Guidelines on weather broadcasting and the use of radio

GUIDELINES ON WEATHERBROADCASTING AND THE USEOF RADIO FOR THE DELIVERYOF WEATHER INFORMATION

WMO/TD No. 1278PWS-12

W o r l d M e t e o r o l o g i c a l O r g a n i z a t i o n

The designations employed and the presentation of material in thispublication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever onthe part of the Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organizationconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or ofits authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or bound-aries.

It should be noted that this Report is not an official WMOPublication and has not been subjected to the Organization’s standardeditorial procedures. The views expressed by individuals or group ofexperts and published in a WMO Technical Document, do not neces-sarily have the endorsement of the Organization.

© 2005, World Meteorological Organization

WMO/TD No. 1278

NOTE

Lead author and coordinator of text: Gerald Fleming

(Contributions by: Jon Gill, Samuel Muchemi, Ahmed H.M. Al-Harthy,

Elena Cordoneanu, Aboul Aziz Diop, Claire Martin, Edwin Lai,

Johan Groth, Stephen Palmer and Tanja Cegnar)

Edited by: Haleh Kootval

Cover design by: F. Decollogny

Page

PART I: GUIDELINES ON WEATHER BROADCASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

CHAPTER 2. BROADCAST METEOROLOGISTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

CHAPTER 3. STRUCTURAL, CONTRACTUAL AND EDITORIAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.1 NMHS ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.2 UNDERSTANDING MEDIA EXPECTATIONS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.3 TAILORING: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.4 EDITORIAL CONTROL OF THE FINAL DELIVERED PRODUCT: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.5 FRONTING THE BROADCAST: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.6 OVERALL AND FINAL APPEARANCE OF FORECAST PRODUCTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.7 TIMING AND LENGTH OF FORECAST PRODUCT: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.8 SPONSORSHIP: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.9 NEGOTIABLE CHANGES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

CHAPTER 4. PRESENTING THE WEATHER – THE CHALLENGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CHAPTER 5. VISUALISING THE WEATHER STORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

CHAPTER 6. EFFECTIVE USE OF LANGUAGE IN WEATHER BROADCASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

CHAPTER 7. DEVELOPING PERSONAL SKILLS IN TELEVISION WEATHER PRESENTING . . . . . . . . 13

CHAPTER 8. ANATOMY OF A WEATHER BROADCAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.1 THE INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.2 THE PRESENT WEATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.3 THE FORECAST WEATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

8.3.1 SIGNIFICANT WEATHER: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.3.2 TEMPERATURES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178.3.3 WINDS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178.3.4 MARINE WEATHER: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178.3.5 WEATHER AROUND THE WORLD: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

8.4 POSSIBLE ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS IN THE FORECAST PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188.4.1 BIOMETEOROLOGY: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188.4.2 ASTRONOMICAL INFORMATION: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188.4.3 COMMUNICATION PLUS – EXTRA ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIDERED: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188.4.4 DURATION OF WEATHER BULLETINS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198.4.5 SOME CONCLUDING POINTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

CHAPTER 9. COMMUNICATING UNCERTAINTY IN THE PRESENTATION OF WEATHER INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209.1 USER UNDERSTANDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF UNCERTAINTY INFORMATION: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219.3 CONCLUDING POINTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER 10. GUIDELINES ON DISSEMINATION TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2410.1 WEATHER GRAPHICS TECHNOLOGY AND INTERFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

10.1.1 TECHNOLOGY AS A TOOL – A BALANCE BETWEEN THE MESSAGE AND VISUALS:: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

10.1.2 USE OF GENERAL PURPOSE SOFTWARE PACKAGES AND THE RANGE OF CAPABILITY: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

10.1.3 A SIMPLE READY-TO-BROADCAST/PRINT PACKAGE FOR DEVELOPING NMHSS . . . . . . . . . . . 2510.1.4 MORE SOPHISTICATED WEATHER GRAPHICS PACKAGES FOR MEDIA USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2610.1.5 INTERNET RESOURCES WHICH MAY BE VALUABLE IN THE PREPARATION

AND ENHANCEMENT OF WEATHER BROADCASTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2610.1.6 INTERFACING WITH TELEVISION NETWORKS UNDER

DIFFERENT WORKING ARRANGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2710.2 EVOLVING AND EMERGING COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

10.2.1 MORE MOBILE / TIME-SPECIFIC / LOCATION-SPECIFIC PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2710.2.2 MORE MULTI-MEDIA / MULTI-LANGUAGE CHANNELS AND PERSONALISED /

TAILOR-MADE DELIVERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2710.2.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN, PACKAGING AND

DELIVERY OF WEATHER INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2810.3 POOLING AND MOBILIZATION OF RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

10.3.1 THE INGREDIENTS OF A GOOD WEATHER PROGRAMME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2810.3.2 CHALLENGES FOR NMHSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2810.3.3 CHALLENGES FACING THE WMO COMMUNITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2910.3.4 ALTERNATIVE RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

PART II: GUIDELINES ON THE USE OF RADIO FOR THE DELIVERY OF WEATHER INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CHAPTER 2. STATUS OF RADIO WEATHER REPORTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.1 RADIO BROADCASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.2 WORKING RELATIONSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.3 TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.4 INTERVIEWS AND LIVE DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.5 PARTICIPATION OF STAFF IN OBSERVATORIES AND OUT-STATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.6 BROADCASTING AND RECORDING ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.7 AUTOMATION OF RADIO STATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.8 COMMERCIALIZATION OF NMHSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

CHAPTER 3. THE PROPER USE OF RADIO FOR THE COMMUNICATION OF WEATHER INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363.1 COMMUNICATION WITHOUT THE VISUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363.2 THE VALUE OF THE VOICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363.3 USING THE VOICE EFFECTIVELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364.4 ACCENTS AND PRONUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.5 REACHING OUT TO THE AUDIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.6 SCRIPTING RADIO BROADCASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Contentsiv

v

PageCHAPTER 4. GUIDELINES ON THE REPORTING OF WEATHER INFORMATION DURING PERIODS OF "NORMAL" WEATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394.1 DEVISING A SCHEDULE OF WEATHER BULLETINS FOR RADIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394.2 WHERE THE STAFF OF THE NMHS DISSEMINATE

THE FORECAST DIRECTLY THROUGH RADIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394.3 WHERE A RADIO STATION DISSEMINATES DAILY

WEATHER INFORMATION FROM THE NMHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404.4 WHERE A RADIO STATION DISSEMINATES DAILY WEATHER INFORMATION

FROM ANOTHER SOURCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

CHAPTER 5. GUIDELINES ON THE REPORTING OF WEATHER INFORMATION DURING PERIODS OF "SEVERE" WEATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425.1 STAGE 1 – NORMAL WEATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425.2 STAGE 2 – SEVERE WEATHER ON THE WAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425.3 STAGE 3 – SEVERE WEATHER HAS ARRIVED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435.4 STAGE 4 – SEVERE WEATHER JUST OVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.4.1 IF THE FORECAST HAS GONE WRONG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445.5 STAGE 5 – REVIEW THE EVENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

CHAPTER 6. GUIDELINES ON RADIO INTERVIEWS PROVIDED ON WEATHER RELATED SUBJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456.1 PREPARATION FOR AN INTERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456.2 INTERVIEWS AT THE STUDIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6.2.1 INTERVIEW TO ADDRESS A SPECIALIZED WEATHER APPLICATION SUBJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456.2.2 CONTROL THE INTERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466.2.3 INTERVIEW TO ADDRESS A WEATHER OCCURRENCE OR FORECAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466.2.4 TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS (WHEN A JOURNALIST CALLS THE NMHS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466.2.5 STAND UPS (AFTER AN EVENT E.G. PRESS CONFERENCE ETC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466.2.6 GENERAL TIPS ON RADIO INTERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

6.3 CONCLUDING POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

APPENDIX 1 A TEMPLATE FOR WMO TRAINING COURSES IN WEATHER PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

APPENDIX 2 TEN GUIDELINES OF GOOD WEATHER BROADCASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52APPENDIX 3 EMERGING COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

FOR DISSEMINATION OF PWS PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Contents

Part I

GUIDELINES ON

WEATHER BROADCASTING

One of the principal roles of the National Meteorological andHydrological Services (hereinafter NMHS) is to provide tothe general public, and also to more specialised users, reliableand accurate weather products and services. These productsand services help to ensure the safety and protection ofpeople and of goods at times of occurrence of extremeweather phenomena, but also assist in the efficient andeconomic pursuit of business and of the domestic activity ofcitizens engaged in their own particular areas of pursuit andresponsibility.

Weather products and services are, of necessity, subjectto certain variability, and they also follow the evolution ofweather parameters with time. They are highly perishablegoods. Consequently, they must be communicated anddistributed in a timely manner to the users and to the public.To ensure that this information is received in the optimummanner it is necessary that the public not only be able to takein and understand the message, but that they be attracted the

product and have sufficient interest and motivation to consultit, read it, listen to or look at it.

Thus,• the manner of communicating,• the choice of the information supports used,• the duration of the bulletin, and• the balance between ordinary language and tech-

nical terms used represent significant factors indetermining the success or otherwise of the process ofcommunication between the weather presenter and his orher public.

The main text of Part I of these guidelines deals with the"human" elements of communication in Chapters 2 to 9.Chapter 10 examines some of the communications "hard-ware" and how this is developing.

In addition to the main text, a template for WMOtraining courses in weather presentation is provided inAppendix 1.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

In the 21st century, an NMHS may find itself in the (chal-lenging, but perhaps unenviable) position of having to:(a) name one of its "own" as the future "face" of local,

regional or even national media weather presenta-tion, or

(b) possibly review or revisit the existing policy, whichhas been employed to choose a spokesperson.Up until recently this particular staffing position has

tended to be seen in some quarters as a vaguely undesir-able job, not entirely consonant with the scientific ethosthat underlies the work of Meteorology. It may even havebeen met with quiet resentment or distaste from somewithin the ranks of the NMHS. However, in the rapidlyand constantly evolving world of weather broadcasting,as many NMHSs have discovered, there is much to begained from having a scientifically competent publicservant embedded within the media. This position is anatural "public-image-building" role that has, frequently,been largely undervalued, and hence grossly under-utilized, by NMHSs.

The primary mandate of most NMHSs world wide isto provide weather information to the public and tosupply information and warnings that will help to protectlife and to mitigate property damage during times ofinclement weather. Utilizing a competent spokespersonassists an NMHS to meet the challenges of their mandateswith a higher degree of visibility and a greater publictrust.

In choosing a person for this position, the NMHSmust be clear in its own scientific and political directionand must have complete trust in the capabilities of thechosen individual. Placing a staff member on the outside,in the sometimes-hostile environment of the media,entails some risk. The person must be unquestionablyloyal to the NMHS, must have a deep and extensive work-ing knowledge of both the science and the Service itself,and must be willing and able to become known andrecognized as the "face" of the NMHS; indeed the faceand voice of weather itself. Basic yet solid communicationskills are an essential pre-requisite of the individual.Further training will hone those skills, but an inherentability and willingness to talk to an audience is absolutelyimperative. The person should not be easily intimidatedby audiences (scientific or otherwise), and should beprepared to work seemingly at the whim of the media.The upper managerial staff of the NMHS must also becomfortable and not threatened by the developing role ofthe spokesperson. On the contrary the spokesperson

must be fully supported and openly encouraged in theirwork. Trust for this person and their abilities must comefrom within the NMHS as well as – later - from thepublic.

The NMHS should be aware that the role of the offi-cially designated spokesperson comes with many pitfalls.A public service environment is not usually one thatencourages a single person to stand out from the field ofpersonnel, to put their head above the parapet. As such itcan be a difficult transition for the individual chosen.The media, which is an intensely aggressive, fast paced,personality driven culture may feel quite alien at first.However, the NMHS should not underestimate theimportance of increasing the visibility of the Service byputting a "real face" to the organisation.

If there is no one person within the NMHS who iscapable, or willing, to take on a role as the public face ofthe NMHS then the next best option is to establish anInformation Officer / PR Officer who will serve as aninterface between the meteorological expertise of theNMHS and the media expertise of journalists and/orpresenters. Such a person could develop relationshipswith journalists, and brief them as appropriate onweather stories. They could also, perhaps, manage a team oftalented presenters who have been equipped with a suitablelevel of meteorological knowledge. This approach might beuseful in a scenario where, for whatever reason, the forecaststaff of the NMHS cannot or will not present directly in themedia.

Finally, in a perfect world, the chosen spokespersonshould be encouraged to hold the position for a fairly exten-sive period of time (usually a minimum of 3-5 years). It iswidely acknowledged by those already using official spokes-people that the longer the term of employment, the greater thedegree of (internal and external) trust that is developed. Thistrust is twofold: (a) a perceived trust by the public in the abil-ity of the person with whom they have become familiar, and(b) a longer, potentially more lucrative trust by the mediathemselves, who will undoubtedly develop a strong personalrelationship with someone who has proven skills in aidingthem in the efficient production of quality broadcasting.

This person is a multi-faceted asset to the NMHS –he/she increases the visibility of the NMHS, facilitate infor-mation flow between media and the scientists, or evenbetween internal policy makers, managers and the media.With the right person in this position, the NMHS can oftenminimise the impact of any weather related controversy.

Chapter 2

BROADCAST METEOROLOGISTS

In the last decade NMHSs have found themselves becomingincreasingly involved with all of the commercial aspects offorecast weather delivery. Informal relationships have beenforged between media outlets acting as the vehicles forweather dissemination,and the various NMHSs.This portionof the document is intended to act as a guideline for anyNMHS willing to enter into a more formal business contractwith a local, regional or even national media outlet. It isintended to review and outline various points that will invari-ably arise during both early and on-going contract andeditorial policy negotiations. It should be noted that themedia’s view and hence agenda in reference to weatherdissemination is usually quite different to that of the NMHS,and that building a strong and reliable relationship is highlydesirable for both parties. Credibility and trust for an NMHSand the associated media outlet can be enhanced substan-tially when a strong relationship is built between the two.

These guidelines are also intended to be relevant regard-less of the level of involvement of the NMHS with the media.Professional levels of involvement vary from country tocountry, and may even vary widely within a single country.Regardless of the individual level of involvement, all NMHSsmust maintain full and absolute control of the wording,content and initial issuance of weather warnings. Unlike themedia, individual NMHSs bear a responsibility or mandateto uphold public safety during times of inclement weather.Hence weather warnings - their content and their wording -must remain solely the responsibility of the NMHS. This isintended to protect both the NMHS as well as the mediaduring times of potentially life-threatening weather.

There are certain policy points whose review by theNMHS is recommended prior to entering into a formal busi-ness contract negotiation. The NMHS, when discussingforecast product dissemination, should work out, as thor-oughly as possible in advance, all ramifications andexpectations of the contract. The NMHS should be aware,from the outset of any "non-negotiables" (ideas or productsthat the NMHS is not willing to relinquish control over; forexample the wording and content of weather warnings) oressential requirements when considering the final forecastproduct. It should be recognized that, from the start, theexpectations of the two sides entering the negotiations mightbe far apart. As negotiations develop, both sides will invari-ably converge on a mutually acceptable formula fordissemination. During early discussions, limitations to thecontract (self imposed or otherwise) will become obvious.The NMHS must state initially any known limitations thatmay restrict the delivery of the final forecast product.

In the beginning contract negotiations can appearextremely laborious – this is to be expected. As broad areasare broached and agreed upon, finer details tend to be easierto achieve.

These guidelines are not meant to be all encompassing,and can only outline various aspects of what may become apotentially much deeper relationship. It is recommended thatthey be used as a basic framework when a NMHS intends toenter, renew or simply review a formal commercial or busi-ness contract with a media outlet.

3.1 NMHS ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS:

The NMHS must decide "essential" requirements of productdelivery (such as non-editorialising and citing the source ofweather warnings) prior to the start of contract negotiations.These requirements are intended to help define the role of theNMHS within the bounds of a commercial contract and toensure that the essence of the forecast information is notcorrupted (inadvertently or otherwise) by the media.1. (a) WARNING DISSEMINATION: Warnings must be

delivered in a fashion that is conducive to quick dissem-ination.Therefore warnings should initially be written ina media-friendly format. It must be stated that poten-tially life saving weather information should be deliveredas expeditiously as possible – both by the NMHS to themedia outlet, and then further by the media on to theuser (viewer/listener). It should be stated in the formalcontract that weather warnings should never be delayedby the media disseminator as a tool for maintaining anaudience longer or later into a broadcast. An NMHSshould try to discuss in advance how a warning is to bedelivered – for example, certain colours or looks, tonalalerts etc. may be requested or agreed upon in order toallow the information to stand out more clearly from theregular day-to-day weather broadcast. It is recognisedthat these points will ultimately build credibility for boththe NMHS and the media.

1. (b) An NMHS must also recognise that it has responsi-bilities to provide weather warnings to mediaorganisations with whom they do not have an arrange-ment for the supply of forecast information; indeed, whomay be receiving forecast information from a competitor.The NMHS must insist on their pre-eminent role, inaccordance with the "Single-Voice" policy of WMO, inproviding warnings of severe weather to all citizenswithin their region of responsibility. Therefore, these"competitor" media outlets are entitled to receive a fulland efficient service of weather warnings,and the NMHSis entitled to expect that these will be broadcast withoutalteration and without undue delay, with proper attribu-tion of the NMHS as source of the warning information.

2. RESPONSIBILITY OR OWNERSHIP OF AFORECAST: An NMHS must be aware of at least partialresponsibility of ownership of the final disseminatedforecast product.For example a media outlet may start to

Chapter 3

STRUCTURAL, CONTRACTUAL AND

EDITORIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Guidelines on weather broadcasting and the use of radio for the delivery of weather information

be blamed for a suspected "missed" forecast event; theNMHS cannot waive complete responsibility for thisevent. The NMHS and media must be aware of the deli-cate relationship between the delivery of the forecast,andthe actual generation of the forecast. The NMHS maywant to include a formal statement as being the "forecastprovider" in the original contract. The NMHS may alsowant to include periodic advertising as being the sole"forecast provider".

3. LEVEL AND CONTENT OF SERVICE: The mediashould be made fully aware of the inherent scientific limi-tations applicable to the level of service and contentoffered by the NMHS during the terms of the contract.The media must not be left with the impression that indi-vidual forecast products might, for example,be expandedupon at a later date. The NMHS should offer explicitproducts e.g. a 5-day forecast should not "grow" into a 7-day forecast if the NMHS in question does not have thecapabilities to legitimately provide this information.Specialized (specifically seasonal) forecast products canbe added to the original contract after further negotia-tions.

4. SCHEDULING OF DELIVERY OF THE FORECASTPRODUCT. The NMHS’s internal operational schedulecannot be expected to fully revolve around commercialclients. Forecast products should be issued at mutuallyacceptable negotiated times that allow both the NMHSand the media to work to the best of their individual capa-bilities. Both parties should respect these operationalrequirements as they allow for the best final product to bedelivered to the end user – the public.

5. FORMAT AND TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: TheNMHS and individual media outlets should agree uponthe technical details regarding the format of the forecastproduct.This agreement should be included in the work-ing contract between the two parties. Requests forchanges to the product from either party should be actedupon whenever possible, but only with the agreement ofall involved.

3.2 UNDERSTANDING MEDIA EXPECTATIONS:

From the start of contract negotiations an NMHS must under-stand that the media (print, radio, TV and others) have welldefined, preset expectations in regards to the final forecastproduct. Individual types of media outlets will have differingrequirements of an NMHS. The final forecast product wouldneed to be tailored to suit the media delivering the product.Aforecast written for, say, radio will differ substantially to thatwritten for publication in print. Ideally, the NMHS should beable to deliver the product in such a way that disseminationthrough the media does not entail further editing.This is to beexpected despite the fact that these conditions will often act asa constraint on the final weather and forecast product.

3.3 TAILORING:

Forecast products will invariably need to be tailored in-houseby the various media outlets if not delivered in a format thatcoincides with the requirements of the media. Therefore anNMHS will retain a far greater degree of control of the finalresult if the product is originally delivered in a form that isacceptable to, and desirable by, the media. Once a certain"look" and delivery mechanism has been negotiated,productsissued by the NMHS should remain consistent in look andcontent.This does not negate the addition of extraneous infor-mation when appropriate – however the NMHS should try toadd this information in a way that is compatible with the orig-inal product.

