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A project report submitted for partial fulfillment of industrial training required in 3rd year
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PLANT MANAGEMENT
( HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED)
A training report Submitted
in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the award of Degree of
Bachelor of TechnologyIn
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
By
MRIDUL KUMAR VERMAUNIVERSITY ROLL NUMBER: 0705621037
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to thank my friends for assisting and helping me in my research. I
would like to thank my research teacher and respected H.O.D. for helping me how to do
my study.
I would like to thank my parents for their financial and never ending support, for the help
in my study and for its success. And it would not be successful without God who guides
me in my everyday life and activities. I thank Him for the good health he has given to me,
and for the success of my study. For all the people who helped me a lot, thank you very
much and may god bless you all...
INTRODUCTION
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited(HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964.voltage
regulator 12310-31(aircraft jaguar) is used in the regulation and protection of output voltage and
frequency of AC supply generated by jaguar alternator if a completely electronic unit.
A set of trim/force feel system (FFS) consists of four actuators, namely collective, pitch, roll and
yaw actuators corresponding to the four body axes of helicopter. These actuators are
electromechanical units interfaced with the mechanical as well as with automatic Flight control
system (AFCS).
D.C. master box(2246.00.000)AIRCRAFT-LC has been designed as a distribution box for use
with the DC power generation system of LCA as load bus management system. It consists of two
250 Amps TRU’s operating in parallel, a 45 KW DC Generator as standby DC source, two 45 AH
batteries as the emergency power source and ground power as an External power. It also acts as
an external power. It also acts as an protection device and provides protection for Reverse current,
over voltage, under voltage and TRU thermal protection
Fuel booster pump(1029) AIRCRAFT-MIG-27 is a centrifugal pump which is driven electrically
by a DC motor. The Motor used is a compound wound, Double speed and four poles. It is fed
with single wire from Aircraft mains and earthing of negative terminal is done together with
pump at the bottom of fuel tank.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPICS PAGE
NUMBER
List of tables 6
List of figures 7
ABOUT THE COMPANY 8
WORK STRUCTURE IN HAL
9
DIVISIONS OF HAL 10
ACCESSORIES DIVISIONS LUCKNOW
11-13
VOLTAGE REGULATOR 13-14
TRIM ACTUATORS 14-15
DC MASTER BOX 15
FUEL BOOSTER PUMP
16
ROTARY CONVERTER
16-17
STARTER GENERATOR
17-18
LINEAR ACTUATOR
18-19
VARIO ALTERNATOR20210-23 19-20
VARIO ALTERNATOR12210-41 20-21
Products in current manufacturing range 21-27
Potential for overhaul and repair 27-32
Products for aerospace and division 32-34
Aviation fuel 34-40
References 41
LIST OF TABLES
i. Table 1 specification of jaguar 13-14
ii. Table 2 specification of DC master box 15
iii. Table 3 specification of fuel booster pump 16
iv. Table 4 specification of rotary converter 17
v. Table 5 specification of starter generator 18
vi. Table 6 specification of linear actuator 19
vii. Table 7 specification of vario alternator aircraft mirage 20
viii. Table 8 specification of vario alternator aircraft jaguar 20-21
ix. Table 9 features of R11 Mfg,R25Mfg,R29B and RD33O/H 23-24
x. Table 10 features of ADOURMK-811 24-25
xi. Table 11 featuresof GARRETT331-5 26-26
xii. Table 12 features of ARTOUSTE IIIB 27-28
xiii. Table 13 features of DART 33-2 and 536-2T 27-28
xiv. Table 14 features of ORPHEUS 70-105 28-29
xv. Table 15 features of AVON 29-30
xvi. Table 16 features of ADOUR MK804E 30-31
xvii. Table 17 features of GNOME 1400 IT 31
xviii. Table 18 dyes for fuel 39
LIST OF FIGURES
i. Figure 1.1 Divisions of HAL 10
ii. Figure 2.1 accessories division lucknow 11
iii. Figure 13.1 AL-31FP engine 22
iv. Figure 13.2 R25 engine 22
v. Figure 13.3 R29B engine 23
vi. Figure 13.4 ADOURMK811 25
vii. Figure 13.5 GARETT311-5 26
viii. Figure 13.6 ARTOUSTEIII-B 27
ix. Figure 14.1 DART533-2 and 536-2T 28
x. Figure 14.2 ORPHEUS 70105 29
xi. Figure 14.3 AVON 30
xii. Figure 14.4 ADOUR MK 804E 31
xiii. Figure 14.5 GNOME 1400 IT 32
xiv. Figure 15.1 GSLV 32
xv. Figure 16.1 an aviation fuel truck 34
xvi. Figure 16.2 underground fuel pipes 35
xvii. Figure 16.3 aviation fuel storage tank 36
xviii. Figure 16.4 British airways airbus A321 being refuelled 38
xix. Figure 16.5 A Carson Helicopters S-61N Fire King being refuelled 40
INTRODUCTION
• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited(HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964
• The company was formed by the merger of Hindustan Aircraft Limited with
Aeronautics India Limited and aircraft manufacturing Depot Kanpur.
