns, based on his/her own experiences

Adult learners construct their own

knowledge / perspective through their own individual

experience and schema

WatsonThorndike PavlovWatson Skinner

Gagne Piaget, Vygotsky, BanduraJerome

Ausubel Bruner

MeadJonassen

MerrillPerkins

Kolb Knowles

Programmed instruction teaching machinesMatter in small stepsLearning objectivesActivities, SAQs, etcAssignments

Sequencing of contentDiagrams, charts etc.Choice of mediaGuidance

Structuring of knowledge Sequencing of contentMotivating experienceProblem oriented learning

Learner profile based objectivesLearner centered approachQuestioning, critical analysis, application and reflection

Task oriented learningShort and progressive stepsLearning commensurate with past experiencesContinual feedback of progress, motivation and stimulation

Watson, Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner

Behaviourism:• Learning happens when a correct

response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus

• Learning can be detected by observing an organism over a period of time

• Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviours

Behaviourism:• Instruction is to elicit the desired response

from the learner who is presented with a stimulus

• Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviour

• Learner must know how to execute the proper response as well as the conditions under which the response is made

Piaget, Vygotsky, Bandura, Jerome, Ausubel, Bruner

Cognitivism:

• Learning is change of knowledge state

• Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process

• Focus is on how learners remember, retrieve and store information in memory

• Examine the mental structure and processes related to learning

Cognitivism:

• The outcome of learning is not only dependent on what the teacher presents but also on what the learner does to process this information

• Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to use appropriate learning strategies

• Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimilated

Mead, Jonassen, Merrill, Perkins

Constructivism:• Learners build personal interpretation of

the world based on experiences and interactions

• Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (meaningful realistic settings)

• Believe that there are many ways (multiple perspectives) of structuring the world and its entities

Constructivism:

• Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge

• Engage learners in the actual use of the tools in real world situations

• Learning activities should be authentic and should centred around the “problem” as perceived the learners

Impact of Theories of Learning on Instructional Design

Behaviourism:Watson, Thorndike, Pavlov,

Watson, Skinner

Cognitivism:Piaget, Vygotsky, Bandura,

Jerome, Ausubel, Bruner

Constructivism:Mead, Jonassen, Merrill

& Perkins

Programmed instruction teaching machines

Matter in small steps Learning objectives Activities, SAQs, etc Assignments

Sequencing of content Structuring of knowledge Motivating experience Problem oriented learning

Learner profile based objectives Learner centered approach Questioning, critical analysis,

application and reflection

How to Foster a Learning Culture

• Motivate learners

• Make learning problem-centered

• Help learners assume control of their learning

• Provide meaningful practice

Designing for Instructional Events

• Gaining attention – Show a variety of examples related to the issues to be covered

• Informing learners of the objectives – Specify the objectives

• Stimulating recall of prior learning – review introductions, summaries and issues covered

• Presenting the stimulus - Adopt a framework for learning/understanding

• Providing learning guidance – Show case studies and best practices

• Eliciting performance- Outputs based on issues learnt

• Providing feedback – Check all examples are correct/incorrect

• Assessing performance – Provide self-assessment questions, including scores and remedies

• Enhancing retention and transfer – Show examples and statements and ask learners to identify issues learnt

Summary

The objective of instructional design is to ensure that the distance learner learns and acquires the necessary knowledge and skills, and to enhance his/ her performance in his/ her own world as a student and ultimately in the world of work.

That learning theory is the essential ingredient in instructional design. There is no single theory which instructional designers keep in mind while designing the instructional strategies and content. Behavioural approach can effectively facilitate mastery of contents;Cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem solving;Constructivist strategies are suited for dealing with ill defined problems.