3.4 EDITORIAL CONTROL OF THE FINALDELIVERED PRODUCT:

The NMHS should understand that the media delivering aforecast would normally retain final editorial control of thatproduct. The content of the forecast will usually remainuntouched. However, the media is the vehicle or mechanismby which the forecast is delivered to the user, and as such, themedia will often expand or (more usually) contract the orig-inal work.This is to be expected.The NMHS must understandthat once the forecast product has been "handed over" to thevarious media they no longer have full and complete controlof that product. There is therefore the need for a clear andexplicit "post delivery" editorial policy to be worked outbetween the two parties.

3.5 FRONTING THE BROADCAST:

Choices need to be made about who will "front" the presen-tation - whether this should be a forecaster or a presenter, andwhether they are employed by the television company or bythe NMHS. These choices will have resource and manage-ment implications for both parties. In the case of anon-meteorological presenter, there will be issue of how muchfreedom the presenter is given in preparing the script. It isdesirable that a non-meteorological presenter should havesome introductory training in meteorology; how that trainingis to be provided will need to be considered. Presenters, bethey forecasters or otherwise, will also need to be trained inhow the computer graphics system works, and the range ofcapabilities available in the system. Other matters to beconsidered include whether the presentation is to be live orrecorded, and what the on-air context should be, e.g. will it bea stand-alone presentation, or will the information bepresented through a conversation with a news anchor?

3.6 OVERALL AND FINAL APPEARANCE OFFORECAST PRODUCTS:

The NMHS will often want to preserve the graphical "look" ofthe forecast products – but this is not generally possible.Typically, the product will undergo some trimming or

6

embossing process by the media delivering that product on tothe customer. The NMHS must concede that once delivered,they relinquish control of the "look" of the end result. If theNMHS wishes to retain a certain (say) graphical feel,a requeststating this clearly should be included in the initial contractnegotiations.

3.7 TIMING AND LENGTH OF FORECASTPRODUCT:

The NMHS will not have control over the issuance of theproduct to the public from the media. This can often becomeproblematic when dealing with a rapidly evolving and chang-ing weather situation. The NMHS should understand fromthe outset that some forecast products would need to be madeavailable with a certain degree of inaccuracy already built in,solely because of the length of time, which it takes for thatproduct to be disseminated to the public. Equally, the lengthof time (or space) allocated by the delivering media to theproduct is completely controlled by the individual mediaoutlet delivering the product. This is true regardless of theweather situation. It is advisable to attempt to negotiate anabsolute minimum length,of time or space,which is allocatedto the forecast product. If at all possible however, it is far moredesirable to actually negotiate a fixed, mutually acceptablelength of time or space for the product. During times ofinclement weather, the time (and space) allocated for thedelivery of the forecast will often not change. This inherentconstraint by the media should also be recognized as aconstraining factor for the NMHS. Forecast products shouldtherefore be tailored (as much as possible) to the individualrequirements of each explicit user. Very often the forecastproduct will be required by the media outlet at a mutuallyagreed and explicit pre-ordained time (update times mustalso be defined and preset). These times must be strictlyadhered to, especially during times of inclement weather.

3.8 SPONSORSHIP:

Sponsorship arrangements for weather bulletins need carefulconsideration, and pose many difficult questions. Will thesponsor require other publicity services to be delivered by thepresenters, and might these conflict with the delivery of the

weather forecast? What messages are carried by the sponsor-ship information; do these reinforce the message of theweather presentation or obscure it? Does the sponsor under-stand the limits of their sponsorship? What happens ifsponsorship of the weather forecast conflicts with sponsorshipof adjacent programmes?

An NMHS must understand that the media environmentis a commercial environment and that the media has the rightto sell or place advertising around the forecast products atwill, and without consultation. Some of this advertising mayeven appear to be in direct competition with the NMHS. It isup to individual NMHSs to decide what is acceptable andwhat is not. Equally, media outlets may want to strategicallyplace advertising during or on top of forecast products thathave been issued by the NMHS.Again – the individual NMHSmust discuss commercial product placement in the context ofwhat is acceptable and what is clearly unacceptable (particu-larly if this is blatantly misleading). The NMHS may also findthat the individual delivering the weather, be they an NMHSemployee or otherwise, are required to be used in a commer-cial sense by the media outlet.Acceptable and/or unacceptablecommercialisation of the forecast, the forecast product andeven the forecaster/presenter should be explicitly stated in theformal business contract.An NMHS needs to clearly define itsown thinking on each of these issues, and come to a decisionas to what is best in its own context.

3.9 NEGOTIABLE CHANGES:

Finally, it should be understood that an editorial policy orcontract is not cast in stone.It should be continuously updatedby both the NMHS and the media in order to meet the endrequirements of the user (customer) as well as the changingneeds of the media,or of the NMHS itself.Open and frequentdiscussions between the NMHS and the media organisationare encouraged before and during the term of the contract.Equally open and frank discussions may also be necessary ifa third party is the actual disseminator of the forecast prod-uct. There should also be allowance for the introduction anddevelopment of new technologies within the life of thecontract. Contracts between NMHSs and the various mediaoutlets are subject to change in light of the rapidly evolvingtechnological world in which we all live.

Chapter 3 — Structural, contractual and editorial consideration 7

Weather information is presented through a wide variety ofmedia, but the two, which place most demands on the qual-ity of the presenter, are radio and television. Later in thispublication there is a more detailed examination of thepresentation of weather on radio. The following pages aredevoted primarily to the particular issues, which are relevantto the presentation of weather on television.

When creating a weather story a weather presenter isfaced with the task of looking at the meteorological infor-mation at their disposal in a rather unique and non-scientificway. The presenter must recreate the facts, build onwards intoan unembellished yet almost fictional narrative, and finishwith a distinctive, yet not foregone conclusion that is the fore-cast.The language used must be descriptive enough to inspireattention and yet absolutely accurate in building on a solidscientific base.

The data, however, being inherently dry, does not neces-sarily lend itself to this kind of exposition. For the weatherpresenter, creating a weather "story" can be a fairly dauntingprospect. The following points are therefore intended merelyas aids or tools when attempting to paint the overall weatherand forecast picture.1. Learn to filter the information. Not everything that

appears in the observations, the maps and the chartsneeds to end up on air. Less is most definitely more whenfaced with a mountain of meteorological information.Asa very loose rule of thumb,individual TV maps or graph-ics should be cut down to carry only 5 pieces ofinformation (and remember that the actual map back-ground is already one piece and the data specific title isanother).

2. There should only be about 1-2 pertinent pieces of infor-mation per minute of air time (the attention span of youraudience is limited - you do not want to overload them).To discover for yourself what is relevant to that day’sweathercast, ask yourself a series of questions.When youlook at all the day’s data in front of you, what leaps outimmediately? That piece of information is imperative tothe story (it is, in essence, the "lead character") – andinvariably should start the broadcast. Why that particu-lar piece of information is so impressive or important, isthe second identifying piece of information for thebroadcast. The last piece of information is the forecast.All this barely leaves you 2 other separate pieces of infor-mation that you can cram into a 2-3 minute (average)broadcast. The tendency to overload the forecast is acommon mistake of many weather presenters (old andnew). Learning to whittle scientific information downto an interesting, useful and hence valuable core is a skillin itself.

3. A good weather forecaster will immediately recognizeimportant or relevant weather data. This informationcan be thought of as story or chapter headlines.The story

is advanced through the chapters as the weather presen-ter draws towards the final forecast.

4. Simply deciding what pieces of information should andshould not go into a broadcast is not enough to developa good weather story. That information now has to bewoven together. It is all interrelated via a meteorologicalfeature that acts as a story line drawing the viewerthrough a complete beginning, middle and end. This"thread" links the main points and brings cohesion to theentire weathercast. It should be noted at this point thatweathercasts do not have to be presented in a chrono-logical order – but that there must be a sequence ofinterrelated maps and graphics that clearly lead into andfrom one to another. Remember that the weather ischanging and moving in a dynamic fashion, but it willfrequently be possible to show only one or two charts torepresent every day. Take care to describe what happensin between! The story must carry the viewer from onescene (or day) to the next in an easy, comprehensiblemanner.

5. In contrast to the usual telling of a story the one aspectof a weathercast that is not typical is that of constant reit-eration. TV is an inherently busy and cluttered medium.Specific details in a weather forecast can often be lost in,for example, the sheer motion of the satellite imagerylooping behind the presenter. To combat this the weatherpresenter must feel completely at ease constantly reiter-ating pertinent points of the forecast. Reiteration, in thiscase, is not merely the act of repeating the same infor-mation ad nauseum. Reiteration for a TV weatherpresenter is all about reinforcing a point so that theviewer retains the information for a longer period oftime. Reiteration involves using different maps andgraphics to emphasize and underline the most relevantpoints of the forecast.

6. Finally – every good weathercast should end with apunch; a flourish. This ending is the forecast! The broad-caster should make every attempt not to bury theweather information by winding down too quickly andallowing insufficient time to fully summarise the fore-cast. This last piece of information is often the mosthighly anticipated part of the broadcast.A presenter mayeven alienate the viewer if they feel short changed by anall too brief and barely conclusive ending. Try not toleave the ending in mid-air. It should also be noted thatthe ending does not necessarily have to be definitive –this is the weather after all! The audience should,however, feel that they have a good idea of what to expectfrom the weather during the coming days.

Chapter 4

PRESENTING THE WEATHER – THE CHALLENGE

An image is worth one thousand words, according to an oldEnglish saying.Visual images that create a strong impressionin the mind of the viewer are remembered easily, and theinformation relayed through the images is therefore retainedmore effectively.

Television is primarily a visual medium; the images arethe principal means through which the message is conveyed.In a radio broadcast the voice is the fundamental means ofcommunication. In television, the voice, while still of greatimportance, is secondary; it comments on or amplifies themessage, which is expressed primarily through the images –all of the images – including the image of the presenter!

A weather forecaster creating a weather story must imag-ine how best to communicate that story through visualimagery. To a large extent the implementation of this visionwill depend on the facilities provided by the weather graph-ics system, which is available to them. The weather graphicssystem can be seen as a kind of toolbox; different tools areavailable to illustrate different elements of the weather story.For example, a satellite image (or an animation loop of satel-lite images) is an excellent tool to show the movement of alarge-scale weather system; the viewer can see the size of thesystem; its direction and speed of movement, and can makesome assessment as to whether (or when) it will affect theirregion.

For rainfall, on the other hand, a radar image is ideal toillustrate the location and movement of precipitation and togive some indication of how heavy it is falling. Indeed one ofthe benefits of using a radar image on screen is that, often forthe first time, the viewer will appreciate properly, for exam-ple, the distinction and difference between frontal rain andshowers, or the size of a large thunderstorm. Other normalvisualisations of the weather include the use of synopticcharts, maps with weather symbols, maps with colour shad-ing for temperature, different displays of wind speed(isotachs, winds arrows), charts of wave height; perhaps even3-dimensional fly-through presentations that take their infor-mation from the weather models.

Aside from these "meteorological" visualisations we canhave simple photographs of weather events (snow, lightning,dust, floods etc), video footage of weather (current or histor-ical) or even cartoon images such as those of people withumbrellas or sunhats. Each and all of these images can conveya message.

As the weather will be different from day to day, thereforethe presentation of weather on television should be capableof change, so as to better emphasise each day the most impor-tant weather elements in the forecast. The forecaster shoulddevelop the practice of thinking through the forecast in avisual manner; should think about how best to communicatethe story of the day using the visual graphic tools at theirdisposal. Nonetheless there are some essential elements thatshould be in every forecast: precipitation or other significant

weather, cloud, temperatures, wind information, etc. Thatwhich is essential will vary from one climatic region toanother, and should be clearly defined at a local level. Theviewers also have a right to expect that the temporal coverageof each forecast presentation (whether it be for one, two, threeor even more days ahead) should be consistent in a givenpresentation from day to day.

It should also be remembered that the visual charts carryfar more information than the presenter can speak about inthe (usually) short length of time allocated to the forecastpresentation. Different parts of a country or region will havediffering weather symbols, temperatures, wind speeds, etc.and the presenter will not always refer to each and all of theseexplicitly. The charts therefore allow a range of differentweather "stories" to be told simultaneously to people living indifferent regions, or even people living in the same regionwho have a different focus of interest. One person may beseeking sunshine, while another may wish for wind. Theimages and charts displayed in a weather bulletin of twominutes duration can convey a huge amount of information,both in space and in time.

There are some "ground rules" which should guide thevisual structure of the forecast.1. The first image is the most important. It is the scene-

setter and the image, which the viewer will rememberbest. The main story of the forecast should be told in thefirst image, if this is possible.

2. A weather chart is on screen for only a short length oftime. If there are too many elements in a chart, the viewerwill not be able to take them all in. Remove unnecessaryclutter!! One rule is to have no more than five elementson a chart at any one time – this normally includes thechart title (tonight, tomorrow, etc.) and the map back-ground.

3. Each graphic should be on-screen long enough to speakto the viewer; it is very frustrating for the viewer not tobe able to take in all the relevant information during thetime the graphic is on-screen.

4. There needs to be good synchronisation between graph-ics and commentary; transitions between graphicsshould always be at an appropriate place in the narrative.

5. Every graphic should have a clear title, which accuratelygives the day and time to which the chart refers, andwhich is data-specific.

6. Animations are a good tool in some weather situations,but the viewer may be easily confused by moving clouds,rain, etc. Sometimes, in a satellite animation, the weathersystem, which is the main focus of the forecast, is notclearly seen. In this situation, it is best not to have anysatellite animation rather than show a confusing or irrel-evant picture. The animation must support the centralmessage of the forecast; it should not be used for its ownsake only.

Chapter 5

VISUALISING THE WEATHER STORY

7. Transitions between charts should normally be simple.Avery complex or "busy" transition can take the viewersattention away from the message of the forecast. On theother hand a special transition can be used to bringspecial emphasis to some part of the forecast; for exam-ple, a zoom transition can focus attention on oneparticular region, while a different transition might beused to introduce a warning message, for extra effect.

8. Weather broadcasters are not normally trained ingraphic design but they should have some appreciationof the need for good visual composition of the weathercharts. It may be wise to get some advice on this from thegraphic artists working for the TV station. They mightprovide a style book with illustrations of good and badcomposition using the graphics and charts specific tothe station; a learning tool such as this can guide fore-casters away from basic errors in this area.

9. Every weather graphics system or software package willhave inherent strengths and weaknesses. The weatherbroadcaster needs to understand how best to use thestrengths,and how to avoid the weaknesses, in the graph-ics system, which they employ.

10. If a broadcaster is preparing a forecast for many daysahead they should, where possible, not use the same styleof presentation as is employed in illustrating the forecast

for "tomorrow"; the message is less certain, and the visu-alisation of the forecast should reflect this.

11. If a forecast uses a 3-dimensional fly-through then thereare special rules that should be observed; the directionnorth should always be towards the top of the screen;there should be a still-frame to start so that the viewercan become oriented before the movement begins;movement should be gentle with no abrupt changes indirection or speed.Weather broadcasters should get into the habit of criti-

cally reviewing themselves as well as watching other weatherpresentations, especially those that utilise a similar graphicssystem to that which they employ. Another broadcaster mayuse the system in a different or original way; there is no copy-right in styles of weather broadcasting and new ideas can beassimilated as a forecast presentation evolves.

A good test of whether or not the weather story has beenadequately told through the use of graphics is to watch aweather presentation with the sound turned down. The visualrepresentation of the weather forecast should alone be strongenough to tell the story, unsupported by the words of thepresenter.

Guidelines on weather broadcasting and the use of radio for the delivery of weather information10

The language of meteorology is the language of science. Ituses tightly defined terminology, whose meaning is wellunderstood by those within the profession. The language ofscience is the language of the written paper; exact, sometimesdense; often requiring reflection and study to extract the fullmeaning. When scientists talk to each other they do so in amanner that assumes a common base of understandingbetween speaker and listener. It is an efficient method ofcommunication for the initiated.

Television and radio are media that facilitate com-munication from one person to many; and that many will encompass an entire range of interest and understanding.There will be those listening who will be keenly attentive to the message, while there will be others for whomthe forecast presentation will be no more than a backgroundto some other, more immediate, interest. The language ofthe forecast must speak to all, from the attentive to theapathetic.

What makes a successful weather forecast? The weatherforecast is no more than the story of the upcoming weather,ideally told by someone whom the listener likes, and in whomthey believe. The manner in which the weather facts shouldbe moulded into a story has been dealt with in Chapter 4"Presenting the Weather". The visual construction of thestory is outlined in the succeeding chapter. The final elementis the language in which the story should be told.

Weather is experienced by the ordinary person throughthe medium of the senses. The heat of the sun, the cold of thenight, the wetness of rain; the strength of the wind; these areall sensory experiences. They are also, by and large, ordinaryexperiences, which people feel day-to-day during the courseof their normal life. Weather should therefore be describedusing normal conversational words and phrases. It should bespoken of using descriptive adjectives and nouns. Thelanguage might even become lyrical at times, creating, forexample, an image of "deep blue skies" or of "angry churn-ing seas". However language does also communicate values;and the wider interests or viewpoint of the viewer will notalways correlate with the interests and viewpoint of the fore-caster.Be careful to tell the story using value-free terminologywhere possible.

For most weather broadcasters, and most especiallythose coming from a meteorological background, these sortsof word and phrases will not feel comfortable at first; therewill be a tendency to fall back on the safe and familiar tech-nical terminology. This technical terminology certainly has aplace in the weather broadcast, but it must be used appropri-ately and it must be explained. The explanation will, ofnecessity, be brief, and may be no more than identifying acold front with a band of clouds, or linking the isobars withwind speed and direction. No matter how many times youhave explained these before, in the course of a broadcast, youneed to explain them again and again. There will always be

some viewers for whom it is new; for others, you will be rein-forcing their knowledge and understanding.

Clarity of language begins with clarity of understanding.If the presenter has a firm and complete knowledge of theweather situation, and of the direction, which the forecast isto take, then the flow of the weather story will naturallyevolve. Add in an enthusiasm to get the message across andthe language will usually be clear and direct. For the presen-ter, getting into the right frame of mind is, after a thoroughstudy of the weather, the most important preparation for thebroadcast. The presenter, after all, has a great story, full ofuseful information, to tell the viewers and listeners.Enthusiasm and energy carry the forecast, and lead naturallyto good language and expression.

There are some pointers, which can be stated to helpdefine the most effective use of language in weather broad-casting.1. Keep it as simple as possible. Never use a long word

where a short one will do. Don’t try to use language toimpress.

2. Explain technical terms as you go along. Reiterate expla-nations as necessary.

3. Don’t use long sentences; speak in sentences that have aclear beginning, middle and end.

4. Use proper grammar where possible, but err on the sideof conversation rather than formality.

5. When speaking, make sure that the emphasis of yourvoice is put on the most important words. Many presen-ters put emphasis on words such as "and", "but" or"however" which do not convey any meaning in thecontext of the forecast, but are only link words to getfrom one part of a sentence to another. This habit ofintonation makes it difficult for the listener to get thefull meaning.

6. Pause after important points, to allow the information tobe absorbed, especially if the information is also evidenton the chart (as it should be).

7. Don’t be afraid to be creative; to use unusual words orphrases. Most people speaking without a script, as themajority of weather broadcasters do, will tend to drawfrom the same small pool of words. Get a thesaurus; lookup synonyms, and work them into the forecast to givevariety of expression.

8. The use of onomatopoeia, words that convey sensethrough their sound as well as their meaning, works wellin weather broadcasting – but use sparingly!

9. Personalisation is a good device to help the viewers iden-tify better with features on the weather chart. This is theascribing of human characteristics to inanimate objects.Examples include a nasty depression; a rogue shower; aharsh wind, a gentle breeze, a vigorous frontal system.

10. Don’t use language to hide meaning, especially whensome aspect of the forecast is unsure.Be honest about the

Chapter 6

EFFECTIVE USE OF LANGUAGE IN


uncertainty; words that are deliberately vague or impre-cise will be quickly recognised by viewers for what theyare.

11. Be aware of verbal tics; the insertion and repetition ofunnecessary words or phrases that add no meaning, orthe "ums" and "ahs" which, while acceptable in normalconservation, may convey indecision in a weather broad-cast. It is a good practice to critically listen to recordingsof one’s own broadcast in order to recognise, and theneliminate, these irritating habits.

While all of these ground rules are important and valid,a weather presenter should not be afraid to develop their ownpersonal style. It would be a very boring world if all weatherbroadcasters spoke in the same way. The way in which aweather presenter uses language is an important reflection oftheir personality; it should not be an "add-on" that onlyappears at broadcast time. Make an attempt to mould youreveryday speech according to the guidelines above; you willthen more easily use the right words, and more natural into-nation, in front of camera.