• The Government of India became a share holder in March 1941 and took over the
Management
ORDER FROM THE CUSTOMER
PRODUCT SUPPORT DEPARTMENT
PROGRAMMING DEPARTMENT
PRODUCTION CONTROL
MANUFACTURING FACTORY
ASSEMBLY AND TESTING
TESTING WITH EXTERNAL AGENCY
WORK STRUCTURE IN HAL
1.DIVISIONS OF HAL
Fig.1.1
2.ACCESSORIES DIVISIONS LUCKNOW
Fig.2.1
3.REPAIRS, MAJOR SERVICING AND SUPPLY OF SPARES
The Division carries out Repair and Overhaul of Accessories, with minimum turn-
around-time. Site Repair facilities are offered by the Division by deputing team of expert
Engineers / Technicians.
Services provided for:
3.1.Military Aircraft
MiG Series
Jaguar
Mirage-2000
Sea - Harrier
AN-32
Kiran MK- I / MK- II
HPT - 32
SU-30 MKI
3.2.Civil Aircraft
Dornier-22B
AVRO HS-748
3.3.Helicopters
Chetak (Alouette)
Cheetah (Lama)
ALH (IAF / NAVY / COAST GUARD / CIVIL)
3.4.Sub-contract Capabilities
The Division has comprehensive manufacturing capabilities forvarious Hi-tech
components, Equipment and Systems to customer's specifications and ensures high
quality, reliability and costeffectiveness.The Division has over 25 years of experience in
producing aeronautical accessories making it an ideal partner for the International Aero
Engineering IndustryThe Division also manufactures and supplies complete range of
components of Cheetah (Lama) & Chetak (Alouette) Helicopters, Jaguar and MiG series
Aircraft to Domestic and International Customers to support their fleet.
4.VOLTAGE REGULATOR
12310-31
AIRCRAFT-JAGUAR
The main function of this unit is the regulation and protection of output voltage and
frequency of AC supply generated by jaguar alternator if a completely electronic unit.
This unit forms a closed loop feedback system with the alternator output voltage and
frequency and automatically regulates the various control signals to maintain the voltage
and frequency in the specified range. It also generates the error signals to protect the
system against various electrical faults.
SPECIFICATIONS
Voltage Regulation 115/200v +/-2%
Frequency Regulation 400 Hz +/- 1%
PROTECTION
Over Voltage >= 130 Volt
Under Voltage <= 100 Volt
Over Frequency <= 420 Hz
Under Frequency <= 380 Hz
Phase Sequence RYB
5.TRIM ACTUATORS
AIRCRAFT-ALH
A set of trim/force feel system (FFS) consists of four actuators, namely collective, pitch,
roll and yaw actuators corresponding to the four body axes of helicopter. These actuators
are electromechanical units interfaced with the mechanical as well as with automatic
Flight control system (AFCS). The conventional mechanical control linkages in pitch,
roll, collective, yaw axis are fitted with one corresponding trim/FFS.
FUNCTIONS
Engagement/Disengagement of anchor point by means of an electricity
operated clutch. This anchor point can be displayed either automatically or
mechanically.