People who are asked or selected to perform the task ofweather presentation are normally provided with some initialtraining in the job. This training can be provided by thebroadcaster, by the NMHS, by a private firm who specialisein communication training, or by WMO. The provision ofongoing or refresher training is usually intermittent, ad hocand much more patchy in nature. It is therefore fundamen-tally the responsibility of the broadcaster to develop,maintainand renew the skills, which are necessary for successfulweather broadcasting. It is, after all, the broadcaster whostands to gain the plaudits, or suffer the criticism, of the audi-ence. Skill development should be seen as part of theContinuing Professional Development (CPD) of the broad-caster; it is invariably an on-going and personalresponsibility.

The following is a list of some of the fundamental skillsand proficiencies that are desirable, and in many cases neces-sary, in weather broadcasting, together with some suggestionsas to how those skills can be developed and maintained.1. Become self-critical, but not negatively so. Learn to draw

a distinction between yourself and your broadcastimage. If there is a problem with your image this is not areflection on you as a person; merely a problem to besolved. Many of the succeeding points will deal withwhat are normally intensely personal issues (how youlook, speak, behave); they have to be viewed objectivelyin order to be improved. A weather presenter is not anactor, in that they are not projecting a personality differ-ent from their own; nevertheless they do need to developsomething of an actors approach to their image.

2. Behavioural traits – does the presenter have "tics" ordistracting mannerisms? These can be visual (too muchmovement, hopping about) or verbal (over use of certainwords or phrases, inappropriate sing-song intonation).The best way to recognise these is to record severalsequential broadcasts and watch them back-to-back;

preferably with a trusted colleague, professional trainer,or television director.

3. Communication between human beings is not justconveyed through succinct use of language, but alsothrough movement and gestures of the body, and moreparticularly through facial expression. Body language isimportant. Does the presenter have a good posture? Afriendly appearance and demeanour? Are they comfort-able in front of camera? It is difficult to define whatmakes a person look "comfortable", but it is almostimmediately evident on screen. Some people are natu-rally comfortable from an early stage, but for most thisskill can be learned with time and experience. Generallyspeaking an easy stance works well, slack (but notrounded) shoulders; and arms not continually moving.(Crossing and uncrossing arms tends to be an anxiousmovement, while arms permanently crossed in front ofthe body is a defensive, stiff, posture).

4. Voice – is the forecast delivered with clarity, good projec-tion and appropriate intonation? Some voices are veryflat, and need an injection of expression.Women’s voicesgenerally have a higher pitch that can be clearly heardabove background noise, but can also seem harsh to theear – an effect that is often amplified through television.Male voices often have a softer, lower pitch which needssometimes to be raised or "energised" a little to workbest. When a person is nervous there is a naturalconstriction of the throat and chest; this can lead to araising of the pitch, and to problems with breathing(gulping or gasping). Every presenter should take acouple of deep breaths before going on-air, consciouslyadopt a relaxed body posture, and make a point of calm-ing down the voice.

5. "Punching" your speech. A weather presenter should beaware of emphasizing or "punching" the correct wordswithin a sentence. Words like "and" and "but" do notneed to be punched; descriptors (a cold wind, someheavy rain) should be. Allowing a voice to rise and fallthrough a sentence also adds clarity. A monotonous

Chapter 7

DEVELOPING PERSONAL SKILLS IN TELEVISION

WEATHER PRESENTING

Presentation on air (example 1)

Meterologist broadcaster preparing a broadcast

voice is dull and the viewer will lose interest; a disinter-ested viewer will ultimately be more likely to go

elsewhere for their forecast.6. Tricks and devices can engage your audience and help

maintain their attention. Occasionally try asking arhetorical question. Obviously the viewer cannot answer,but they will often feel a greater sense of interaction withyou at that point.

7. Visual appearance – there is often an assumption thattelevision executives are interested in putting only verygood-looking or "beautiful" people on air. This is notnecessarily the case; for the work of weather presenta-tion, classical or culturally accepted beauty can be moreof a distraction than anything else.Strong and distinctivephysical features – from whatever end of the spectrum –are generally problematic.Above all, the person must benatural – they should not take the attention away fromthe weather charts unduly.

8. Hair should be clean, combed or brushed neatly, andshould not fall over the face. Flyaway hair needs to betamed down; lighting tends to highlight random bits ofhair, and chroma-key systems (frequently used inweather studios) can add a shimmer,which magnifies thedistraction experienced by the viewer.

9. Clothes should be neat and well tailored, but not exces-sively bright or patterned. Is the story lost behind thewardrobe? The lines of the clothes should be clean,smooth and even vaguely bland.Material should be easy-care, to avoid visible wrinkling caused by normal use inthe office or on-camera. Clothes should reflect and fit inwith the culturally accepted norms of the viewers. Mostweather presenters will end up wearing microphones;these can tug or crease soft material and pull it out ofshape, leading to unsightly wrinkles which are them-selves magnified by the strong studio lighting. For thisreason, it is often advisable to wear tailored jackets on-air.

10. Do not touch your hair, face, nose etc on-camera.11. Eyes are of the utmost importance.The expressive poten-

tial of the face is primarily carried by and in the eyes. Thewearing of glasses should be avoided where possible; ifthey must be worn a very light frame (or frameless pair)

works best. The viewer needs to be able to see your eyes;eye contact is a fundamental element in person-to-person communication. Have you ever tried to talk tosomeone with his or her eyes covered?

12. Whilst on-air the camera eye line is important. If it’s notnatural and "right" – such that the presenter does notappear to be looking at the maps behind them – it can bevery distracting for the viewer, apart from the fact that itdestroys the illusion of the "chart-wall" created by the useof chroma-key. TV monitors need to be placed to thesides of the chroma-key screen, and at the right height,so that the illusion of "seeing" the maps is maintained.Ideally three monitors should be placed in the studiowith the presenter – one on either side of the chroma-keyscreen, and one directly in front of and slightly below thecamera (or preferably in an auto-cue head on the cameraitself).

13. The weather presenter must be aware of inadvertentlymaking distracting movements. At the beginning of thebroadcast, vague hand waving at a chart is not a decisiveintroduction. Hand motions should be slow, deliberateand exact. A presenter must allow the viewer time torecognize the information being indicated.

14. Don’t bring the problems of your life onto the screen.Theviewer should not know if you’re having a bad day. Takea few seconds before the broadcast to collect (and evenclear) your thoughts.Avoid negative sentences ("it reallywasn’t that bad out there today") – try to make theweather positive in some shape or form – except (obvi-ously) during severe weather.

15. Smile! But do try not to laugh or giggle.

16. Is the presenter "camera aware"? Actively understandingthat it is a two dimensional medium, that standing halfoff frame is like talking to someone without fully look-ing them in the eye. The presenter must not sway, or bob,or bounce around – some actions are magnified by thecamera and, equally, some actions are masked. Handmovements need to be slower and more deliberate thanin a personal conversation. Make sure that arm move-ments are not vague – "hand waving" during a broadcastcan give the impression that the presenter is trying to be




vague with the details, that they may not know the fore-cast thoroughly.

17. A presenter must chat with the camera. Not preach orteach, but have a conversation with it.Are they comfort-able doing this? Is it a forced, fake conversation?Remember that in essence you are entering the viewer’shome – try to be a welcome guest at all times; to projecta friendly, polite, interested and engaging demeanour.

18. The camera is the "other" person in a two-way conver-sation. Does the presenter engage the camera – so thatyou (as the viewer) feel drawn into the conversation?Does the presenter skilfully then draw your attention toand from the graphics as necessary? Remember that aviewer will not lose eye contact with a presenter untilthe presenter looks away (i.e. to the graphic); the act ofturning to the background and (apparently) looking atthe charts draws the attention of the viewer to thegraphic. Is this done naturally and effectively?

19. Is an emotional connection (with time) built up betweenthe viewer and the weather broadcaster? This is highlyadvantageous when attempting to build an audience.People stay with presenters (personalities) that appeal.The weather broadcaster should present "likeable"demeanour – inoffensive, easy to listen to and watch.

20. A presenter must have a good command of the language,but they must also learn to punctuate their thoughtsappropriately. Pausing in conversation is a natural way ofallowing the other person to absorb the information.

This is also true for television. Sentences should beclearly broken up with pauses. Avoid long, complicatedrun-on sentences. Finish one thought before going on tothe next.What may feel like an interminable time on-aircan actually translate into a brief period that allows theinformation to soak in.

21. Scripting - historically speaking, the weather presenta-tion is an unscripted portion of live television, deliveredby a forecaster. A presenter who is not a forecaster willusually work from a script prepared by, or agreed with,a forecaster. This presents a different type of challenge;people invariably read with a different voice to thenormal speaking voice – and a viewer does not want tohave the forecast "read" to them, they want to hear adescription and interpretation of the forecast. A rela-tively new and inexperienced weather presenter will tryto script the forecast so as not to miss any pertinentinformation, but should also aim to make the deliveryseem natural, with a flowing, conversational tone. Withtime the weather presenter should learn to identify keypoints (perhaps prompted through the autocue) thatneed to be stated, but the overall presentation should beunscripted. It is easier to maintain the flowing, conver-sational tone to the weathercast if there is no presetscript.

A brief synopsis – "Ten Guidelines of Good WeatherBroadcasting" – is given in Appendix 2.


15Chapter 7 — Developing personal skills in television weather presenting


In this chapter we will review separately all of the elementsthat may make up a television weather broadcast, giving somesuggestions as to best practice and some ideas, which mayhelp inform the construction of the weather bulletin. Not allof these ideas will find favour with, or even be relevant to,many users of this guide. There are substantial differences ofapproach to broadcast weather; indeed one could make asociological study of nations and / or cultures through themedium of weather bulletins. This is because these bulletinsoften cover the essence, or the specificity, of the country inquestion, and by examining weather bulletins from differentplaces we can see something of the differences betweenpeoples and cultures.

The manner of presenting weather is naturally guided bycharacteristics, which are readily understood by the audi-ence. One can be influenced by, for example, the weatherculture of the people; the level of their meteorological educa-tion; the religious values of the community; the impact ofthe weather on the activities of these people, etc. The contentswill normally need to be based around the traditional struc-ture of a weather bulletin, but may leave this path at times toemphasise elements or matter more specific to the interests ofthe public.

8.1 THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction to the broadcast is highly significant in thedissemination of weather information, as it is in all otherforms of communication. The introduction sets the tone; itannounces the flavour of the forecast, which can in it selfsummarise the type of weather to be expected. For example,the simple phrase "clear, cold and beautiful" conveys a strongmessage. It can allow those who don’t have the time (or theinclination) to view the entirety of the weather bulletin to getthe essence of the forecast. While avoiding any attempt atsensationalising the forecast the presenter should try to givea headline of the weather; either the weather, which hashappened, or the weather, which is expected. An example:"Good evening and welcome to our heat wave weather".

In the case where the weather – past or expected - is thecause of,or related to,serious difficulties for some of the view-ers, or has resulted in some unhappy event, the presenter willneed to communicate some sympathy with those viewers andlisteners. This empathy with those who have to suffer thispoor weather is normally achieved by adopting a serious tone;thus demonstrating some feeling and identification with thedifficulty or the misfortune which has occurred.

If a very significant improvement in the weather situa-tion – and its consequences - is expected, the presenter shouldemphasise this improvement by speaking in a very positiveway. In case of a happy event (the rain which arrives after along drought for example), the presenter should present in a

good mood with a positive, upbeat tone. In the contrary case- the sorry situation where the weather is likely to get worse- the presenter needs to consider a warning and if possiblemay give advice on protecting from the severe weather, or atleast on the avoidance of the worst of the conditions.

The introduction will be particularly difficult in ascenario where the forecast delivered on recent days hasturned out to be very wrong. It is not necessarily appropriatefor the weather presenter to apologise for the forecast, butthey should acknowledge that the information given wasmisleading, and show some empathy with those among theviewers who have suffered loss or serious inconvenience. Topresent to the public directly after an incorrect forecast (espe-cially where severe weather has occurred without beingcorrectly predicted) is perhaps the most difficult challenge ofall; it is an occasion which can either make or break the repu-tation of even an experienced and trusted weather presenter.Establishing the correct tone is of the utmost importance.

8.2 THE PRESENT WEATHER

The importance of this part of the presentation will dependupon the details of the synoptic situation, but also on theforecast.• If the weather is good, and is settled, one may deal with

the present weather briefly, without too much consider-ation;

• If the weather is good, but is expected to soon change,one can use this part of the bulletin to show the evolu-tion of the weather and how it will change rapidly;

• If the weather has been bad, and is expected to stay verypoor, then one will not spend too much time dealingwith what has already happened;

• If the weather is bad, and is expected to become evenworse, then the presenter must place a lot of emphasis onthe expected development.For this introductory part of the forecast the presenter

explains and communicates the situation with visual supportfrom charts, satellite and radar images etc as appropriate.

8.3 THE FORECAST WEATHER

Having established the current weather conditions thepresenter will then go on to explain the evolution of weatherover the coming hours or days.

8.3.1 Significant weather:

If the weather is expected to be severe, the presentation mustalways begin with an alert or warning. Whatever advice is

Chapter 8

ANATOMY OF A WEATHER BROADCAST

17Chapter 8 — Anatomy of a weather broadcast

necessary should be provided for the safety and security ofthe population, with the intensity of the phenomenon clearlyexplained, together with the expected location and time ofimpact. If it is not possible to be exact in the forecast asregards timing and intensity, then the presenter shouldcommunicate this with appropriate emphasis and intona-tion, as otherwise there is a risk of damage to credibility. Atime of severe weather is a time when a weather broadcastercan either enhance their reputation, or do it great damage,with a consequent impact on the reputation of the NMHS.

If, on the other hand, one has a very high level of confi-dence in the forecast then this is the time to be especiallyauthoritative in presenting the broadcast, thus making clearthat this forecast is quite certain.

If the weather phenomenon is one to be welcomed, thenit should be presented in an upbeat or positive way, so that thepresenter shares the sentiments of the viewers. If, on the otherhand, the expected weather is adverse then the forecastshould be presented in a sympathetic manner, which showsthat the presenter relates to the difficulties, which the condi-tions will cause for the viewers. The forecast should provideall necessary advice to help mitigate the worst effects of theweather, through helping people to be adequately prepared.

When presenting the significant weather the presentershould be fully aware of the need to refer to different regionsor cities; this helps greatly in the appreciation of the infor-mation in the forecast, and builds a stronger relationshipbetween the presenter and the audience.

8.3.2 Temperatures:

The forecast of temperatures will be one of the mainelements of the weather bulletin; the viewers will always bemost interested in the expected temperatures, and whetherthey are rising or falling in comparison to recent days. It canoften be the principal focus of interest of the forecast. Theminimum and maximum temperature ranges will normallybe given, but the presenter also needs to be aware of theeffects of humidity and wind in communicating whetherthe coming days will feel uncomfortably warm or excep-tionally cold. Extremes of heat and cold can have asignificant effect on human health (or can promote acci-dents, as with frost on roads) so it is important to be awareof temperature-related hazards. The European experienceof exceptionally high temperatures during the summer of2003 provides an instructive example of how what mightnormally be regarded, in context, as "good" weather (warmsunshine in the summer) can become very "bad" whentaken to extreme.

8.3.3 Winds:

There is a bewildering array of possible units with which toexpress wind speeds, from Beaufort Forces to miles-per-hour, kilometres-per-hour, metres-per-second, etc.Alternatively the speed of the wind can be illustrated graph-ically, without specific numbers, by sizing the wind arrow orsome such other device. There is also a question as to

whether or not gust speeds should be mentioned as well asmean speeds.

The weather presentation should employ units of windspeed that can be readily understood by the viewers andlisteners. This may result in different units being used forwinds over land (mph, kph) than over the sea (BeaufortForces are more normal for mariners). If the strength of thewind is likely to be high enough to pose dangers then gustspeeds should be highlighted, as it is normally the gusts thatinduce structural damage to buildings, or disrupt landtransport. The direction of the wind will often be ofsecondary importance to the general populace, but it maybe a vital piece of information for coastal communities, orfor those living in regions of significant local windfunnelling.

8.3.4 Marine Weather:

The sea is a challenging environment. The weather dictatesnot just the lives but also the livelihood of coastal commu-nities; their economies are normally heavily dependentupon fishing and other marine activities. While strongwinds over land can be inconvenient, they are usually notdangerous (unless they reach storm strength). At sea, onthe other hand, a strong breeze may pose a significanthazard to small craft.

A weather presenter in a maritime country shouldunderstand the needs of the fishing and coastal communi-ties, and should also be attentive to the needs of leisuresailors, especially at weekends and other times of height-ened marine activity. The weather presenter should ensurethat the forecast contains all of the necessary informationthat a fisherman or sailor might need before making a deci-sion as to whether or not to put to sea. Where possible thebroadcast might publicise a contact number (or a webaddress, for internet-based information) where more exten-sive detail on sea conditions could be made easily available.

A forecaster also needs to be aware of the conjunctionof fine weather and holiday times, when many people makeexcursions to the beach. Often the occasional beach visitorwill not understand the dangers of the sea as well as thosewho live close to the coast. There should be special empha-sis on marine hazards (wind, waves, fog) on such occasion.The opportunity might also be taken to publicise moregeneral water-safety advice relating to care needed whenswimming, windsurfing, dinghy sailing, etc.

8.3.5 Weather around the world:

There is always a tremendous interest in weather conditionsin other countries, and even other continents. With thegrowth of inexpensive air travel many people plan annualvacations or weekends away at very short notice. An interestmay also arise where family members are working or livingabroad, or perhaps even from some sporting or cultural eventthat is happening in another country.

A weather presenter should therefore take some time toproperly research actual and expected weather conditions in

other countries, and present them to the viewers in an appro-priate manner. The WMO web sites www.worldweather.organd severe.worldweather.org are tremendous resources inthis regard. Naturally, weather information for distant coun-tries will not be given the same emphasis, nor be presented inthe same detail, as the weather conditions for the "home"country; however an overview of international weather isnormally appreciated.

8.4 POSSIBLE ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS IN THEFORECAST PRESENTATION

8.4.1 Biometeorology:

In addition to presenting the "basic" elements of weather,temperature and wind a weather broadcaster can add valu-able extra information through the use of variousweather-related or weather-dependent indices. The use ofwind-chill temperatures is widespread (though not alwaysproperly understood) as a device to estimate the effect ofwind and low temperatures together on the human body. Atthe other end of the temperature scale, heat indices combinetemperature and humidity to give some measure of thediscomfort, which arises when both are very high.

The solar UV index is particularly important in forecastpresentations where a predominance of the viewers are fair-skinned, and thus at an enhanced risk of skin damage fromprolonged exposure to the sun. It is appropriate for inclusionin all forecasts of fine weather during the summer months,and in all forecasts for holiday destinations. Note that recentWHO guidelines now recommend the use of a simple UVindex – the Global Solar UV Index - rather thanthe use of "burn times" (see the web site www.who.int/medi-acentre/factsheets/who271/en/ for more details).The weatherbroadcaster is in a position to have a positive impact on thehealth of the viewers through appropriate promotion of sun-sensible behaviour.

Other indices or measures that might be considered asappropriate for the forecast presentation include those relat-

ing to air quality; to pollen concentrations (for hay-feversufferers); to tropospheric ozone and to the risk of forest fires.A full discussion of these and other biometeorological indicesis available in the "Guidelines on Biometeorology and airquality forecasts" (PWS-10, TD No. 1184, 2004) availablefrom WMO.

8.4.2 Astronomical information:

The weather broadcast is often the best place to provideinformation about astronomical data; this data does notstrictly belong to the business of meteorology,but in the mindof many viewers all these things are connected.

Information, therefore, such as the time of sunrise andsunset; the phase of the moon (and perhaps also the risingand setting time of the moon) can be included in the weatherbroadcast – often at the end, after the discussion of theweather itself. This information can be very sensitive, andmuch appreciated, in cultures and communities where reli-gious practices (time of prayer, fasting etc) are governed bythe appearance of the moon, or by the times of sunrise andsunset.

Tidal information is also of great importance, and thetime of high and low tide in particular locations can be veryuseful information to present. The weather itself may, ofcourse, have the effect of making the tide especially highwhen the normal astronomical tide is enhanced by a combi-nation of strong onshore winds, high swell, and very lowatmospheric pressure. The presenter should be aware of thetimes of high tides (especially the unusually high "spring"tides) and should be alive to the dangers of coastal floodingwhen the weather conditions are likely to add to the "normal"tide height.

8.4.3 Communication plus – extra elements to beconsidered:

As the creed is "to communicate information on the weather",the weather broadcaster could attempt to gradually injectingredients or aspects of weather information, which willassist the audience in identifying with the presenter moreeffectively. The examples are numerous.

18 Guidelines on weather broadcasting and the use of radio for the delivery of weather information

A simple weather graphics system

A simple weather studio

19Chapter 8 — Anatomy of a weather broadcast

1. It may be useful to employ music (normally a "musicbed"; that is, music played at a low level behind the voiceof the presenter, or played while the presenter is neitherin vision nor providing a voice-over). The music mightbe selected according to the type of weather, or somestyle of music, which relates to the day of the week or thetime of the year.

2. It is possible to create a page or image related to theweather, or a frame in which are expressed subjectswhich are of interest to the public and which can berelated to current happenings (weather or non-weather).The public perception of weather is of a phenomenonwell beyond the bounds of scientific meteorology; animage of a weather-related sport or activity can some-times make a point more effectively than thepresentation of the bare facts.

3. It may also be possible to use this opportunity to includesome educational material, which will improve theunderstanding of the viewers of some aspects of theweather.

8.4.4 Duration of weather bulletins:

The duration of the weather bulletin is normally of the orderof two or three minutes, but it may vary according to the situ-ation, and to the ability of the broadcast company to scheduleor allow variable times, on occasion.1. When the weather is settled, and is not forecast to

change, it may be useful to present a concise bulletin,which just gives the principal weather features of signif-icant weather, temperature, and also the extra elementssuch as sunrise, sunset, etc.

2. Another approach in such a scenario is to use the extratime to engage in some educational activity or explana-tion.

3. If the time is short, but the weather story is significant,the presenter might reduce the complexity of the broad-cast - for example by using simpler transitions betweencharts, or by dropping satellite animations. In this casethe focus needs to be directly on the forecast. Tell thestory in fewer words; cut out all that is unnecessary.

4. A long weather bulletin also poses challenges; it allowsthe weather presenter to put in a lot of information, butat the risk of losing the viewer through boredom or lackof interest. It is more difficult in preparing and present-ing a long weather bulletin to identify and maintain the"thread" which ties the weather story together.

8.4.5 Some Concluding Points:

The aim of this chapter is to develop ideas, structures anddirections that will help the weather service, and more partic-ularly the weather broadcaster, to develop and build a strongconnection with the viewer. The fact that there is a weatherpresentation every day (or many times a day) on television oron radio improves the opportunity for the presenter to createthat strong connection or link. Over-familiarity, however, canlead to disinterest among the viewers. If the public becomebored with, or lose confidence in the presenter then the repu-tation of the weather forecast – and the associated NMHS -will inevitably suffer.

Good weather broadcasting is built on good science, butmust employ some of the techniques of education, psychol-ogy, even marketing and public relations to be entirelysuccessful. It requires constant effort to keep the forecastpresentation fresh, interesting and relevant.

Uncertainty is an ingredient inherent in the forecast process.Forecasters are very familiar with the question of uncertaintyand predictability and must deal with it every time a forecastis formulated. Sometimes the available models or other guid-ance are consistent in their predictions and the forecaster isconsequently confident of the outcome. At other times themodels may differ greatly or the weather parameter may beintrinsically difficult to forecast; nevertheless, a forecast mustbe made, and presented to the public, even when the confi-dence is low.

An extra challenge faced by forecasters is that althoughthere might be quite a high level of uncertainty in a forecast,when presenting it they need to appear sure. It has taken aperiod of continuous improvement in both the science ofmeteorology and the presentation of forecasts to arrive at astage where weather broadcasters are a trusted source of infor-mation. It is therefore important not to overemphasiseuncertainty in such a way that users lose trust in the value ofthe forecast, but rather to educate users that the forecast theyreceive is the best possible prediction derived from a variety ofpossibilities.

Strategies for addressing the issue of communicating fore-cast uncertainty have been, or are being, developed by manyNMHSs. This has been recognised by the WMO PublicWeather Services Expert Team on Product Development andService Assessment who have recently reported1 on theincreasing availability of ensemble prediction systems; prod-ucts which have opened up new possibilities in probabilisticforecasting.

As these products are developed, it is important to beaware of some of the possible pitfalls. For example, meteorol-ogists - as scientists - are quite comfortable with uncertaintyand the language of probabilities. This is not the case for thegeneral public and so there is a significant risk of misunder-standing.

The conventional text-based forecast offers very littleopportunity for expressing uncertainty. There is limited spacein the forecast, it is not easy for recipients to absorb every wordthat is there,and it can take the forecaster a long time to get thewords ‘just right’. One possible solution is to devise a simplenumerical scale for confidence, and attach it to all forecasts.This idea is not new! In an article published in MonthlyWeather Review in 1906,W.E.Cooke offered a 5-point scale fordescribing confidence:

5 We may rely upon this with almost absolute certainty4 We may rely upon this with tolerable certainty, but

may be wrong about once in ten times3 Very doubtful. More likely right than wrong, but

probably wrong about four times out of ten 2 Just possible, but not likely. If showers are indicated,

for example, they will not be heavy even if they occurat all

1 The barest possibility. Not at all likely

A forecast might thus read: Southwest district: Fineweather throughout (5) except in the extreme southwestwhere a few light coastal showers are possible (2). Warminland (4), with a cool change expected on the west coast (3).

This is a very technical manner of presentation thatrequires thought and effort on the part of the forecast user. Itmay be useful in a written forecast, supplied through a news-paper or on a web site, but it is unlikely to be of practical usein the context of a forecast on radio or television.

Another way to express uncertainty is to include in theforecast the next most likely scenario as well as the expectedone.This allows users to make ‘back-up’plans.Although mostusers simply want a single forecast on which to base theirdecisions, other users with more specialised needs can getvalue from knowing what the alternatives might be. This isespecially true for emergency managers who need to knowalternative and worst-case scenarios so that they can plantheir resources with all contingencies covered and do nothave ‘all their eggs in one basket’.

Expressing forecasts in a probabilistic fashion is acommon way of communicating uncertainty, and is a wide-spread practice. It is important that the probabilities are basedon objective scientific techniques, so that they are reliable,trustworthy and well calibrated to the true probability distri-bution of the phenomena in question. If the probabilities aretoo subjective, and influenced by forecasters’ opinion and‘hunches’, then they will not be accepted by users and maycome to be regarded as simply a case of the forecaster ‘play-ing it safe’.

This is an emerging area for broadcasters,and one,whichwill undoubtedly see much development in the coming years.The focus of this chapter of the publication, therefore, is onthe rising use of probabilistic and other methods for commu-nicating uncertainty to the public through the media, and onhighlighting some of the key issues that will need to be recog-nised and addressed in the near future.

9.1 USER UNDERSTANDING

This is perhaps the most pressing issue for those wishing toprovide forecasts in probabilistic terms. What do usersunderstand by a forecast that there is, say, a 30% chance ofrain? Does it mean that there is a 30% chance of rain at sometime within the forecast period, or that it will rain for 30% ofthe time, or that it will rain continuously over 30% of theforecast area? Forecasters may intend it to mean the first ofthese three options, but they may be surprised at the range ofinterpretations amongst users. The forecast itself will carry a

Chapter 9

COMMUNICATING UNCERTAINTY IN THE PRESENTATION

OF WEATHER INFORMATION

1 Report on meeting of WMO Public Weather Services Expert Team on

Product Development and Service Assessment, Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia, 22-26 September 2003, available on the PWS web page.

different meaning in a convective synoptic situation to thatimplied when the forecast rain is geographically widespread.

There is also an important question about the perceivedsignificance of particular values or thresholds of probability.This perception can be strongly influenced by the impor-tance of decisions that are made based on that value, ratherthan on the objective value of the number itself. For example,a 10% chance of being struck by a tropical cyclone may seemto the public like a low probability and therefore not worthresponding to. However, given the serious consequences of animpact, this level of complacency may not be appropriate. Ifpassengers were advised that the plane they were aboard hada 10% chance of crashing, then the response would be farfrom complacent!

Normally, users of weather forecasts seek categoricalpredictions rather than probabilistic ones.Will it rain or won’tit? When a forecast is given in probability terms, then the usermay still interpret it categorically, deliberately or subcon-sciously.For example,a forecast of a 20% chance of rainfall maydiscourage someone to hold an outdoors event,whereas a fore-cast of an 80% chance of fine weather may encourage them todo the opposite; yet the meaning contained within both fore-casts is the same.This is a good example of a situation when themanner of presentation of the information carries more weightthan the substance of the information itself.

One possible way to explain the significance of certainprobability values is to express them in the form of compar-isons with average or climatological values,e.g."There is a 60%chance of rainfall tomorrow. This is twice the normal likeli-hood for this time of year". A difficulty with this approach isthat users need to have a sense of what the normal likelihoodis, so that they can get the full meaning from the forecast. Analternative approach is to couch the forecast in terms ofcomparison with recent weather; an example would be thestatement "while the showers lasted for an hour or two thisafternoon, and were rather sporadic, showers will probably bemore widespread and frequent tomorrow,although again theyare most likely to develop during the afternoon".

How then to attune the public to the meaning of proba-bilities? For any forecast or warning service that utilisesprobabilities, careful public education is required to ensurethat the information is not misunderstood. For specialisedusers, with well-established decision procedures for certainprobability thresholds,this education task may not be too diffi-cult. But for the general public, with a wide variety ofunderstandings and interpretations, the task is significantlymore challenging. It may take many years of dedicated publiceducation before a consistent and accurate understandingdevelops, within the general community, of what probabilitiesactually mean.

And of course,forecasters and weather broadcasters them-selves must have a clear understanding. How can they beexpected to explain probabilities to the public if they do notproperly understand the concepts themselves?

9.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF UNCERTAINTYINFORMATION:

Information about forecast uncertainty can be communicatedin both quantitative and qualitative terms:

• Quantitatively: as an explicit number (e.g. Probability ofPrecipitation) or a range of numbers.A worded scale (suchas Low / Medium / High) may also be used which isdefined according to specified probability ranges.Quantitative values of probability may also form the basisof more sophisticated forms of presentation such as trop-ical cyclone track prediction ‘cones’ that show forecastuncertainty as an envelope of possibility;

• Qualitatively: sometimes the most effective way tocommunicate uncertainty is descriptively, through thespoken word. This allows the forecaster to elaborate onthe situation and explain in qualitative terms the degreeof uncertainty and the sources of this uncertainty (suchas the various atmospheric models not being in agree-ment). Although this approach is less useful forspecialised users who make decisions based on speci-fied probability thresholds, it can be quite helpful foradvising the general public how much confidence toplace in the forecast that is being made. It is also a usefulapproach for describing possible scenarios (e.g. "If thatlow pressure moves over there by midweek – and thereis some chance of that happening – then that will bringa strong Northerly airflow over the country and we willsee bright sunshine mixed in with some sharp showers").Non-verbal cues such as body language, emphasis, andtone of voice can also contribute to the effective commu-nication of this information,although the effectiveness ofthis may vary from country to country and culture toculture. A range of different formats are utilised for thepresentation of forecast uncertainty and confidenceinformation, from simple numbers and tables of proba-bility values to graphical maps and charts.

A common format for presenting quantitative predictionsis contour maps of probability. Seasonal predictions arepresented in this way by many NMHSs.

As mentioned above it is very easy for some users tomisinterpret these as categorical forecasts. This is espe-cially true for the media who are often looking for a short and simple message. For example, where an area is shownas having a 60% or greater chance of the phenomenaoccurring, this can be interpreted as a forecast that thephenomena is expected to happen; in fact it is expectedthat it will not happen 4 times in 10. The implication againis that the use of probability forecasts requires very carefuluser education.

Or the alternatives can be overlain numerically. Forexample, the Kenya Meteorological Department includeprobability values for above average, average and belowaverage on top of their seasonal forecast maps.

9.3 CONCLUDING POINTS:

As the use of uncertainty and confidence information inPublic Weather Services and products continues to grow itwill be important to monitor developments and identifythe strengths and weaknesses of the various approachesthat are used to communicate this information. Visuals,graphics and animations have an important part to play inimparting uncertainty in weather broadcasts on television.

21Chapter 9 — Communicating uncertainty in the presentation of weather information


Storm probability

60%20%

20%

No storm Severe storm Non-severe storm

Probability cone showing potential danger areas up to 72 hours ahead corresponding to 60% track probability – Hurricane‘Georges’, September 1998 (source: Cuban National Forecasting Center, Institute of Meteorology)

One effective way of ensuring that users recognise that a prob-ability forecast for an event implicitly includes a probability forthe non-event is to present the forecast as a pie chart.

Seasonal Climate Outlook showing chance of exceeding median rainfall for the next three months (source: National ClimateCentre, Australian Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology)

The use of colour, shading, fuzzy edges, shifting stormtracks and consequential changes in impact areas, errorbars etc all offer possibilities for the presentation ofweather information in a manner that emphasises and,perhaps, defines some of the inherent uncertainties.

The over-riding consideration, however, is that careand thought are needed to present and explain forecastuncertainty in ways that do not confuse users, particularlythe general public and the media who serve them.

23Chapter 9 — Communicating uncertainty in the presentation of weather information

Seasonal Forecast issued by Kenya Meteorological Department for March – May 2002 showing probability of above, nearand below average seasonal rainfall (source: Kenya Meteorological Department)

The preceeding chapters of these guidelines dealt with the"soft" elements of weather broadcasting and presentation;those elements dealing with the negotiation of relationshipsbetween NMHS and broadcaster, with the design considera-tions that must be borne in mind when attempting tocommunicate complex information visually, and with thepersonal skills needed to mediate this information to theviewer. This chapter will focus on the "hardware" issues;examining the different levels of weather graphics technologyand how these interface with NMHS systems, looking atevolving communications technologies and the possibilitiesthey offer; stressing the new challenges for NMHSs in meet-ing the increasingly voracious appetite for Public WeatherServices products and services; examining the future WMOInformation System (WIS) and how it might be structured tohelp NMHSs to meet these new challenges, and consideringhow best an NMHS might marry its meteorological expertisewith the Information and Communication Technology (ICT)skills required to create all-round quality in service deliveryto the end-user. Appendix 3 considers some of the relevantemerging communications technologies in greater detail.

10.1 WEATHER GRAPHICS TECHNOLOGY AND INTERFACE

Weather products for the general public need to be capableof being easily assimilated, appropriate to the intended usergroup, and appropriate to the medium of communication. Inthis discussion the major emphasis will be on television,where the message is conveyed through a combination ofpictures and graphics, movement, personality and speech –the use of text is very limited. For radio, the message is trans-mitted through speech alone. A more comprehensiveconsideration of the use of radio in weather broadcasting isprovided later in this publication. For newspapers, text,graphics and pictures can be used. In web publishing, text,graphics and pictures are also used, but movement in the

graphics can be employed; audio and video clips are possiblebut may not be practical or appropriate because of the slowresponse times. These differences need to be borne in mind;this document aims to provide help with the commonfeatures of all media work. It will concentrate on television,and will not cover the unique aspects of the other media.

10.1.1 Technology as a tool – a balance between themessage and visuals

Technology continues to develop apace, especially graphicstechnology, driven primarily by the computer games market.However, the exploitation of graphics technology may not ofitself be beneficial; the attractiveness offered by visual effectsshould be employed to enhance the message, and not toobscure or distort it in any way. What appears attractive toprofessionals working in graphics, in television or in meteo-rology may be simply confusing to the general public. Oneshould use peer review and market research techniques tojudge whether the message is being conveyed clearly andeffectively. There is also a need to innovate to prevent theappearance of a presentation from becoming stale; some-thing which can also militate against adequateunderstanding.

10.1.2 Use of general purpose software packages andthe range of capability

The essential features of any media weather forecast are thatit is:• delivered on time, every time, to the media company,• that it has the agreed properties (see Chapter 3 under

editorial policy) such as:- duration (for television and radio),- size (for print),- number and types of images,- appropriate introduction and finish.

Chapter 10

GUIDELINES ON DISSEMINATION TECHNOLOGY

Traditional Analysis

Preparation Desk

25Chapter 10 — Guidelines on dissemination technology

Software and hardware maintenance, and backup proce-dures, should be carefully considered in the light of availableresources as these tasks may pose a considerable challenge foran NMHS.

The use of general-purpose software packages is anoption for keeping costs down while providing good relia-bility. For example, MS PowerPoint is commonly availableand well known, and can be used to generate a presentation.Television companies will normally be able to employ this(although it is not something they would necessarily expectto use, except in an emergency). Linking a PowerPoint tableto a spreadsheet gives a simple way of automatically updatinga graphic of, for example, city temperatures. Other softwarepackages will give smoother presentations than PowerPoint,e.g. Scala Iplay Studio. Some of these packages are availableat minimal cost as shareware.

Preparation of images and sequences for television canbe done effectively using other commonly available softwarepackages. Encarta World Atlas is a good source of maps.Photographic editing packages (Photoshop, Corel Draw) canbe used to manipulate these maps to highlight areas, and canbe used to generate animated gif files for symbols such asclouds. Both photographic editing packages and presentationpackages (PowerPoint, Scala Iplay Studio) can be used toprepare complete images, either by modifying and adding toimages drawn from other sources (e.g. satellite photos), or byadding to a base map. If this preparatory work is done in aphotographic editing package, then the images will need to beassembled in a presentation package to facilitate visualizationon television.

The difference between what can be achieved by suchgeneric and widely-available software, such as that outlinedabove, and presentations generated by dedicated meteoro-logical media workstations, as described below in 10.1.4,relates primarily to the manual effort required in preparingthe presentation, and to the achievable quality in the creationof some of the more sophisticated graphics features.

Using the sort of basic system described here, imagesmay be "grabbed" from other systems, in particular fromforecaster workstations. Satellite images are a visually attrac-tive and easily understood element in many presentations.These may be copied from other systems, such as theMeteosat Second Generation workstations provided underthe Meteosat Transition in Africa Project, from the Internet,or even from the RANET (Radio and Internet) broadcast

over WorldSpace radio. With regards to usage of these lattermaterials, more details and information can be found onwww.ranet2000.org – the web site of the RANET project.

10.1.3 A simple ready-to-broadcast/print package fordeveloping NMHSs

Having prepared a weather presentation, the next problem isto deliver it to the media in a useable form. For print media,the presentation will usually be saved in one of the standardelectronic formats, and may be sent by any number of waysof transferring files - such as disks delivered by hand, ftp oremail (though email may be subject to unpredictable delays).Fax is not generally suitable because of the poor quality ofimage reproduction.

For radio and television, one of the key questions iswhether the broadcast company provides the studio, orwhether the studio is physically located in the NMHS. If thepresentation is to be delivered live, then it is likely that the tele-vision or radio company will provide the studio and, fortelevision, will provide also the facilities to visualize thepresentation graphics. The reliability problem is thereforereduced to ensuring that the information required for thepreparation of weather graphics is delivered in good time,and that the weather broadcaster attends punctually at thestudio.

In many places, especially in developing countries, theavailability of studio, camera and visualization facilities atthe premises of the broadcaster may be difficult, and it can bebetter for the NMHS to have, in-house, the ability to recorda broadcast, so that it can be delivered directly to the broad-caster on videotape.

At a very basic level, using software as described above,a standard personal computer SVGA output can be fed intoa scan converter to change it to broadcast video, which can inturn be fed into a DVCam recorder. A voice track may beadded via a microphone (a good-quality microphone shouldalways be used). In an emergency, the DVCam recorder couldeven be replaced by a Super VHS recorder. Some PCs (espe-cially recent laptops) have an S-Video output, which doesaway with the need for a separate scan converter.

For television, an on-screen presenter implies the need tohave a studio equipped with camera, lights, and means todisplay the graphics. A widely used device is the chroma-keysystem. This combines the image from the camera with thatfrom the graphics computer, substituting elements of theimage from the graphics computer everywhere the chroma-key mixer detects the background colour, (normally eitherblue or green). Experience indicates that a "full quality"broadcast camera is not always necessary, since the presenterremains at fixed focus. However for good chroma-key reso-lution a three-chip camera should be employed, rather thanthe single-chip of most domestic digital video cameras. Thechroma-key mixing may be provided by either a suitablevideo mixer or a specific chroma-key unit. However, it shouldbe noted that if a video mixer is employed the vast majorityof the other facilities it offers, such as wipes and fades, willnever be used - these will all be done on the graphicscomputer by the software of the presentation. The addedcomplexity may be a risk.

Simple weather graphics system-rear view

Exact placement of the lights is very important in ensur-ing a good chroma-key effect, and it is worth puttingconsiderable effort into ensuring an optimum set-up. Astudio will need air conditioning to cope with the heat fromthe lights (cold cathode lights are available, but very expen-sive). There is a recent device, which uses a ring of highintensity blue LEDs mounted round the camera lens coupledwith a reflective screen behind the presenter for generatingthe chroma-key signal. This arrangement reduces thenumber of lights required, is easier to set up, and potentiallymore reliable.