Artificial Force feel about the anchor point generating a predetermined feel
force. The artificial feel is proportional to the displacement in pitch, roll and
collective trim actuators as they are spring based. The force feel is a constant
friction in the yaw axis.
Pilot controlled displacement of the anchor point by means of an electrical
motor (manual trim function) or by declutching to the artificial feels.
Automatic displacement of the anchor point so as to maintain the series
actuators around their centre position (auto trim).
6.D.C. MASTER BOX
2246.00.000
AIRCRAFT-LCA
It has been designed as a distribution box for use with the DC power generation system of
LCA as load bus management system. It consists of two 250 Amps TRU’s operating in
parallel, a 45 KW DC Generator as standby DC source, two 45 AH batteries as the
emergency power source and ground power as an External power. It also acts as an
external power. It also acts as an protection device and provides protection for Reverse
current, over voltage, under voltage and TRU thermal protection.
SPECIFICATIONS
Rated Input Voltage 28 V
Rated Output Voltage 28 V
Rated Load Current 250A
Power Capacity 7 K
7.FUEL BOOSTER PUMP
1029
AIRCRAFT-MIG-27
This unit is a centrifugal pump which is driven electrically by a DC motor. The Motor
used is a compound wound, Double speed and four poles. It is fed with single wire from
Aircraft mains and earthing of negative terminal is done together with pump at the bottom
of fuel tank.
SPECIFICATIONS
PUMP
Operating voltage 27 V D.C.
FLOW RATE
Rated 24000 Lit./Hr.
Augmented 29000 lit./Hr.
Current 74 Amps Max
Torque 13.2 Kg/Cm to21.8 Kg/Cm
Rotational Speed 4900 to 6200 Rpm
8.ROTARY CONVERTER
PT0400/750M
AIRCRAFT- MiG-27
The PTO-400/750M inverter is intended to change direct current characterized by the 27
V voltage into single phase alternating current characterized by the 115 V voltage and
1000 H frequency. It comprises of a DC Electric motor and a single phase AC contact
less generator sharing a common casing. The three phase permanent magnet AC
generator is also located in one of the end frames.
SPECIFICATIONS
Rated input voltage 27 V
Rotational speed 12000 Rpm
Input current 50 Amps.
OUTPUT PHASE SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE
Voltage 115 V 37 V
Frequency 1000 V 1000 Hz
Power 240 V. A 380 V.A
9.STARTER GENERATOR
GSR 1240D
AIRCRAFT-MiG-27
This unit is fitted in the aero engine drive box. It is designed to operate in two modes. In
generator mode, it operates for feeding D.C. power to the aircraft and in motor mode it
operates as a series motor for starting the engine.
SPECIFICATIONS
GENERATOR MODE
Operating voltage 28.5 V D.C.
Output Power 12000 Watt
Current load 400 Amps.
Speed Range 4000 to 9000 RPM
MOTOR MODE
Voltage 24 +/- 1.5 Volt
Rotation Torque 5 kgf. m.
Consumption Current 750 Amps Max.
Rotation Speed 850 +/- 50 RPM
10.LINEAR ACTUATOR
VL13A4
AIRCRAFT-JAGUAR
The linear actuator VL13A4 is destined to operate the elevators trim. This actuator is
assembled with two motors and a differential planet gear arrangement which converts the
rotary motion of motor to linear motion. As the motors are bidirectional it assures a
progressive working in both the directions. For normal working of the unit only one
motor is energized at a time. The second motor is called the sub motor which works in
case of failure of main motor.
SPECIFICATIONS
Nominal Load 20 DaN
Maximum Load 40 DaN
Operating Voltage 18 V to 29 V
Stroke Length 44 +/-1.25 m
Motor RPM 25000
Rated Current 0.85 Amps
Power 5.2 Watt
11.VARIO ALTERNATOR
20210-23
AIRCRAFT-MIRAGE
This unit is meant for AC supply in the Mirage aircraft. The unit is coupled to the engine
through gear box. It has an inbuilt electro-mechanical speed drive mechanism that
maintains a constant Alternator rotational speed irrespective of gear box RPM thus
maintaining a constant output frequency and voltage. Functionally the unit is similar to
the Alternator for Jaguar but it has improved design features and better performance
parameters.