One monitor showing the mixed image is usually set upwhere the presenter can see it, typically above or below thecamera. Additional monitors can be placed to the side, butpresenters should then be aware of the need to regularly lookforward towards the camera (and thus retain eye contact withthe viewers).

More sophisticated systems might use an autocue for thescript, and back-projection of a faint image on the blue orgreen screen to help the presenter in locating details of inter-est on the graphics. In a simple system a few map pins aresufficient and, carefully selected, should not be visible to theviewer. Highly sophisticated systems will arrange the cameraand lights to the precise positions and settings that are bestfor each individual presenter.

10.1.4 More sophisticated weather graphics packagesfor media use

Weather graphics packages for broadcast media are availablefrom a number of suppliers, either as specific packages or asadd-ons to forecaster workstations. These generate imagesfrom the meteorological data (e.g. GRIB files) but display thedata in ways, which are more accessible to a general audi-ence, e.g. wind arrows to indicate the strength by varying thewidth and/or length of the arrow, rather than by the meteo-rologically standard feathers. Attributes such as colours andtype of image may be set up beforehand by a file of charac-teristics, which set the default appearance of the presentation;the forecaster then modifies these to suit the particularweather situation. In this way, the "look and feel" (see edito-rial policy) of a presentation may be set up as a style, andmultiple styles can be applied to the basic weather presenta-tion for use by a number of different channels.

These packages will include a section for playing out thepresentation to air, or onto videotape. Packages may alsoinclude the ability to drive an autocue system.

In some systems, it is possible to package the file detail-ing the style of the presentation together with the data for theimages, and the script, and send these electronically to a slavesystem at the television company, ready for a non-meteoro-logical presenter to "front". Some systems can be set up togenerate the presentation automatically at scheduled times;typically these are suitable for news or weather channels withfrequent repeat broadcasts, such as 24-hour services.Automatically generated presentations may also be used togenerate simple broadcasts for use overnight, with morecomprehensive broadcasts prepared by a forecaster fordaytime and evening use.

Some systems incorporate the ability to manipulateimages for broadcast within the system software; in othersthis is done more effectively by transferring the image to astandard photo or publishing editing package (such asPhotoshop), modifying it there, and transferring back intothe presentation software; new images can also be added thisway.

10.1.5 Internet resources that may be valuable in thepreparation and enhancement ofweather broadcasts.

Internet resources for media weather presentations can beconsidered under two distinct headings. The first is the use ofthe Internet to obtain basic meteorological informationwhich is not available through other sources. This can beimportant for backup. One could use, for example, theMétéo-France Synergie web version, or the SADIS back-upservice to generate images on a server and then capture themfrom the browser. Satellite images are available from anumber of sources.

The second use is as a resource for preparing images thatare not directly "meteorological". Much potentially usefulsoftware is available (e.g. Lunar Phase Pro for moon phaseimages) as well as other valuable information. One mightrefer to significant local events during a presentation, forwhich on-line newspapers or the web site http://www.inter-faithcalendar.org/ are worthwhile sources. Care should be


Turning weather charts into graphics

Chroma key screens can be either green or blue

taken over copyright and licensing issues, particularly in theuse of photographs and software.

The RANET (Radio and Internet) broadcast over theWorldSpace satellite carries some satellite images, basic mete-orological charts and cities lists. Because this does notdepend on any other communications infrastructure, or onthe availability of landlines, it can be used in remote areaswhere nothing else is available – or as a back up when otherlinks have failed.

10.1.6 Interfacing with television networks underdifferent working arrangements

There is a range of options in working with televisionnetworks,most of which will have implications for the NMHSin providing and setting up hardware, and in establishingstaffing arrangements. One is the "fully independent" optionwhere the television company employs their own forecastersand their own graphics preparation and presentationsystems, using data from the NMHS (in addition, perhaps, todata from other sources). This is a simple option for theNMHS to support, but gives them little say in the content.Atthe other end of the spectrum the NMHS could prepare thepresentation as a broadcast-ready tape using their own facil-ities – this gives the NMHS a high degree of control, but alsorequires significant investment; investment which might beunder-utilised or which could even be wasted if the NMHSloses the contract with the broadcaster, or the televisioncompany declines to use the service for some other reason.

10.2 EVOLVING AND EMERGINGCOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

10.2.1 More mobile / time-specific / location-specificproducts

The rapid development in the IT world is an inescapable fact;this development will inevitably continue with ever-increas-ing pace. Demands from society for new and improvedweather products and enhanced information will alsocontinue, putting new requirements on NMHSs to meet thatdemand. People/customers already expect that they canaccess their weather product:• wherever they want;• whenever they want;

• very locally if necessary; and• pushed out to them when new information is available

and/or when weather parameters reach or are expectedto reach critical levels.NMHSs need to keep abreast of developments in

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) evenif the effort required might be stressful, costly andresource-hungry. These developments offer an NMHS newopportunities to disseminate weather information and reachout to their target groups in a much more flexible way. It isof vital importance that NMHSs re-organize or re-structuretheir organisation as necessary so that they can meet thecontinuous need for re-adjustment and re-design ofweather products. This can mean investments, both of timeand of knowledge, that are far too much for a small ormedium-sized NMHS to handle. NMHSs could considerdeveloping co-operative agreements or partnership withcompanies and organisations that have the requisite techni-cal know-how, for example the IT sector and/or universities.

Saving life and mitigating damage to property is theprincipal goal of an NMHS.Achievement of this goal impliesthat weather information should reach the affected popula-tion as soon as possible and with as much accuracy aspossible. If an NMHS is able to combine new ICT with theirexpertise in weather analysis and forecasting, there aretremendous opportunities to enhance the value of weatherproducts and information in the saving of life and the preven-tion of unnecessary damage to property.

10.2.2 More multi-media / multi-language channels andpersonalised / tailor-made delivery

New technology, and new expectations from the users of newtechnology, creates a demand on the supplier of weatherinformation (the NMHS) that they be more flexible in theirability to transmit data and weather information. Specifically,the NMHSs should be able to send the data/information:• in differing formats;• in resolution appropriate to the medium;• through different distribution channels; and• to different technical systems/solutions utilised by end

users.


Weather graphics operation

Weather satellite graphics


Society, principally through the operation of markets,requires that it be able to access the same informationthrough many different means of communication, such astelevision, web, mobile phone or other fixed or mobiledevices. People themselves are more mobile now in theconduct of their daily lives, desire the freedom of choicebetween a variety of languages, and have a greater need to getlocation and application specific information. On the otherhand, as the end products become more diversified in appli-cations and usage, it is also essential for organisations, whichsupply weather information (be they public-sector NMHSsor private sector companies) to adopt a branding style or"look and feel" to project a consistent and recognisable image.Weather products provided by broadcast organisations, forexample, will normally carry the same "look" independent ofwhether the information is provided on-line, on a next gener-ation mobile phone, or on the television screen.

It would be advisable for an NMHS to avoid going intoa dead-end by focusing on weather products, which aredependent upon a specific technical system or solution. In arapidly changing world, those products will hardly survivefor long and cannot normally be "re-used". "Re-use" isimportant to keep costs down and to build sufficient produc-tive capacity at the NMHS. It is advisable for NMHSs to tryto move their thinking from developing isolated productionlines for specific end products, and to focus instead on creat-ing the best possible data and information base. Thatdatabase could then be used to feed the different technolo-gies (systems/solutions) that produce end products (graphic,text, voice etc.) for the different target groups. Those systemscould be inside the NMHS ownership and knowledge, orthey may be outsourced.

10.2.3 Implications for the design, packaging anddelivery of weather information

Text messages such as SMS are a very efficient means of trans-mitting short and timely messages to users with mobilephones, either on demand or as an emergency alert. Nextgeneration mobile communication systems will be capable oftransmitting and receiving graphics, voice and text in a simi-lar way to television; some existing systems already have thiscapability.

The trend towards the mass use of different kind ofmobile devices to receive weather products/information willincrease the need for:• more compressed, compact weather data/information• more time-specific and location-specific information.

To facilitate the delivery of weather information to nextgeneration mobile devices, new standards for data and proto-cols will be required, as well as more efficient means of datapackaging. One example of a possible solution is the use ofXML, an open standard for data exchange between differentcomputer systems over the Internet. XML is a meta-language,which allows the language to describe itself throughthe use of an XML Schema. A web service is a kind of distrib-uted computing technology over the Internet, similar to XMLin many respects and used for the exchange of data betweencomputer systems. It is based on the client-server applica-

tion model. More details of the emerging technologies can befound in Appendix 3.

Meteorological content remains essential in exploringsuch new opportunities. The new communication systemssupport the vision of giving target groups the informationthey need in the easiest and most informative way. Thesystem is a tool to deliver the message in ways that are easilyunderstood and used, but the limitations on that informationshould also be made known (see, for example, the discus-sion of probability forecast earlier). NMHSs should ensurethey understand the possibilities that the communicationsystems offer. For this they should have a database of mete-orological information, of the highest possible quality, in themost flexible form (standard format, convertible, compress-ible). They should also develop knowledge and skills in theapplication of their information to user needs.

Changes and developments in technology offer newpossibilities to the NMHSs of developing countries. They canavoid investing in, and implementing, technologies that are indecline (e.g. fax) and may have new opportunities to workwith development projects, especially ICT for poverty reduc-tion and sustainable development (ref: World Summit on theInformation Society).

10.3 POOLING AND MOBILIZATION OFRESOURCES

10.3.1 The Ingredients of a good Weather Programme

In early days the daily weather programme on television wassimply some observations and forecast numbers or icons ona hand-drawn weather chart. It is fair to say that an audiencenowadays expects more in terms of a well-presented weatherstory in support of a reliable forecast.

The basic meteorological ingredients that need to beassembled in the preparation of a properly informativeweather programme would probably include the followingitems:(a) severe weather warnings (where relevant)(b) coverage of surface weather data, dense enough to

produce high-resolution regional weather maps (e.g.temperature or rainfall distribution) through a combi-nation of SYNOPS or regional mesoscale observationalnetworks;

(c) high-quality satellite or radar images, still or animated,overlaid with a good base map clearly marked withcoastline, national or regional boundaries;

(d) availability of NWP data for the plotting of forecastweather charts or, failing that, some visual representationof prognostic charts from available NWP models;

(e) the availability of official forecasts for cities.

10.3.2 Challenges for NMHSs

In the case of NMHSs that operate their own radars andhave their own satellite reception systems the obstacles toovercome are basically the post-processing works thatinclude the overlay of base maps, clear annotation of


geographical locations and weather systems, and the visualimprovement of images to make them more camera-friendly for television presentation. Notwithstanding allthe sophisticated glamour normally associated withimpressive images, or the eye-catching animation technol-ogy involved, it needs to be recognized that an adequaterepresentation of what is happening locally in terms ofweather, as mentioned in item (b) of Section 3.1 above, isprobably even more news-worthy and captivating. It is thislocal weather information, which relates to the immediateexperience of the audience within their local environment,and through it establishes a rapport with them as we looktogether to the continuing evolution of weather patterns. Ifthe viewers consider the weather presenter knowledgeableenough in regard to the current situation, then they aremore likely to put their trust in him or her on the trickiermatter of the not-always-foreseeable future.

NMHSs therefore need to extend every effort in settingup and maintaining a functional and reliable local observa-tion network. It is also useful, and mutually beneficial, toexchange the collected data with neighbouring NMHSsthrough regional collaboration arrangements, or disseminatesuch data worldwide for use elsewhere. The advantages aremanifold and far-reaching:(a) a broader perspective allows the viewers to

develop a better appreciation and understanding ofthe possible weather scenarios that may be comingtheir way;

(b) a broader perspective also allows the viewers to appreciate what could have happened if a failed fore-cast or warning had been correct, especially if theanticipated weather event failed to materialize locallybut did occur just across the border by a marginaldistance;

(c) a good coverage of local or regional weather informationwill help to:

(i) attract support from the public,(ii) create demands from areas not yet covered,(iii) provide information and statistics on record-breaking,

these are much sought after by the media,(iv) establish a positive image for the NMHS, and (v) hence improve the likelihood of receiving support from

central government for the funding of maintenance anddevelopment works.The trend of globalization and of a much more mobile

population means that the scope of weather information thatneeds to be covered is likely to extend further a field, to caterfor the needs of an increasingly transient society. Weatherand forecasts for cities worldwide, as well as severe weatherwarnings for specific regions, are now part and parcel of themajority of weather programmes. In the spirit of the one-voice principle, official forecasts and warnings fromparticipating NMHSs are now provided through the officialWMO web sites WWIS (World Weather Information Service)and SWIC (Severe Weather Information Centre). These website resources are managed primarily by the Hong KongObservatory, and further technical information relating tothe web sites can be obtained by contacting the Observatorystaff at [email protected] or [email protected].

10.3.3 Challenges facing the WMO Community

For NMHSs that do not have the capacity to run their ownNumerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models, operate theirown radars or receive satellite images, as well as for NMHSsthat require extra material on an irregular basis for thepurpose of "putting up a good show", there is a need toconsider means whereby, in the future, they can readily accessexternal sources to retrieve useful information and content.

In reviewing the items listed at the end of 10.3.1 above,high-resolution NWP data that enable the plotting of forecastweather charts, and satellite images to visualize the weathersystems at play, constitute products that would add substan-tially to the quality of weather broadcasts. In the context ofcapacity building for developing countries, major modellingcentres and satellite operating agencies should be encour-aged to release and make freely available, either on a global ora regional basis, selected products in formats that can be read-ily translated into camera-ready images. As an example, userscan request products from the general purpose Synergieserver, operated by Météo-France, which can be prepared insome prescribed manner, with the products then displayedfor reference using a browser over the Internet.A pilot projectis also planned for RAII in which numerical guidance forselected locations and cities, from major NWP centres, will beprovided to the respective NMHSs for their reference and forthe formulation of forecasts.

Building on this approach, if ready-to-broadcast prod-ucts can be pre-generated at a far-end dedicated server, thenit is just a matter of grabbing the images from the screen asinput material for television presentation. Such an approachcan, In the years to come, assist NMHSs in developing coun-tries enhance their weather broadcast products and services,within the overall context of capacity building.

In the developing WIS (WMO Information System),implementation of request/reply systems through web-services or web portals, and the routine exchange of highvolume datasets, would probably be augmented by additionalcommunication capabilities such as those provided by theInternet or the use of private dedicated network services. Inplaces where dedicated communication lines are prohibi-tively expensive to set up and maintain, transmission of basicdata and pre-generated products can be accomplished byrelatively low cost satellite links.

In the context of supporting public weather service activ-ities of NMHSs the following approaches may also beconsidered in the course of WIS development:(a) An Internet meteorological portal site could be built to

serve as a one-stop shop of "WIS via Internet" to offerNMHS users access via a single web site address. Startinghere, the user might be led to a variety of differentservices offered, including different kinds of forecastsand severe weather warnings, and to download-areas(ftp site) comprising larger datasets such as satellite andradar imagery, model output, meteorological database(e.g. climate information), links to NMHSs’ web sites,and other useful and related topics.

(b) The general public might be encouraged to use this WISInternet portal to access data which is available to allwithout restriction. This would enhance the visibility of


NMHSs, especially those of developing countries, so asto strengthen the public recognition of the weatherservices they provide.

(c) To facilitate the active participation of the less developedNMHSs, the WIS Internet portal might also supplementthe GTS to provide data exchange services (mainly onrequest-reply applications), and might encompass adiverse range of data exchange methods such as email,ftp and web form to adapt to the actual requirements ofdifferent WMO Members.

(d) The work of an NMHS spans a diverse range of respon-sibilities and capabilities. WIS should provide a flexibleand extensible structure that would allow NMHSs toenhance their capabilities as their national and interna-tional responsibilities grow. In particular, for lessdeveloped Members with less demanding requirements,the WIS services should be accessible through a simplePC working over a dial-up Internet connection.

(e) As an aid to enhancing the capability of the less devel-oped NMHSs to deliver medium-range forecast services,the WIS Internet portal might be used as an access pointto modelling centres, through which they might providetheir products in a user-defined manner (e.g. prognos-tic charts in image format or grid data format withregions and elements defined by end-users).

(f) Apart from supporting the data collection and exchangerequirements of various WMO programmes such asWWW, WCP, AMP and HWRP, the WIS could alsoprovide support to education and training programmesthrough the development of a knowledge database.Various training programmes on different topics relatedto public weather services have been organized byWMO. The WIS portal could serve as a point of accessto a library of related literature, to other PWS trainingmaterials, and to web-based learning modules thatwould reach out to a greater audience.

10.3.4 Alternative Resources

In a fast-changing landscape of Information andCommunications Technology (ICT) NMHSs may find itdifficult to keep up with changes owing to resource or infra-structure limitations. Continuing technologicaldevelopments outside the meteorological communityinevitably bring about new possibilities:

(a) material or technology that can improve the "look-and-feel" and enhance the contents of the weatherprogrammes;

(b) better means of retrieving information for use in theweather programmes; and

(c) more opportunities to reach out to a wider spectrum ofthe community via multi-channel delivery in multi-media format.The dilemma facing the NMHS is often whether to retain

ICT capability in-house, or to engage outside specialists tolook after the ICT aspects. Ultimately, pragmatic considera-tions would probably determine the path to take; butwhichever way each NMHS decides to go, there are road signsthat require attention and evaluation.

For an NMHS that can afford to develop and retainICT skills in-house the immediate reward is to furnishbetter control and coordination of service developmentstrategies. In comparison to meteorological research,which is essential, but may take a long time to show tangi-ble benefits, ICT-led improvement can often be readily feltin the guise of better products and services, and as suchcan be much more visible and immediate. A broadening ofthe skill base within the NMHS can also inject a moredynamic outlook and greater technological awareness. Insome cases, ICT-led improvement may actually provideopportunities for NMHSs to grow and expand. NMHSmanagement need to strike a good balance between thedevelopment of the science and the pursuit of servicedelivery.

For an NMHS that engages outside ICT specialists, theimmediate reward is to allow a more focused meteorologi-cal perspective within the NMHS. The main challengehere is to establish a sustainable working partnership withthe outside specialists or agencies, and to ensure that anefficient mechanism is in place for project managementand for implementation coordination. This applies even tospecialists with good meteorological background andknowledge, as their corporate objectives and goals may notbe totally in line with those of the NMHS. In going downthis path an NMHS may need to relinquish control to acertain extent to allow room for the specialists’ expertise toflourish, to be more flexible in their management approachin accordance with the prevailing practices in the privatesector, and yet to be extra diligent and vigilant in monitor-ing progress to ensure that the targets are met andproducts delivered to acceptable standards.

Part II

GUIDELINES ON THE USE OF RADIO FOR THE

DELIVERY OF WEATHER INFORMATION

Radio is one of the oldest and most reliable means of masscommunication. The work of Marconi in the last decade ofthe Nineteenth century led to wireless telegraphy, wheremessages in Morse Code were broadcast without wires; inthe very early years of the Twentieth Century the character-istic dots and dashes of Morse were quickly replaced withthe sound of the human voice, and a new, direct, means ofperson-to-person communication as born.

By the 1920’s most countries in the developed world hadestablished radio stations for the transmission of news andentertainment to the populace. The style of these early broad-casts was very formal; news stories were read in a ponderousmanner, while radio programmes on particular subjects werein the manner of "essays"; formal written compositions thatwere read to air by actors, announcers or sometimes theauthor themselves. This approach to radio broadcasting isepitomised by the fact that the senior announcer on duty atthe BBC was required, for many years, to turn up for work informal dress.

While there are still some echoes of these earlier styles onradio today the history of broadcasting in the TwentiethCentury has been characterised by a move towards greaterinformality and increased pace. DJs on music-driven stationsspeak at a tremendous rate – the old norm of three words persecond has long been breached. We have seen the rise of the"shock-jock" whose role is to taunt, irritate and sometimesenrage his or her audience, playing always on their fears andsensitivities. Even in current-affairs and discussionprogrammes the debates are often played out at an emotionalrather than an intellectual level; emotion "works" well onradio.

Radio, then, can sometimes seem like a rather hostilemedium for a factual-driven service such as the provision ofweather information. However other factual services, suchas traffic reports, agricultural commodity prices or stock-market summaries, can also be found on radio beside themore conventional news and sports bulletins. All listeners,whatever their age,occupation or demographic category havepotentially an interest in the basic weather forecast, whilemore specialised users such as farmers and fisherman have amuch more focussed interest.

Radio is a medium to be used and exploited by NMHSsat many different levels; for the basic forecast, for more

specialised forecast services, for warnings of severe weather,and for educating the listening public in the more scientificaspects of meteorology and climatology. Through all theseservices an NMHS should strive to establish and maintain animage of professionalism and competence, an image that willbuild credibility in the weather services and in the organisa-tion itself.

These guidelines are intended to stimulate a fresh look atradio broadcasting among NMHSs, but also to act as aresource in helping to establish and maintain high-qualityservices. The Chapter 2 provides an overview of the status ofweather on radio, and emphasises some of the unique aspectsof radio, as a medium, examining how well these match thestrengths and weaknesses of NMHSs.

Chapter 3 distils some of the essence of radio as amedium. It deals with how people receive and retain infor-mation aurally, and the overarching importance of voicequality in unlocking the attention of the listener. There is adiscussion on the importance of identifying and knowingyour audience, and a summary of advice on how to structureradio scripts, both for delivery by professional forecastersand others such as newsreaders.

Chapter 4 considers the broadcasting of weather infor-mation during "normal" weather conditions; the daily andsometimes humdrum forecast services that represent thegreater part of weather information on radio. These servicesgenerate the background level of quality, which the publiccome to expect.

Chapter 5 examines how weather information should behandled on radio during periods of severe weather. Theseoccasions put great strain on forecast offices and on fore-casters themselves, yet the reputation of an NMHS can beeither severely damaged or greatly enhanced at such times.Asin all walks of life planning and preparedness can help toensure that the challenges of broadcasting during times ofsevere weather are met and surpassed.

Finally, Chapter 6 looks beyond the forecast at weatherdiscussions in the form of interviews. This chapter deals withhow an NMHS can be proactive in generating radio coveragefor the science of meteorology and for broader issues withinmeteorology and climatology. Techniques for dealingsuccessfully with interviewers – either face to face or over thetelephone - are outlined.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this chapter is to describe and define the impor-tance and status of weather reporting on Radio and the needfor, and importance of, excellent cooperation betweenNMHSs and radio stations. This cooperation should be anatural one, based on the reality that NMHSs need radiostations to convey weather related information to the public,while radio stations need to put weather information on-airas a service to its listeners; indeed weather information, prop-erly presented, can be a significant audience attraction for aradio programme.

2.1 RADIO BROADCASTING

Radio is one of the most important and powerful broadcast-ing media. It is used widely by people from all walks of life forcompany and for entertainment, and for the reception ofinformation on a diverse range of issues depending on one’sinterest. Radio can reach audience at home, in the office, onthe road, on the mountain, in the desert, at the beach, at thesea, etc. The technology of radio is relatively simple and inex-pensive. The preparation of radio programmes requires littlemore than a tape recorder or equivalent and some editingfacilities; since the advent of digital technology sound-edit-ing software can be run on ordinary PC’s. Radio is thereforea very useful tool; one, which NMHSs must exploit, and useeffectively. The fundamental use of radio in the context ofmeteorology is for communication to the public, round theclock on a daily basis, information related to:• weather forecasts,• weather advisories,• weather warnings and• any other weather issues of concern to the public

2.2 WORKING RELATIONSHIP

It is of fundamental importance that NMHSs establish a verygood working relationship with the management and oper-ators of radio stations.This good working relationship shouldexist, ideally, on many levels. A formal, high-level standingcommittee comprising members from NMHSs and the radiostation is desirable so that regular reviews of the servicesprovided to listeners can be carried out. This standingcommittee may consider organizing reciprocal visits to famil-iarise members with each others working environment. Noless important are the informal contacts between the radioannouncers and DJs who introduce the weather forecast, andthe forecasters themselves who prepare the forecast contentand frequently present it on-air. Each group has its own legit-imate concerns and these needs to be well understood.

The standing committee might address at its regularmeetings, among other issues, the type of information that

needs to be broadcast in the daily weather bulletins; the opti-mum manner in which the radio station should receive theagreed information; the editorial policy applied to weatherbroadcasts by the radio station; the timing and duration ofweather programs that will be aired; the desirability of addi-tional information at times of heightened interest in theweather, and how this additional information should best beworked into the radio schedules.

Of great importance is the establishment of a protocol forhandling warnings of severe weather, so that these are trans-mitted to the radio audience with timeliness and clarity.

In planning the schedule of radio broadcasts the needsand interests of the audience should be of paramount consid-eration, with special attention given to matters such as:• The timing of morning and evening rush hours• Activities around weekends and public holidays• Special events that take place around the year

The standing committee may need to assess and reviewthe weather programs being aired from time to time andbring forward proposals on how these might be developedand improved. This process should be continuous in orderthat the public not become bored by the necessary routine ofweather broadcasts,but that their interest is maintained by theintroduction of variations and improvements now and again.That being said weather bulletins need to be fixed into certaintimes and points of the radio schedule, so that those whoneed to know what the weather will do have an opportunityto find out that information by tuning in at pre-determinedtimes. Change for change’s sake is rarely a good idea.

2.3 TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS

To state the obvious, and in contrast to the medium of tele-vision, the appearance of a presenter is not a factor whilereporting on radio, and this increases the pool of potentialradio broadcasters enormously. (However, the matter of voicequality is very important – this is dealt with in more detail inChapter 3). An NMHS should encourage and train as manyof its staff as possible in the practices, skills and techniquesrequired when reporting on radio. The training shouldencompass basics such as the operation of simple equipment,the preparation of radio scripts, microphone technique, andthe optimum use of radio time. The training might bearranged with the cooperation and assistance of the radiostation, or it might be arranged with a commercial firm whohave a good reputation in this area.Some more detailed infor-mation on the required skills and appropriate training aregiven in Chapter 3. By the same token, an NMHS is encour-aged to arrange short training opportunities for radiopresenters working on the station with whom they have arelationship, so that they too may become familiar with thefundamentals of meteorology, the typical weather patterns in

Chapter 2

STATUS OF RADIO

WEATHER REPORTING

their region, the terminology of meteorology etc. Moreimportantly, radio presenters should be familiar with thehazards presented by severe weather and the over-riding needto ensure that the latest weather warnings are passed to theradio audience without delay and without amendment.

2.4 INTERVIEWS AND LIVE DISCUSSION

It is important that from time to time the schedule of regularweather reports on radio is augmented by more broad-rang-ing interviews which serve to increase public awareness ofpast and expected weather events, as well as of other weather-related topics of interest. Most radio stations have "flagship"current-affairs or discussion programme and an NMHSshould endeavour to have its experts interviewed on suchprogrammes in order to reach as large an audience as possi-ble. In a similar manner, arrangement might be agreed witha radio station to conduct a live discussion on a "phone-in"programme, which would facilitate the wider participation ofthe public. In this context the topics selected could be relatedto the prevailing weather condition at the time, or indeed anyweather topic of interest to the public that might make themwilling to participate in the program in greater numbers. Thistype of program will help greatly in raising the visibility of theNMHS.

Chapter 5 gives more detail on how radio interviewsshould be set-up and conducted, and provides some ideasand guidance on training and preparation that will helpNMHS staff to make the most of the opportunities offered byparticipation in interviews and discussion on radio.

2.5 PARTICIPATION OF STAFF INOBSERVATORIES AND OUT-STATIONS

NMHSs should encourage their staff located in the observ-ing stations established in cities and towns around thecountry to provide useful information whenever they arecontacted by a radio station. In many countries there is anetwork of local radio stations that deal almost exclusivelywith local issues; such local radio stations will often prefer tospeak with an NMHS observer working in the locality thandeal with a staff member from HQ or the capital city. Staff inthese out-station observatories may not have the overview ofthe weather available at the forecast centre, so some commu-nication and information support scheme should beestablished to provide them with the necessary informationto enable them to contribute effectively to the local radiostation. The staff involved should also be provided with theappropriate training that will enable them to make best useof broadcast opportunities.

A mechanism can be arranged with national radiostations, which enables them to communicate regularly withoutstation observatories in order to get details of the localweather prevailing at different cities and towns. Emphasisshould be placed on meteorological changes that will have thegreatest interest to, and impact on, the listeners. An examplemight be the reporting of extreme parameters that will have

direct impact on the day-to-day activities of the audience.Emphasis should particularly be placed on those parametersthat break historical records. This process of reportingdirectly from the area of interest rather than being filteredthrough the Central Forecasting Office will undoubtedlydraw the interest of the public who will want to follow up withsubsequent updates in weather reporting.

2.6 BROADCASTING AND RECORDINGENVIRONMENT

NMHSs are encouraged to seek the advice of engineeringexperts in the radio station with which they work in estab-lishing a proper studio environment for the purpose of livebroadcasting and recording. In the forecast offices there isalmost always background noise and commotion of varioussorts, which can degrade the quality of live broadcasts, andalso of recorded weather reports destined for radio.It is there-fore essential that both NMHS and Radio Station worktogether to provide a dedicated broadcasting and recordingfacility in order to achieve a better and more professionalweather service to the public.

2.7 AUTOMATION OF RADIO STATIONS

There is a growing trend towards the automation of RadioStations – or at least the partial automation of stationsthrough the night hours.This provides a challenge to NMHSswho will want to have the facility of providing up-to-dateforecasts and warnings through all 24 hours of the day.Wherea radio station is going down the road of automation it is ofvital importance that NMHSs meet the challenge by estab-lishing ways and means of automating the provision of theirweather reports and warnings in a manner that will becompatible with the radio station in question. Unless theydo so they will lose their presence on radio for at least somehours of the day and thus lose their status and visibility as theprimary providers of timely and accurate weather relatedinformation to their public.

2.8 COMMERCIALIZATION OF NMHSS

Many NMHSs commercialize their services so they needto develop a certain competence in handling the issues ofmarketing, product branding and contract. Doingcommercial business with the media can be a major activ-ity and this can impact the oftentimes-fragile relationshipwith the media. If properly handled however, this econom-ically driven aspect to the relationship may increase thevariety of products available to the public as well as thequality of their presentation. Experience frequently showsthat broadcasters who make profit on weather informationhave a strong incentive to maintain and develop the qualityof their offerings, and therefore tend to deliver betterservices to the public. This is a win-win situation for bothbroadcaster and NMHS.

35Chapter 2 — Status of radio weather reporting

3.1 COMMUNICATION WITHOUT THE VISUAL

Radio is a medium of deceptive simplicity. What could bemore simple and natural than one person talking to another?And yet, when we meet face to face so much of our commu-nication with each other is conveyed visually; through ourfacial expressions, the use of our hands in emphasis – thegestures of the entire body are put at the disposal of thethought that the mind wishes to convey. To state the obvious,radio is a completely aural medium - everything depends on,and is expressed by, the voice. It is as if we are trying tocommunicate in an environment where a significant propor-tion of our "faculties of communication" have been disabled.

Psychologist Albert Mehrabian has found that, in non-technical communication, the impact a person has on theirlistener can be divided up as follows:• 7% depends on WHAT you say;• 38% depends on HOW you say it, and• 55% depends on how you LOOK when you are saying it.

While a weather forecast can perhaps be described as"technical" communication it normally fits within a radioschedule that is anything but technical. The weather broad-caster should therefore take note of this guidance, and tailortheir style of presentation accordingly.

What the above figures tell us is that, in the context of aradio broadcast, with the 55% of communication normallyconveyed through visual means unavailable to us, there needsto be significant concentration on HOW we deliver themessage. Note that the impact of the HOW outscores theWHAT of the message by a factor of more than 5 to 1. TheWHAT are the facts we wish to convey; the HOW encom-passes the creation of a script to convey those facts, and thedelivery or presentation of that script to the audience.

3.2 THE VALUE OF THE VOICE

The concentration of the message through the voice alonedoes, however, offer some significant advantages. Radio is anintimate medium - the communication is directly fromperson to person; it is one to one. Our eyes can take in, andour brains process, a vast amount of visual information butthis does mean that a medium such as television is constantlycompeting for attention with other distractions; a personcoming into the room, or moving within our field of view; ashaft of sunlight streaming in the window. Our visual worldis full of constantly moving imagery, and our brains mustconstantly decide what is important and what is not.

The number of stimuli that arrive through the sense ofhearing (aural stimuli), on the other hand, are far fewer. To besure our busy world provides a great deal of backgroundnoise; from traffic, from all manner of electrical motors indomestic appliances and computers; from air conditioning

units - even from birdsong. The brain, however, is efficient atsuppressing these background noises, to such an extent thatwe often become aware of them only when they suddenlycease.We are capable, therefore,of keenly focussing our atten-tion on a voice, even when we are simultaneously performingother tasks, such as driving, working around the house or inthe garden, exercising, etc. The brain is capable of focusing onthe voice, while going on "autopilot" in dealing with the other,simultaneous, tasks.A good radio voice can "open the door"between the ear and the brain; once the door is opened, theattention is captured, and the thoughts can flow through.

In order to understand what makes a good radio voice,we need to consider more closely the intimate nature of radio.Listening to the radio should be like listening to the conver-sation of an old friend, with whom you feel completely atease. It is one-to-one communication – a very differentdynamic than when one is, for example, standing in front ofan audience to deliver a talk. The latter is very clearly a one-to-many form of communication; listeners to radio, on theother hand, are very often alone. This aloneness encouragesthe listener to imagine that the speaker is talking to them andto them only - the delivery, therefore, should be softer, moreconversational, than a formal presentation would demand.

We react to the sound of someone else’s voice in anemotional, instinctual way.A voice that seems harsh will makeus grit our teeth; can almost physically cause us hurt – andwill convey very little meaning, other than a dislike of thatperson and a desire to quickly move on to other company. Asoft, mellow voice, on the other hand, will flow over us andcause us to relax, sometimes to such an extent that we hear thesounds, but not the meaning.A good radio voice lies betweenthe two, but leaning more towards the latter.

3.3 USING THE VOICE EFFECTIVELY

A voice expresses thoughts through the use of language.Language is made up of words, which have an acceptedmeaning. Clarity of voice is therefore a fundamental of radiobroadcasting; the words need to be enunciated clearly, withgood diction. It is very difficult for a person to achieve gooddiction in a radio broadcast if they do not practice gooddiction in their normal, everyday speech. The effort requiredto "put on" proper diction that does not come naturally to thespeaker will make the broadcast seem stilted and contrived.A broadcaster needs to practice good diction with every wordthey speak during the waking day.

Next to clarity of voice comes pacing. A listener needstime to take in the meaning of words, to assimilate thethoughts being conveyed. Delivery that is too fast, in whichthe words are crowded together, will quickly result in a loss ofattention on the part of the listener. For most people, pacingmeans slowing down; the pace of delivery on radio normally

Chapter 3

THE PROPER USE OF RADIO FOR

THE COMMUNICATION OF WEATHER INFORMATION

needs to be somewhat slower than the pace of everyday,conversational speech (remember again all those visualcommunication cues that the listener must do without). Thepacing also needs to vary through a broadcast, as does thepitch – and to some extent the volume – of the voice.

The pitch of a voice relates to the frequencies created inthe process of speech. Women normally have rather higher-pitched voices,with men often speaking with a very low pitch.The pitch of our voice rises when we get excited, oremotional, or angry. It rises when we are nervous, as themuscles in our neck and throat become tense and restrictour vocal chords. Lower pitches tend to work better on radio;higher pitches can become over-amplified and the voice willthen seem "squeaky". Those with higher-pitched voices needto work at controlling this for radio, which usually meansputting conscious effort into relaxing the body – and moreespecially the shoulders,neck and throat – before a broadcast.Those with lower pitched voices need sometimes to almostdo the opposite – to generate energy and variability by rais-ing the pitch at times. A broadcast delivered in a flat, lowmonotone can be very boring.

The reason for varying pacing and pitch is to createemphasis at certain parts of the broadcast. Not every wordthat is to be delivered is of equal significance. The moresignificant words and phrases need to be "highlighted" andthis is achieved by giving them space (pacing), stress (pitch)and importance (volume).All of this seems very complex, yetwe do this naturally every day of our lives in normal conver-sation with our families and friends. Good radiobroadcasting is about using natural delivery in an unnaturalenvironment. It is difficult to achieve this without some feed-back, so the trusted opinions of a skilled colleague or a radiodirector will help each individual to achieve their full broad-cast potential.

3.4 ACCENTS AND PRONUNCIATION

One of the difficulties for anyone assessing the quality of aradio broadcast revolves around the question of accent andpronunciation. In all countries, and through all languages,there will be variations in the way in which words arepronounced. Some of these variations fall within acceptablelimits of the way words should be spoken; others are clearlyin the realm of bad diction, where the sounds that go to makeup a word are rendered indistinctly or improperly.Variationsin accent are usually regionally based, but are also often basedon background and class. For this reason they can lead alistener into making a subjective judgement on the worthi-ness or credibility of the speaker.

Most countries have some sort of standardised pronun-ciation which is defined, either formally or informally, by thestyle of speech used by politicians and other major publicfigures, or by the public service broadcast service. While itshould not be necessary for weather broadcasters to speakwith a particular accent, the emphasis should be on clarity,good diction, and understandability. If these conditions aresatisfied then accent should be irrelevant. However it isappropriate to say that strong accents, be they based onregional background or otherwise,will normally lead to some

difficulties in understanding for people from other regions orbackgrounds.

One particular instance of pronunciation that requiresespecial care is the pronunciation of place names.Mispronunciation of a place name will immediately alienatepeople from that place or region. Broadcasters should consulta person familiar with the region (or indeed the dialect orlanguage if this is relevant) to ensure that they have thecorrect pronunciation of place names.

3.5 REACHING OUT TO THE AUDIENCE

Normally, communication is a two-way process, in which thecommunicator picks up feedback from their audience.Effective communication often depends on the ability of thespeaker to "listen" to this feedback and tailor their deliveryaccordingly (ask anyone who has tried their hand at stand-up comedy!).

How can this concept be applied to radio broadcast-ing, where there is no "return channel" of feedback to thespeaker? One of the keys to this is for the broadcaster to befully aware of his or her target audience. The broadcastershould take a few moments to think about the listeners;who they are, what their concerns might be, how theweather information, which is about to be imparted, willbe of help to them. If the listenership is predominantlyrural then the broadcaster should be aware of the farmingconcerns of the moment – are the farmers waiting for rainafter a dry spell, or are they looking for some settledweather in order to take in the harvest? If the listenership ispredominantly urban then the focus of interest might beon whether or not it will be wet at rush hour, adding stressat commuting time. A broadcast delivered in the earlymorning will have a different emphasis to one deliveredlate in the evening. Similarly, a weekend broadcast willneed to be pitched somewhat differently to that on a week-day.

By thinking through these matters the broadcaster canform a mental picture of the audience – he or she can almostcreate the audience in their own mind, and then "sense" thefeedback that is such an essential element in good commu-nication.

While meteorology is a science, communication is anactivity rooted in the culture; the culture of a country orregion; the culture of a particular language or dialect; eventhe broadcast culture of a particular radio station. Goodcommunication draws on the reference points of a particu-lar culture, and uses them to reinforce the scientific andinformation message. A broadcast delivered in France willnot – and should not – be similar to a broadcast delivered inGermany. A broadcaster born and raised in a particularculture should instinctively know what will and will not workwhen delivering a message via radio; a broadcaster who hasmoved from elsewhere will take some time to learn how bestto shape the message appropriately.

The fundamental point is this: a broadcaster needs to befully aware of the audience; their needs and concerns, theirwishes and fears, their work and their leisure activities, inorder to be able to communicate the weather message to themwith maximum effect.

37Chapter 3 — Understanding the media

3.6 SCRIPTING RADIO BROADCASTS

Chapter 4 below provides advice in considerable detailregarding the optimum construction of scripts for weatherbroadcasts. This Section will consider scripting in the contextof the peculiarities of radio as a medium of communication.

When people who meet on the street talk about theweather they do not do so in meteorological terminology;they use the ordinary words of everyday speech. Scientists –including Meteorologists – use words that are defined to havea very specific meaning; these meanings are known andunderstood throughout the scientific community. The aver-age listener, however, has no such knowledge of the definedmeaning of certain words and phrases. A weather broadcastscript, therefore, has to use the language of ordinary speech;to use the common words of the street, but to do so in a way,which is consistent and coherent.

It is not easy to do this without slipping into thelanguage, or jargon, of meteorology; it requires carefulpreparation. As a medium of mass communication, radiodemands simple, ordinary language. Using technical termsin a broadcast demands that the brain of the listener musttake in, translate and understand that technical term beforearriving at the meaning to be conveyed; even if the listenerachieves this they will most likely have missed the follow-ing part of the broadcast as their brain will have been toobusy translating the technical term to concentrate on thewords which follow. Weather broadcasters need to deliverusing simple words.

Sentences within weather broadcasts should be as shortand compact as possible. If a long sentence is used, with manysub-clauses, the listener will simply have forgotten what was

at the beginning of the sentence by the time the end isreached, and the meaning will be lost. If the forecast ispresented as a dialogue with a news reader or other presen-ter, the responses to questions should be concise and to thepoint.