SPECIFICATIONS
Rated Power O/P 15 KW
O/P Power Factor 0.75 To 1
Output Voltage 200V (L-L), 115 V (L- N)
Output Frequency 400 Hz
Working RPM 4700 to 12000
12.VARIO ALTERNATOR
12210-41
AIRCRAFT-JAGUAR
This unit meant for AC power supply in the Jaguar aircraft. The unit is coupled to the
engine through gear box. It has an inbuilt electromechanical speed drive mechanism that
maintains that maintains a constant Alternator rotational speed irrespective of gear box
RPM thus maintaining a constant output frequency and voltage. The unit is one of the
complicated units of the division as it. Comprises of 10 windings sub assemblies and 13
mechanical sub assemblies involving a total 543 components.
SPECIFICATIONS
Rated Power O/P 12KW
O/P Power Factor 0.75 To 1
Output Voltage 200 V (L-L), 115 V(L-N)
Output Frequency 400 Hz
Working RPM 3800 to 8000
13.Products in Current Manufacturing Range
The Engine Division at Koraput , a unit of HAL's vast network, has the unique
distinction of being one amongst the few Aero Engine manufacturers in the world.
The spectrum of manufacturing facilities extends literally from the production of nuts
and bolts to discs, shafts, blades, forgings and castings - all that are required to make an
Aero Engine right from the Raw materials.
This spectrum is further enlarged to include overhaul of Aero Engines for the MiG
family and supply of spares required during service.
13.1..AL-31 FP ENGINE
AL-31FP is a high temperature turbojet by-pass engine of mA specific feature of AL-
31FP is an axi-symmetric vectoring nozzle with a thrust vector angle of ±15° in the
vertical plane providing super maneuverability of the aircraft. The vectoring nozzle
control is integrated with the engine control system. AL-31FP engines ensure stable
operation in all available evolutions of the aircraft in super maneuverability modes. AL-
31FP engines power advanced multi-purpose Su-30 MKI fighters of the 4+ generation.
Fig13.1(AL-31 FP engine)
13.2.R25 engine
This is a Twin Spool, Axial Flow, Turbojet Engine fitted with After burner and a variable
area Jet nozzle. It powers the MiG-21 BiS multi-role Fighter Aircraft. The Engine has
provision for an emergency after burner thrust
boost which can be selected below 4.5km altitude
Fig.13.2(R25 engine)
13.3.R-29B engine
This Engine is a Twin spool, Axial flow Turbojet Engine incorporating After-burner
system and variable area Jet nozzle of convergent-divergent type. The Engine is equipped
with automatic Fuel regulation system, Turbo-starter, Anti-surge system, Temperature
controller, Constant speed drive for AC Generator and Two speed drive for Hydraulic
Pump. R-29B Engine powers MiG-27 M, a Multi-role Ground attack / Air combat
Aircraft.
Fig.13.3(R-29B engine)
13.4.Precision Components
The Division also produces precision components like: total gamut of Blades ranging
from Compressor Rotors and Stators to Turbine Blades and Nozzle Guide Vanes, intricate
Cored Magnesium Alloy Gear Casings, Compressor and Turbine Discs and Shafts, JIS
class-l/DlN 5 Spur, Helical Gears and DIN 6 straight and Hypoid / Spiral Bevel Gears
ranging from module 1 to 6.
Salient features
FEATURE R11Mfg R25Mfg R29B RD33O/H
Maximum dia. Mm 906 907 986 990
Length, mm 4600 4615 4992 4260
Dry Weight, kg 1126 1210 1772 1050
Max Reheat Thrust 6175 7100 11500 8300
Specific Fuel .99 .96 .94 .77
Fuel Reheat Mode 2.37 2.25 1.80 2.05
13.5.MANUFACTURING CAPABILITY
ADOUR MK 811 Jaguar Aircraft is powered by two Adour MK 804 / MK 811
Engines. MK 811 Engines are manufactured from 1981 under license from
RR/TM [ Rolls Royce Turbomeca ].
Adour MK 804 Engines are also overhauled and repaired under the above license.
Adour Engine is a bypass Jet Engine of modular construction. The Adour has
two-stage low pressure and five-stage high pressure axial flow Compressors
which are driven by separate, single stage high pressure and low pressure
Turbines connected through co-axial shafts, with low pressure shaft passing
through high pressure shaft.
Main Characteristics
Intake Diameter (m) .564
Length (m) 2.90
Weight (kg) 794
Thrust 2500(dry) 3737(wet)
Specific fuel consumption (kg/kg-hr) .80
Fig.13.4.(ADOUR MK 811)
13.6.GARRETT 331 – 5
The Garrett TPE 331-5 Turbo prop Engine is being manufactured, overhauled and
repaired for various Customers under license from Garrett Engine Division of Honey
Well Company [earlier Allied Signal Aerospace Company, USA] since 1988 and belongs
to one of the most popular series of small Turbo prop Engines powering a large number
of Commuter and Corporate Aircraft such as Dornier DO-228.
It has a single shaft Centrifugal Compressor Engine rated at 715 shaft horse power at
1591 RPM output speed. Being a reverse flow Gas Turbine with a small frontal area, it
has better dry specifics and easier airframe integration. Apart from its simplicity of design
and superior performance, the engine features a propeller control system, anti-icing and
foreign object damage resistance, reverse thrust and negative torque sensing facilities.
The division is also an authorized service centre for Garrett TPE 331-5 series engines up
to - 12.
Main Characteristics
Maximum diameter(m) 0.7
Length (m) 1.11
Weight (kg) 164
Power 715
Specific fuel consumption (kg/shp-hr) .268
Fig.13.5.(GARRETT331-5)
13.7.Artouste III B
Artouste III B Engine powers both Cheetah and Chetak Helicopters. Manufacture of the
Engine commenced in 1962 under license from Turbomeca, France.
The Engine has side air intake, one axial and one centrifugal compressor connected to a
three-stage Turbine. The power output is 550 SHP at 33500 RPM. The reduction Gearbox
in the front transfers the power to Helicopter. More than 665 Engines have been
manufactured and 2950 Engines overhauled and repaired for various Customers.
Main Characteristics
Maximum diameter (m) 0.50
Length (m) 1.815
Weight (kg) 182
Power 550
Specific fuel consumption (kg/shp-hr) 0.346
Fig13.6.(ARTOUSTEIIIB)
14.Potential for Overhaul and Repair
14.1.DART533 - 2 AND 536 - 2T
The Dart series of Engines were manufactured since 1966 under license from Rolls
Royce, UK. At present, these Engines are being repaired andoverhauled. Two Dart
Engines power HS-748 aircraft.
This engine has two-stage Centrifugal Compressors, three- stage Turbine and utilizes
water methanol injection to increase the shaft Horse Power.
Main Characteristics
Maximum Diameter (m) .960
Length (m) 2.490
Weight (kg) 628.6
Power (shp)
533-2 1835(dry)
1990(wet)
536-2T 1835(dry)
2040(wet)
Specific fuel consumption(kg/shp-hr) .348
Fig.14.1.(DART533-2 and 536-2T)
14.2.ORPHEUS 70105
Orpheus 70105, indigenously modified by HAL, is a derivative of Orpheus 701 at lower
rating and is the Power Plant for Kiran MK II Aircraftindigenously designed by HAL.
Main Characteristics
Maximum Diameter (m) 0.822
Length (m) 2.290
Weight (kg) 420
Thrust (kg) 1875
Specific fuel consumption (kg/shp-hr) 0.348
Fig.14.2.(ORPHEUS 70105)
14.3.AVON
Avon is a Turbo Jet Engine designed and developed by Rolls Royce and is being
overhauled / repaired under license at HAL from 1959. Avon MK 1 is used in Canberra
Trainer Aircraft. Avon MK 109 is used in Canberra Bomber and Avon MK 203 / 207
power the Hunter Fighter.
Main Characteristics
AVONMK_1 AVONMK-109 AVONMK203/207
Maximum diameter (m) 1.07 1.09 1.05
Length (m) 2.58 3.53 3.12
Weight (kg) 1006 1180 1310
Thrust (kg) 2955 3363 4613
Specific fuel consumption 0.94 0.95 0.98
(kg/kg-hr)
14.3.(AVON)
14.4.ADOUR MK 804 E
The Adour MK 804 Engine is being repaired and overhauled under license from Rolls
Royce, UK. This is similar in construction to the MK 811 engine.