For "monologue" style weather broadcasts, where themeteorologist is speaking directly to the listener, the structureof the broadcast should follow the normal lines for anypresentation; there should be an Introduction, then the Bodyof the message, followed by the Conclusion. The Introductioncould be a summary, but it could also take the form of a"teaser" by asking a rhetorical question or making a startlingstatement. The purpose of the Introduction is to gain theattention and interest of the listener. The Body of the messageis for the details of the forecast, keeping them as simple aspossible. The Conclusion should be a summary with empha-sis on the main points of the forecast (getting warmer / wetter/ windier / more settled etc). Many listeners may havementally "tuned out" during the Body of the forecast; theConclusion should offer them useful information nonethe-less.

Finally a few words on preparing scripts that will bedelivered by a third party – usually a newsreader (sometimescalled "rip-and-read" scripts). If these come at the end of anews bulletin the reader will almost certainly be short of time(news journalists will invariably give news stories priorityover weather stories, and squeeze the time allocated for theforecast). The key point when preparing these forecasts isthat the main forecast message must be contained in the firstline. Frequently this will be the only line that gets read out on-air.Put the main points of the forecast first, and the subsidiarypoints later.


For most of the time the nature of the weather in any givencountry or region is not such as to represent a threat to life orproperty, yet there are still enormous benefits to be gainedfrom the efficient dissemination of weather information tothe populace. These gains may be difficult to quantify, as theyarise from the aggregate of very many individual decisionsmade by people in organising their lives and work. Thesebenefits will be economic in nature, yet there are also bene-fits in the "quality of life" that arise from enabling individualsto plan their activities around the expected weather so as tominimise disruption and inconvenience.

Because of the increasingly mobile nature of people’slives, radio is the optimum medium for reaching a largesegment of the population as they go about their dailyroutine. Radio can reach people travelling in cars, buses andtrains; many people wake to the sound of radio alarms andstart their day by listening while preparing to go out to workor school.The optimum use of radio for transmitting weatherinformation should be founded on an understanding andappreciation of the different contexts in which people listento radio; these contexts will change from morning to eveningand from weekday to weekend.

An NMHS should encourage and cultivate working rela-tionships with radio stations during periods of "normal"weather. Apart from the direct benefit in the provision ofdaily weather forecasts, such a productive working relation-ship will be of tremendous value during times of severe oremergency weather, when the NMHS can use the radio moreeffectively to inform the public and in a correct and timelymanner.This relationship can be achieved in a variety of waysas, for example, the setting up standing committees, theorganisation of media workshops and more informally byinviting radio representatives to social gatherings and eventsorganized by the respective NMHS.

In this Chapter we will consider how to construct aschedule of radio broadcasts that best reaches the listeningpopulation. We will review the different sources of weatherinformation that are used in preparing radio bulletins, andmake some suggestions as to how to deal with the use of"unofficial" sources. Before going on to deal with theseaspects in more detail, it is worth noting that weatherbulletins are rarely seen as key components of radio stationoutput, and this leads on to two general points:• The editorial and management staff of radio stations are

rarely concerned with the accuracy of weather bulletins.Arguments based on measures of quality and accuracywill not usually be useful. On the other hand, referencesto specific inaccurate forecasts and warnings may carrysome weight.

• There is not usually any significant income to be deriveddirectly from the provision of weather services on radio.Apart from the fulfilment of its public service role, thebest that most NMHSs can hope for is good attribution

of the official source of weather information, and oftensome degree of cross-promotion of other services, suchas telephone or web-based weather forecasts (which mayin themselves produce some income).

4.1 DEVISING A SCHEDULE OF WEATHERBULLETINS FOR RADIO

Despite the rise of "Breakfast Television" it is probably true tosay that, in most countries,radio is still the broadcast mediumwith the greatest audience during the first part of the work-ing day. An NMHS needs to concentrate first on providing acomprehensive forecast on radio during the early wakinghours.Where the start of the working day is staggered acrossseveral hours, or is not aligned with the start of the schoolday, or where significant numbers of the working populationare commuting long distances to work (and thus risingearlier) there will usually be a need to provide two, andperhaps three, forecast bulletins each morning so that everymember of the public can listen to a radio weather bulletin ata convenient time.

This comprehensive weather bulletin should carryenough information to allow people to plan their day, withperhaps some additional information for coming days so thatarrangements for outdoor activities can be confidently made.The usual elements of expected weather, temperature andwind should be noted along with any specific locally rele-vant information (sea conditions, times of tides etc).

Through the morning and early afternoon many peoplewill be listening to radio while they are travelling, or working,or at home about the house. The forecasts should now have amore short-term focus, concentrating on the rest of the dayand making reference to satellite and radar informationwhere this is available.

From mid-afternoon through the evening the forecastshould look ahead to the coming night and the next day. Thenighttime weather may be especially relevant if frost or fog islikely to occur, and these elements should be given pre-eminence when appropriate.

Radio listening at nighttime can be a minority activity,as television tends to dominate the attention once darknessfalls. This can be a time when a variety of special interestprogrammes are to be found in the radio schedules – such asthose aimed at the farming or the fishing community – andthese may provide opportunities for more specialised fore-casts directed at these interest groups.

4.2 WHERE THE STAFF OF THE NMHSDISSEMINATE THE FORECAST DIRECTLYTHROUGH RADIO

It is advantageous, where possible, to arrange for the directdissemination of the forecast to the public by the staff of the

Chapter 4

GUIDELINES ON THE REPORTING OF WEATHER

INFORMATION DURING PERIODS OF "NORMAL" WEATHER

NMHSs. This arrangement adds greatly to the visibility ofNMHSs and helps to increase the awareness with the publicof NMHSs products and services. This increased awarenessusually leads to stronger public and political support for theNMHS and helps to ensure the provision of adequate fund-ing for the development of the service. This directbroadcasting arrangement affords the NMHS the opportu-nity to fulfil its primary role of providing quality publicweather services to the people.

NMHSs who are in the fortunate position of havingdirect access to the public via radio should make the most ofthis opportunity, and should help to ensure the continuedavailability of the direct service, by pursuing the followingstrategies:• Assign the weather presentation duties to the most

appropriate person. It is worth putting some effort intotrying to understand what type of voice works best onradio in the particular country or region served by theNMHS (see Chapter 3 above for more detailed guidanceon this topic).When the optimum type of voice has beenidentified, the NMHS should then choose from amongits forecasters those who best meet this particular crite-rion.

• Ensure that the meteorologist broadcasters have all thenecessary presentation skills; this will be best achieved bythe careful selection of appropriate personnel (as above)and by professional training. Training is best carried outby those with experience in radio; these may come fromoutside the meteorological community.

• Be aware of the durations set down for each radiobulletin, and always stick to these durations with broad-casts that are neither too long nor too short. Allbroadcasting works to a strict time schedule and allbroadcasters need to recognise and respect this.

• Good radio broadcasts begin with good scripting.Writing for the spoken voice requires a different, lessformal style than writing a text that will be read in anewspaper or magazine. Try to develop a natural, easystyle. Avoid long sentences with many subsidiaryclauses; short, direct sentences work best. There can bea lot of detailed information in a radio weather broad-cast and, if the listening public are to take in and retainthe information, some structure is usually needed. Thebroadcast could begin with a short overview of themain weather developments, then give the forecastdetails for "today", followed by "tonight" and then"tomorrow" as appropriate. It is usually good to finishwith a brief summary, and then a reminder of whenthe next broadcast will follow.

• When the weather broadcast is introduced by aprogramme presenter, or when it follows a "dialogue"format between radio presenter and meteorologist, oneshould always be prepared for possible questions thatthe presenter might pose. These may not be at all relatedto the forecast itself but to some news item that is relevantto weather (climate change, El Niño, meteorologicalrecords broken etc) or to some other natural phenome-non, which the public associates in some way withmeteorology (astronomical occurrences, geologicalevents, maritime happenings etc.). A broadcaster needs

to be up-to-date with current newsworthy events as it isthese that will most likely generate questions.

• It is important that the broadcast be provided from aproperly equipped radio studio to ensure clear trans-mission of the forecast. A forecast that is broadcast on apoor-quality line will be difficult for the public to hearclearly. A separate room, properly furnished, equippedand soundproofed, is recommended; firstly for assuringgood conditions for transmission and secondly toprevent disturbance of the rest of activity of the forecastoffice.

• Ensure attribution to the NMHS is included in thebulletin

4.3 WHERE A RADIO STATION DISSEMINATESDAILY WEATHER INFORMATION FROM THENMHS.

The provision of scripts of weather forecasts and warnings toradio stations is a common practice, with these scripts thenbeing read on air by newscasters, continuity announcers ordisc jockeys. However, the delivery of weather scripts to thepublic by personnel with no training in meteorology bringsits own difficulties. The message may not be delivered in itsentirety, or it may be delivered in such a manner as to maskthe original intention of the forecaster. In extreme cases itmay even be delivered with a tone that signifies disbelief –which will render the forecast effectively useless with respectto the listening public.

On the other hand, a broadcasting company willfrequently insist on editorial control, keeping to themselves toright to edit and adjust any script, which is to be read out toair. This is a normal requirement of broadcasters, and stemsin part from the legal obligations of any publishing organi-zation, by which it is the broadcaster who is held responsiblefor any legal offence (libel etc) committed through its chan-nels. This concept of editorial control can be difficult toreconcile with the desire of an NMHS that its forecast andwarnings scripts be delivered to air verbatim.

For this reason it is recommended that a formal contractor Memorandum of Understanding be drawn up between anNMHS and a broadcaster that will define codes of practicethat will cover this potentially contentious area. At the veryleast, an NMHS should be able to ensure that all warningmessages are broadcast without alteration, and in a timelymanner. While forecast scripts may be subject to editing, theneed for this can be minimized if the broadcaster and theNMHS agree on the length of forecast script to be supplied,and the NMHS ensures that the forecasters adhere to thisrecommended length.

The next step is to establish a reliable and rapid commu-nications channel by which forecasts and warnings can betransmitted from the forecast office to the broadcaster. Therewill normally be established a schedule of times for the provi-sion of regular forecast updates; there also needs to beprovision for forecast amendments and corrections outsidethe agreed schedule times, and of course for the issue and safereceipt of warnings whenever these are meteorologicallyjustified. It is good practice to have the reception of these


"out-of-schedule" forecasts and warnings confirmed by atelephone call to the broadcaster, and appropriate contactpoints need to be identified to facilitate this process.

The method of communication of forecast and warningmessages will depend on the technology available to bothbroadcaster and NMHS; on the telecommunications infra-structure in place, and sometimes on the physical distancebetween the broadcaster and NMHS sites. Many newsroomswill have in place a software system that allows news storiesto be ingested (from the news agencies, for example) orprepared; then edited, and distributed to the staff who mustread them to air. It is worthwhile providing forecasts andwarnings in a manner that allows them to be integrated intosuch a system. This will usually involve defining a means bywhich a forecast can be automatically input (sending by telexor email, or placing on an FTP server, for example) and alsothe format required for the system to pick up the forecastand make it available to editors and newsreaders in a conve-nient manner. The emphasis should be on speed oftransmission and ease of access by the broadcast client.

Another method, which can be useful when there are anumber of radio broadcasters accessing the same forecastinformation, is to place the forecast on a Web site, which thestaff of the broadcaster can access freely.This may be an open,publicly available website, or it may be password-protected sothat only nominated organizations can recover the informa-tion. However, it should be noted that this method dependson the diligence of broadcast staff in checking for the mostup-to-date forecast or warning. A busy broadcaster willsometimes read the first forecast that comes to hand – thiscan sometimes be a script left lying around since the daybefore!! A system which provides new forecasts to the broad-caster while automatically overwriting the older forecastswould be much preferred.

Forecast scripts provided to radio stations should respectthe following guidance:• Time of issue and time of validity of the forecast / warn-

ing to be clearly stated.• Length of forecast script to be as agreed with the broad-

caster.• Avoid meteorological terms and jargon wherever possi-

ble.• Identify, and concentrate on, the main weather "story".• Describe the weather in the context of recent days /

weeks• Mention all necessary weather parameters (weather,

temperature, perhaps wind)• Describe the parameters clearly, along with their physi-

cal significance.• Refer to seasonal norms (e.g. for temperature) where

relevant.In addition to the above, warning scripts should always:

• Clearly state the expected time of arrival,and likely dura-tion, of severe weather;

• Describe the severity of the anticipated weather by someclearly defined scale

• Include advice to the populace on the actions that shouldbe taken to minimize danger to individuals and damageto propertyThere should be some agreed mechanism for cancelling

warnings when they are no longer valid, and for makinglisteners aware of the cancellation.

In drawing up an agreement with the broadcaster anNMHS should ensure that it is given proper attribution as thesource of the forecast and warnings service. This might be inthe form of an arrangement whereby the name of the NMHSis broadcast with the forecast on each occasion, or at least aspecified minimum number of "mentions" each day or week.Ideally the person reading out the forecast would introduceit with a form of words such as "The weather forecast fromXXXXX is for ……."

4.4 WHERE A RADIO STATION DISSEMINATESDAILY WEATHER INFORMATION FROMANOTHER SOURCES

Radio stations will rarely be in a position to pay significantcosts for content, including weather information content. Forthis reason, among others, many will seek to obtain theirweather information from other sources. These sources maybe private meteorological companies but are just as likely tobe forecasts "lifted" from the Internet, perhaps prepared anddisseminated from another country. Such forecasts are veryoften derived from the direct output of global forecastmodels.

These forecasts will rarely match the quality of forecasts,which an NMHS can offer, but the measurement of forecastquality is notoriously difficult; measurements of qualitycouched in specialist statistical terminology are not readilyunderstood by the ordinary person. Selling a service on thebasis of forecast quality is, therefore, not a straightforwardproposition. It is unfortunate that an NMHS cannot readilyderive full benefit in this situation from what is likely to be itsstrongest point. The strongest scientific point is not usually astrong selling point in the media market.

The NMHS must therefore compete on the basis ofservice delivery; that is, it must offer a product in such amanner as to make it easy and affordable for a broadcaster totake and use the forecast from the NMHS. Most broadcast-ers will appreciate that there is value in using an official,authoritative, nationally known source for weather informa-tion and will use this source as long as it is accessible andeconomic. However, it must be sold to them. This can best bedone by personal visits from NMHS staff. At the very least,the radio station should have an arrangement whereby itpasses on warnings of severe weather to its listeners whenthese are issued.

41Chapter 4 — Strategies for National Meteorological Services

There is mention in Chapter 4 of the importance of ensuringthat warnings of severe weather are fully and promptlyrelayed by radio broadcasters. However, severe or hazardousweather situations place a particular strain on forecast offices,challenging both the ability of the staff as forecasters; theirability to effectively communicate the warnings message, andtheir ability to satisfy the myriad demands of both mediaand the emergency community all at once. For this reasonChapter 5 will focus on how forecasters can best interact withthe medium of radio in the context of such severe weatherepisodes.

The material in this Chapter is based on the "Guidelineson the Improvement on NMHS-Media Relations" (WMOTechnical Document No 1088). The more general material inthat document has been adapted here to provide guidanceespecially relevant to the medium of radio.

There are five stages to consider when dealing with howwe handle severe weather:1. Normal weather – planning and preparedness.2. Severe weather on the way – putting the plans into action3. Severe weather has arrived – keeping everyone up to date4. Severe weather just over – dealing with the aftermath5. Review the event – lessons learned; plans updated

5.1 STAGE 1 – NORMAL WEATHER

This is actually the most important stage, because it is theplans prepared at this time that will guide the actions andresponses when the weather turns bad, and the forecasters areunder stress.

We will assume that appropriate categories of warningshave been established, identifying the different levels of severeweather that might occur. The public should be familiar withthese warnings, and what action is recommended when theyare issued. There is an educational task to be accomplishedhere, which may well be best tackled through the medium ofradio.

Preparing a radio programme on warnings criteria, andon the recommended actions to be taken by the public attimes of severe weather,poses a challenge.In order to be effec-tive a radio programme needs to generate a good audience,and a programme dealing purely with the issues above mightbe too technical to do this adequately.A better strategy wouldbe to prepare a radio programme dealing with some histori-cal severe-weather event, describing both the event itself andthe consequent damage caused. This would allow coverage ofthe "human dimension", which is an important element inengaging the attention of the listeners. The programme couldthen go on to consider the improvements in forecasting andin preparedness. Thus, the educational aspects could be putin the context of avoiding some of the worst consequences ofsevere weather; of avoiding some of the damage and destruc-tion caused by historical severe weather events.

Such a radio programme (or series of programmes)might not be prepared by NMHS staff themselves, but byjournalists with an interest in science and the environment.The process of preparing such programmes should promotea positive co-operation between journalists and NMHS staff;itself a resource of some consequence at times of severeweather.There is also scope within this sort of programme forexamining specific local risks that arise from topography orsituation; this would have the effect of bringing the awarenessof risk down to the local level; making it seem more tangibleand less theoretical.

The next step is to identify the NMHS staff who will haveprimary responsibility for dealing with radio bulletins andinterviews at times of severe weather. These should be chosenon the basis of their competence as forecasters, but also on thebasis of their ability to communicate effectively via radio.This ability will be based on good scripting and presentationskills, and the possession of a good "radio voice". Thesematters are dealt with more completely in Chapter 3. The staffthus chosen should be afforded the opportunity of getting toknow the relevant researchers and journalists working inradio news and current-affairs divisions. Personal relation-ships of friendship and trust,which are well established,makecontact and communication much easier during times ofdifficulty and stress.

Other steps to be taken in advance are to define clearlythe optimum communication links between the forecastoffice and the radio stations. These might be normal tele-phone lines; ISDN lines with appropriate equipment forbetter broadcast quality, or even fixed links between fore-caster and broadcaster. These should be put in place andregularly tested to ensure their continued serviceability.

It might also be considered how radio journalists shouldbe accommodated within an NMHS premises for pressconferences and other such occasions. Severe weather situa-tions will create a high demand for access – perhaps evencompeting demands from different media companies foraccess to forecasters at key news times. Strategies should bein place to allow these demands be met in a manner whichsatisfies the media while not compromising the forecast andwarning process.

5.2 STAGE 2 – SEVERE WEATHER ON THE WAY

One of the advantages of the NMHS / forecast office is that itshould, in most circumstances, have some awareness inadvance of the approaching severe weather.Depending on thephenomenon in question this advanced awareness might bemeasured in hours or days; exceptionally perhaps even a weekor more. Full use needs to be made of this advance notice; itoffers an opportunity to set the media agenda.

Stage 1 should have seen key personnel identified asbeing the primary contact points with the media during

Chapter 5

GUIDELINES ON THE REPORTING OF WEATHER

INFORMATION DURING PERIODS OF "SEVERE" WEATHER

severe weather events. In Stage 2 rosters need to be re-arranged so that these key personnel are working theappropriate shifts through the duration of the expectedsevere weather. This may, inevitably, result in some inconve-nience to forecast office staff. However severe weathersituations can result in the reputation of the NMHS beingeither greatly enhanced or, conversely, greatly damaged, so itis important to ensure that the best possible staffing arrange-ments are in place.

It may be appropriate for the forecast office staff toproactively contact journalists to make them aware ofimpending severe weather, even before it is time to issueformal warnings. This will help to ensure that the warnings,when issued, are given due prominence, and that any accom-panying articles are written on the basis of good information.

It would be good practice at this stage for the NMHS tooffer live interviews to radio news and current affairsprogrammes during which the forecasters could clearlyoutline the extent of the threat. The media will usually tendto "talk up" or "hype" the impending dangers, and it can bedifficult for a forecaster in a live interview to hold the line,neither understating nor over-estimating the risk. A usefuldevice is to make comparisons with similar severe weatherevents that have occurred in living memory, and to be able toquote statistics relating to the resulting damage. It is impor-tant – though often difficult - to remain calm, and not tosensationalise.

5.3 STAGE 3 – SEVERE WEATHER HAS ARRIVED

This third stage can last for some hours or, in extreme cases,perhaps a number of days. The primary need is to presentaccurate information, and to update this information withsufficient frequency that the populace are guided towardsactions that will minimise risk and economic loss.

In a severe weather scenario many people may be awayfrom home, either displaced by the direct effects of theweather or brought to a place of shelter to ensure safety. Inthese situations radio may be the most effective medium forconveying information that keeps people up-to-date; televi-sion may not be accessible, or may even be off the air becauseof the conditions. The simpler and more robust technologyof radio is much more resistant to the effects of severe weatherand other disasters.

At this stage facilities for journalists should be providedby the NMHS, adjacent to the forecast office, where briefingscan be given and interviews arranged. The provision of somefacilities such as telephones, internet-connected computersetc can help the journalists to properly research and dissem-inate the weather story. The provision of light refreshmentsfor journalists and technical crews will also be greatly appre-ciated.