Main Characteristics
Maximum diameter (m) 1.278
Length (m) 2.990
Weight (kg) 733
Thrust kg) 2343(dry) 3347(wet)
Specific fuel consumption(kg/kg-hr) 0.79
Fig14.4.(ADOUR MK 804E)
14.5.Gnome 1400 – IT
The Gnome 1400 - IT engines being repaired and overhauled under license from Rolls
Royce, UK and is the Power Plant for Seaking Helicopter.
It is a Turbo shaft single spool with 10-stage Axial Compressor, two-stage turbine and
free power turbine.
Main Characteristics
Maximum diameter (m) 0.574
Length (m) 1.376
Weight (kg) 168
Power (shp) 1535
Specific fuel consumption(kg/shp-hr) 0.276
Figure 14.5.(GNOME 1400 IT)
15.PRODUCTS OF AEROSPACE DIVISION :
Aerospace Division is engaged in the manufacture of Aluminum alloy riveted structures
and welded tankages of conical, cylindrical and other shapes with different types of
detailed parts such as sheets, rings, brackets, stiffeners, bulkheads, panel bolts, nuts, rivets
etc. Some of the important structures manufactured are Heat Shield Assembly, Nose
Cone Assembly and Tank and Shrouds used in Satellites.
Fig15.1
15.1.PSLV:(Polar satellite launch vehicle)
No.of stages 4 stage rocket two solid and liquid stages with 6strap-on
motors
Orbit low earth polar orbit 900km
Mission inject 1000-1200kg class satellite(IRS) in polar orbit
15.2.GSLV:(geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle)-MK II
No. of stages 3 stage rocket with solid,liquid and cryo stages with four strap on
motors
Orbit geostationary orbit 36000km
Mission inject 2500kg satellite INSAT series in geosynchronous orbit
15.3.GSLV:(geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle)-MK III
No. of stages Two stages with liquid and cryo stages and two strap on motors
Orbit geosynchronous orbit 36000km
Mission inject 4500-5000kg INSAT class satellite in geo synchronous orbit
15.4.INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SATELLITE
Mission Resource survey and management in the area of agriculture,
forestry, hydrology and snow melting.
Launch vehicle PSLV
Orbit Low earth polar orbit 900km
Life 5 years
15.5.INDIAN NATIONAL SATELLITE
Mission National telecommunication, TV Broadcasting and radio
Networking, meteorological observation satellite aided research
and rescue
launch vehicle GSLV
Orbit geostationary orbit 36000km
Life 7 years
16.Aviation fuel
Fig.16.1.(An aviation fuel truck)
Fig.16.2(underground fuel pipes)
At some airports, underground fuel pipes allow refueling without the need for tank trucks.
Trucks just carry the necessary hoses and pressure apparatus, but no fuel.
Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is
generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications such as heating or
road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to
high temperatures, amongst other properties.
Most aviation fuels available for aircraft are kinds of petroleum spirit used in engines
with spark plugs i.e. piston engines and Wankel rotaries or fuel for jet turbine engines
which is also used in diesel aircraft engines. Alcohol, alcohol mixtures and other
alternative fuels may be used experimentally but are not generally available.
Avgas is sold in much lower volumes, but to many more individual aircraft, whereas Jet
fuel is sold in high volumes to large aircraft operated typically by airlines, military and
large corporate aircraft.
The Convention on International Civil Aviation, which came into effect in 1947,
exempted air fuels from tax. Australia and the USA oppose a worldwide levy on aviation
fuel, but a number of other countries have expressed interest.
Avgas
Avgas is a high-octane fuel used for aircraft and racing cars. The term Avgas is a
portmanteau for aviation gasoline, as distinguished from mogas (motor gasoline), which
is the everyday petroleum spirit used in cars. Avgas is typically used in aircraft that use
reciprocating or wankel engines.
Jet fuel
Jet fuel is a clear to straw colored fuel, based on either an unleaded paraffin oil (Jet A-1),
or a naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). It is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either
compression ignition engines or turbine engines.
In use
Fig.16.3.(Aviation fuel storage tanks)
Aviation fuel is often dispensed from a tanker or bowser which is driven up to parked
aeroplanes and helicopters. Some airports have pumps similar to filling stations that
aircraft must taxi up to. Some airports also have permanent piping to parking areas for
large aircraft.
Regardless of the method, aviation fuel is transferred to an aircraft via one of two
methods: overwing and underwing. Overwing fuelling is used on smaller planes,
helicopters, and all piston-engine aircraft. Overwing fuelling is similar to car fuelling —
one or more fuel ports are opened and fuel is pumped in with a conventional pump.
Underwing fuelling, also called single-point, is used on larger aircraft and for jet fuel
exclusively. For single-point fuelling, a high-pressure hose is attached and fuel is pumped
in at 40 PSI and a max of 45 PSI. Anything higher needs to be stopped for it can cause
damage to the wings. Since there is only one attachment point, fuel distribution between
tanks is either automated or it is controlled from a control panel at the fuelling point or in
the cockpit. As well, a dead man's switch is used to control fuel flow.
Because of the danger of confusing the fuel types, a number of precautions are taken to
distinguish between AvGas and Jet Fuel beyond clearly marking all containers, vehicles,
and piping. AvGas is treated with either a red, green, or blue dye, and is dispensed from
nozzles with a diameter of 40 millimetres (49 millimetres in the USA). The aperture on
fuel tanks of piston-engined aircraft cannot be greater than 60 millimetres in diameter. Jet
Fuel is clear to straw in colour, and is dispensed from a special nozzle called a "J spout"
that has a rectangular opening larger than 60 millimetres in diameter so as not to fit into
AvGas ports. However, some jet and turbine aircraft, such as some models of the Astar
helicopter, have a fuelling port too small for the J spout and thus require a smaller nozzle
to be installed in order to be refuelled efficiently.
Energy content
The net energy content for aviation fuels depends on their composition. Some typical
values are:
BP Avgas 80, 44.65 MJ /kg, density at 15 C is 690 kg/m 3
Kerosene type BP Jet A-1, 43.15 MJ /kg, density at 15 C is 804 kg/m 3
Kerosene type BP Jet TS-1, (for lower temperatures) 43.2 MJ /kg, density at 15 C
is 787 kg/m 3
Chemical composition
Aviation fuels consist of blends of over a thousand chemicals, primarily Hydrocarbons
(paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics) as well as additives such as antioxidants
and metal deactivators, and impurities. Principal components include n-octane and
isooctane. Like other fuels, blends of Aviation fuel used in piston engined aircraft are
often described by their Octane rating.
Safety precautions
Fig.16.4.(A British Airways Airbus A321 being refuelled.)
Any fuelling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation fuelling has a number of
unique characteristics which must be accommodated. As an aircraft flies through the air,
it can accumulate a charge of static electricity. If this is not dissipated before fuelling, an
electric arc can occur which may ignite fuel vapours. To prevent this, aircraft are
electrically bonded to the fuelling apparatus before fuelling begins, and are not
disconnected until fuelling is complete. Some regions require that the aircraft and/or fuel
truck be grounded as well.
Aviation fuel can cause severe environmental damage, and all fuelling vehicles must
carry equipment to control fuel spills. In addition, fire extinguishers must be present at
any fuelling operation, and airport firefighting forces are specially trained and equipped
to handle aviation fuel fires and spills. Aviation fuel must be checked daily and before
every flight for contaminants such as water or dirt.
Many airlines now require that safety belts be left unfastened should passengers be
aboard when refuelling happens.
Dyes for the fuel are required in some countries:
Country Fuel Dye
Worldwide Aviation gasoline 80/87 red dye
Worldwide Aviation gasoline 82UL purple dye
Worldwide Aviation gasoline 100LL blue dye
Worldwide Aviation gasoline 100/130 green dye
Fig.16.5.(A Carson Helicopters S-61N Fire King being
refueled during firefighting operations in Southern River, Western Australia )
REFERENCES
www.wikipedia.com
www.hindustanaeronauticslimited.com
www.ethanolmt.org