The nominated NMHS contact person should now beleading the show; providing regular briefings and makingthemselves available to journalists as required. Sometimes itis best to have regular scheduled updates; perhaps once everytwo hours, depending on the situation. However it is goodpractice to always check with the journalists before decidingon the exact update times as they will have their own dead-

lines, and it will be of little use having an update that missesthe deadline for the news reporter.

Using the same spokesperson / forecaster throughoutthe emergency is recommended (although this may not bepossible if the situation continues for more than a couple ofdays). Apart from reinforcing the continuity of image of theNMHS, it helps to avoid contradictions in the informationgiven out to the media. In a severe event involving loss of lifeany inconsistency or contradiction in the information canitself become a story in the media, much to the embarrass-ment of the NMHS concerned.

While the demands of the media at this time will beconsiderable, it is important for the NMHS to maintaincontact with the other professionals dealing with the effectsof the disaster; Emergency Managers, Police, perhaps Army,probably Fire Services. The media will also be getting infor-mation from them, so it is vital that they are kept up-to-datewith the developments in the weather. Once more, inconsis-tencies in information should be avoided at all costs.

The following Chapter provides extensive advice on howforecasters can best manage interviews; however in thecontext of severe weather it is worth emphasising one point.Radio news bulletins will not normally carry a long interviewwith a forecaster. It will be important for the information tobe conveyed in short, direct sentences. Just how short will bedetermined by the nature of the radio station.A music-drivenstation will need a "sound-bite"; a succinct summary of thesituation, and of what people should do. A news-drivenstation or a public service broadcaster will normally allocatemore time to the news item and interview,and it is then possi-ble to go into somewhat more detail. It can help to ask theradio journalist in advance what length of "package" s/hehopes to produce. If the forecaster speaks for five minutes, itwill, in all probability, be edited down to one minute. It ismuch better for the forecaster to "self-edit" and present all therelevant information in one minute, if this is possible.

5.4 STAGE 4 – SEVERE WEATHER JUST OVER

The immediate aftermath of severe weather is the time ofgreatest challenge for the emergency management commu-nity. They will now need forecast advice that will assist themin the rescue and clean-up phases, and their needs must comefirst.

For the media in general, and radio in particular, thismay well also be the busiest time. News reportage prefers thehuman dimension to the scientific overview, and there will bea multiplicity of human-interest stories to report on, detail-ing the loss-of-life, injury and damage to property caused bythe severe weather. Radio will need good quality informationabout the weather event to accompany these stories; thestrength of the wind or the intensity of the rainfall, for exam-ple. They will also need to know whether there is anypossibility of the damaging conditions returning in the nearfuture, or even if more normal bad weather is on the way, asthis can impede the work of recovery and inflict furtherdamage and misery on the affected population.

At this stage, however, the NMHS can begin to regaincontrol of the news agenda. It is a time for analysis and more

43Chapter 5 — Guidelines on the reporting of weather information during periods of “severe” weather

in-depth discussion than was possible during the event itself.Often the most senior reporters and journalists will now beworking on this story, and they will tend to work on the dayshifts, so it makes sense to make arrangements that suit theirschedules.

Mid-morning or early afternoon are the best times fornews conferences. The key data relating to the weather eventshould be prepared and presented in a simple format. Do notuse too much detail; neither the journalists nor the publicwill be able to take it all in. A timeline or chronologicalsequence should be prepared, giving the evolution of theweather event, when it first affected the region, when itpeaked, and how it moved away or declined.

It can also be useful to provide some historical context atthis stage; was this the worst event in ten years, in fifty years,how did it compare to the great storm / flood of xxxx etc.Always keep in mind the human dimension and the sufferingthat has resulted from the disaster, and show sympathy withthose who have been affected. A Met Service should showitself to be a caring organisation with a good understandingof the needs of the population.

5.4.1 If the forecast has gone wrong

Sometimes (hopefully not too often) the forecast and warn-ings will not have given adequate notice of the weatherdisaster, and there will be a lot of criticism of the NMHS, andpossibly also the emergency response community.Rememberthat those who have suffered will almost always look forsomeone to "blame", even when it is not fully justified. It isimportant not to react against this and be critical; woundedprofessional pride can recover quickly, but those who havesuffered damage, or perhaps even lost loved ones, will carrythat burden for far longer.

Do not try to hide the fact that warnings were late orinadequate. Provide full details of what warnings were issued,and when. The evidence will be there in any case, it is betterto be honest and "up-front" about the facts. Do explain, assimply as possible, why the forecast was not as accurate as youmight have wished. Try not to lose the listeners in technicalterminology or jargon. It is important for the representativesof the NMHS to speak clearly and calmly.

Emphasise that the NMHS will learn from this event;and does realise that the forecasts and warnings were not asgood as they should have been. Acknowledge again thehuman suffering. Try to make a distinction between what waspreventable and what was not. There is no need to acceptblame for the entire event – the NMHS did not create thedisaster – but it is not wise to maintain that the response wasas good as it should have been. This can be a difficult balanceto achieve.

Where necessary the NMHS should apologise to thecommunity, and then move on. This can be difficult to do in

a dignified manner – here the senior people in the MetService have to be very supportive of the forecast staff and thefrontline spokesman or woman.

5.5 STAGE 5 – REVIEW THE EVENT

When the severe weather has passed, the NMHS will need toprepare a definitive account of what happened. While thiswill be necessary for Climatological purposes, there may alsobe value in preparing a media article – or, in this case, a radioprogramme – that looks closely at all aspects of the disaster.Such a programme might be prepared to mark the anniver-sary of a particularly damaging event; perhaps one year later.The programme could look at the event itself, and then go onto consider the lessons learned and the improvementsplanned and/or effected following the experience of thesevere weather.

As well as working on such programmes for the publicthere should be an opportunity, after the event, to liaise withthe media contacts and journalists. The principal focus ofthis liaison would be to assess how happy they were with thecooperation and support they received from the NMHS intheir job. This is the sort of question often best posed in asocial context rather than at a formal meeting, unless there isan arrangement for some sort of standing committee thatreviews arrangements between the official bodies and themedia.

It is important to listen on these occasions; to ask themedia what worked for them, and to try and find out whatdeficiencies they perceived in the arrangements. If there is tobe an internal report to focus on how the NMHS respondedto the situation, then that section of it that relates to the mediamight be circulated to some trusted media contacts in draftform, and their opinions and input sought. This will not beappropriate for every journalist, but feedback from carefullyselected media people can be very valuable.

If the report recommends changes in procedures orprotocol, then it should be acted upon by managementwithout delay. There will be no way of knowing whetherthe next weather disaster will come along in one week, onemonth or one year. As well as looking at the proceduresthemselves there should be a focus on how staff dealt withthe pressures, and whether training would help in provid-ing a better response next time. If some people have provento be unhappy with or unsuitable for the responsibilitieswhich they have taken on, then management may need tolook at changes in personnel. The important thing is not toput off the actions, which appear to be necessary. TheNMHS has now gone through the complete cycle and isback in the "normal weather" time that was defined at thebeginning. Armed with the lessons learned from the expe-rience it is time to revise plans for the challenges that lieahead.


The Guidelines in this chapter seek to assist NMHS staff toprepare for and to go through radio interviews effectively.The chief aim is always to inform and educate the listener.Done effectively, radio interviews enhance the visibility ofthe NMHS and render it credible to the listeners. Radio inter-views may take place in many different kinds of locationsand situations. Here we seek to explain how you can besthandle interviews in such situations for particular weatherrelated subjects such as climate change, application ofweather and climate to specialized sectors such as Health,Agriculture, Tourism and Disaster Management.

This chapter aims to provide advice on how to preparefor live versus taped radio interviews, and gives various tipssuch as the importance of ‘visuals’ on radio and many more.

6.1 PREPARATION FOR AN INTERVIEW

Here’s the chorus; prepare & practice, keep it simple. Givinga good interview is simple – but not necessarily easy!Professional spokespeople with years of experience under-stand these principles.They understand that the person beinginterviewed must control the interview and deliver messagepoints while still meeting the reporter’s needs. The goal in aninterview is to educate, deliver message points and control theinterview while under pressure. This task is about 50%learned skills, and 50% natural ability.

It is an accepted rule that,prior to any interview concern-ing weather and climate, the meteorologist needs tofamiliarize him or herself with all aspects of the current fore-cast. This includes short-term, medium-term and evenlong-term forecasts because whether or not you are the fore-caster on duty, you are expected to know what forecast yourservice has issued. It can be quite embarrassing if you fail toanswer adequately question on the forecast weather during alive radio broadcast. Likewise, be well versed in topical issuessuch as the state of El Niño/ La Niña. The first rule therefore,is to be prepared.• Additionally, know your audience and prepare answers

from their point of view, anticipate likely questions andthink through your answers in advance. Practice! Reviewworst-case scenarios and appropriate responses to them.

• Reporters are generalists. Do not assume they will knowanything about meteorology. Provide them with good,concise background material prior to an interview ifpossible, or some summarised information, which theycan take with them.

• Before the interview, find out how long you will be on theair.Are you being interviewed for a news story? For a talkshow? This will tell you if you need to make your answers10 seconds or 30 seconds.

6.2 INTERVIEWS AT THE STUDIO

6.2.1 Interview to address a specialized weatherapplication subject

Some radio discussion programs provide adequate time foran in-depth treatment of subjects such as specialized weatherapplications. These subjects include application of weatherand climate information to enhancement of the quality oflife in Health, Agriculture, Food Security, DisasterManagement and other similar fields. NMHSs might wish toobserve the following points for ensuring the effectivedissemination of such information to the public:• It may often be advantageous to suggest a broad discus-

sion panel in order to treat a complex subject adequately.For example, in order to discuss the influence of weatheron mosquitoes that propagate Malaria, it would makesense to invite an entomologist and a medical doctor tojoin the meteorologist on the panel.Always be preparedfor possible questions that the presenter may pose.Normally you will be asked to arrive at the radio studioearly in order to discuss questions before recording, orgoing on air where the programme will be live. Take thisseriously. It could save the day.

• To help increase listener satisfaction it can be good prac-tice to organise and participate in a call-in session. Behonest with the listeners and use simple language devoidof meteorological jargon. As much as possible relate theanswer to the locality of the listener. Do not mentionfigures (e.g. 109 mm of rain) without attaching the phys-ical significance to the figure. Figures which arepresented without being attached to then life experienceof the listener remain just figures. In the examplementioned, it would be illuminating to point out thatsuch a rainfall amount could well lead to flooding.

• If you are being interviewed at length in a radio studio,bring your notes along. Again, there is nothing wrongwith using them for reference.Make sure you unclip yournotes before the show starts and lay them out so youwon't have to shuffle through them while on the air.While it is not appropriate to ask for specific questions,

it is okay to suggest that a reporter cover certain areas orsuggest certain topics to be covered prior to an interview. Hemay not always do so. Make sure you have your agenda set onwhat you want to get across in an interview. Select a few keypoints and be certain to cover them regardless of whatspecific questions the reporter may ask. You have morecontrol over a face-to-face interview with its direction andflow. Do not feel compelled to continue speaking if there is apause.

Chapter 6

GUIDELINES ON RADIO INTERVIEWS PROVIDED ON

WEATHER RELATED SUBJECTS

6.2.2 Control the interview

It is all right to steer the interview in any fashion you choose.If you are good at it,you can use their question to springboardto the area you want covered. This is legitimate.• Keep coming back to your core message.• Answer questions to your advantage by rephrasing when

possible. (I think what you’re asking is…)• Answer the question and stop talking.• Do not allow your message to get lost in too much detail.

State your conclusions and back them up with facts.• Don’t repeat an offensive comment or phrase. Answer

with a positive statement.• Avoid personal or judgmental opinions.• Keep your cool. Do not argue.• Avoid answering hypothetical questions. Don’t specu-

late. Rather, validate concerns and feelings caused byhazardous weather, for example.

• Ignore studio distractions. At times, the host might cueup a commercial, or someone might walk into the studio.Concentrate only on the questions and your answers.

• Keep your cool during a call-in show. Many anonymouscallers love to upset guests on these programs. If you getangry, that will be the element of the show that peoplebest remember.

6.2.3 Interview to address a weather occurrence orforecast

When discussing weather that has been experienced, or aforecast that has been issued, it is not necessary to includeother professionals in the discussion panel. It is howevernecessary to prepare sufficiently for the interview even if thismeans doing some research prior to the interview. Forinstance, if you are preparing for an interview on frost that hasled to the destruction of a crop somewhere, be ready toexplain in simple terms the processes by which frost can killcrops. This may require some reading to understand thebehaviour of amino acids that make up the juices in the leavesof particular plants and how they can crystallize under asudden temperature drop even if the temperature may notnecessarily drop to zero degrees Celsius. Explaining in simpleterms that the fluid in the leaf is not pure water, so that thetemperature does not have to drop to freezing point of waterfor it to solidify and burst cell walls, could be very interestingand informative to the listener if done simply and clearly.

6.2.4 Telephone Interviews (When a journalist callsthe NMHS)

Sometimes a journalist will call for information that you maynot have at your fingertips. When one does not have therequired information, to avoid giving inaccurate facts, thereis no harm in asking the journalists to give you a little time togather and arrange these facts. Make it a point to call backwithout undue delay as journalists normally operate on tightschedule.• The interviewer’s voice may seem distant due to techni-

cal reasons. Resist the impulse to speak loudly inresponse.

• Make sure you can hear questions clearly. If you areuncomfortable with the volume, say so.

• Get your point across quickly.• Use notes so that you have facts at your fingertips.• Begin your answer only when you are sure the question

has been fully asked.• Don’t provide new information when asked at the end of

an interview: "Do you have any additional thoughts?" Ifnecessary, repeat your message.

• Do not be afraid of silence or pauses when givingrecorded interviews. Once you have made your point,stop. They will edit out silence.A pause gives you time tothink and comes across as being thoughtful. Give briefanswers to questions. The more tape they have the lesslikely they are to pick exactly what you want to say.

6.2.5 Stand ups (After an event e.g. Press Conference, etc)

Stand-ups are interviews that are done on a one-to-one basisafter holding a press conference or brief. A journalist maystop you as you leave the venue, wanting a particular pointclarified. The journalist could for example be looking for anexclusive story so as to outclass competing media. It couldalso be that s/he requires an interview delivered in anotherlanguage that was not used in the press conference of brief. Inthis case,be prepared for questions outside the confines of thebrief just completed. This begs proper preparation. In case ofa requirement for the use of a different language, make surethat a forecaster who is fluent in and comfortable with thelanguage in question is provided (and briefed) - even if he orshe is not the person who has led the conference.

6.2.6 General tips on radio interview

Interviews are not conversations. The reporter is representingthe public and will probably ask hard or sometimes deliber-ately leading questions to elicit an emotional response fromyou. You are speaking to the public, not the reporter. Thereporter is a vehicle for your thoughts. If you don't wantcertain phrases in the interview do not use them.This is easiersaid than done, especially with reporters with whom you haveworked in the past. It is easy to slip into a conversationalmode. Be very clear on your choice of words.• Reporters come in all personality types. Do not put them

all in the "out to get you" category.• For some reporters there is no such thing as "off the

record." If you do not want something aired, do not sayit.

• Tell the truth. If you do not, your credibility is ruined. Ifyou cannot absolutely divulge information, say so, andstate why. Be completely honest. Never lie or try to fool areporter. If you are unsure of an answer to a question,that is okay. Offer to get the information.

• Warm up your voice by talking for a few minutes before.• Do not speak too slowly, but do speak clearly.• Repeat your message.Listeners may tune in late,and miss

your message.


• Vary your voice, but avoid "ah" and "um."• Try to sound as if you are speaking to a friend. Try to

keep your voice animated and positive. It is all thelistener has to get a sense of you. Smiling sometimesworks to come across in a people-friendly way. If yourvoice becomes higher pitched because you are nervous,try to lower it with subtle deep breathing.

• In any taped interview, you can correct yourself if youmake a mistake or stumble. They will use the "clean"version of your answer.

• As radio does not have the advantage of visual weathersymbols or footage such as is possible with television, tryto describe phenomena as graphically and lucidly aspossible using examples familiar to the listener. Do thisto achieve a ‘visual’ effect. This is very useful especially ifyou have a flair for it.

• When the interview is over, offer to gather additionalinformation for the reporter so you can determinehis/her interests. Call the reporter if the story, which isbeing broadcasted, contains inaccuracies, and politelyprovide appropriate corrections.

6.3 CONCLUDING POINTS

Despite all the advances in new communicationstechnology radio is – and will remain for the foreseeablefuture – one of the primary media for the broadcasting and

dissemination of weather information. Indeed in many partsof the world – both developed and developing – it may be theonly regular means by which listeners receive regular weatherforecasts and warnings.

Radio has a particular value during times of severeweather because of the speed with which amendments tothe forecast, and developments in the weather, can bebroadcast, and because of the inherent robustness of radiotransmitters and receivers. Radio has a tremendous reachand reliability.

For all its simplicity the proper use of radio requiresskill, training and careful preparation. The forecaster needsto be very aware of the inherent strengths and weaknessesof the medium in order to exploit it to the fullest extent.This document has attempted to provide comprehensiveguidance to all those involved in the broadcasting ofweather information via radio. Weather information isvaluable information, assembled at considerable cost andwith appreciable skill. To unlock the potential benefits itcan provide to the community, it deserves and needs to bepackaged and presented to the public in the best mannerpossible.

The benefits to be gained go further than a better under-standing of the weather forecast and a greater reach forweather warnings; they include a greater appreciation of thework and expertise of the meteorological community as awhole, and of the NMHSs in particular.

47Chapter 6 — Guidelines on radio interviews provided on weather related subjects

WMO devotes considerable resources to the training ofMeteorologists in the area of weather presentation. This isprincipally to aid capacity building of NMSs; particularlythose of developing countries. The following is suggested asa template for training courses weather broadcasting.

DURATIONFor practical purposes the training courses should bedesigned around modules of one week (five working days).Most courses will be of one week duration; in certain circum-stances a course of two weeks might be appropriate, ifresources permit.

NUMBERS OF TRAINEESCourses should aim to have between 12 and 15 trainees inattendance.

STAFFINGTwo principal trainers should be engaged; these trainersshould, between them, have extensive experience in bothmedia aspects and meteorological aspects of weather broad-casting. It may also be useful to provide for some assistanttrainers to supervise the group work of the trainees underguidance. Ideally there might be two or three assistant train-ers; typically these might be locally-based weatherbroadcasters of some experience.

The local organisers should also arrange for a compre-hensive briefing of current and forecast weather to bedelivered to the trainee group first thing each morning for theduration of the course.

FACILITIESCourses in weather presentation should cover both radio andtelevision work; consequently the following facilities shouldideally be made available:1. A room with adequate seating for 20-25 people.2. Two or three smaller rooms (or corners of a larger room)

where the trainees could work in small groups.3. Facilities for overhead projection.4. A mock-up radio studio containing a chair, desk, clock,

and microphone together with equipment for the record-ing and playback of sound broadcasts.

5. A video camera with stand; some studio-type lighting; avideo recorder; a large monitor for video playback (or aconnection to allow playback through the overheadprojector).

6. A simple weather graphics system (could be based onPowerpoint or similar).

7. A chroma-key studio (camera, screen, mixer and videorecorder) which can accept input from the weathergraphics system.

8. Adjacent facilities for lunch, coffee etc.

(N.B. The weather graphics system and chroma-key studioneed not be available on-site, nor for the full duration of thecourse. In the context of a five-day course, two or three daysavailability of these facilities on the premises of a nearbybroadcaster would suffice).

STRUCTURED TRAININGThere is a potential need for three levels of training courses,as follows:• Basic – for introducing new or untrained people to the

work of weather broadcasting.• Advanced – for those who already have some broadcast

experience. An advanced course might also be appro-priate when "training the trainers", i.e. equippingexperienced broadcasters with the skills to become train-ers themselves in their own regions.

• Refresher – for updating meteorological knowledge andpresentation skills. This should be though of as anelement of Continuing Professional Development, andmight incorporate peer review and management feed-back.The training should be based around core competencies

or skills; the details of how any particular course is puttogether will be decided by the level of the course, and by theexisting and desired competencies of the trainee group.

COMPETENCIES1. Presentation Skills(a) The weather story. The trainee should be able to identify

the key point or points of the weather story, and todevelop these into a coherent narrative and presentation.The trainee should understand the importance of clearand unambiguous presentation of weather warnings.The trainee should have a good understanding of themeteorology and climatology of their own country orregion.

(b) Weather Graphics.The trainee should be able to visualisethe weather story as a series of graphics, and to preparea suitable sequence of charts on a weather graphicssystem.

(c) Scripting / Language. The trainee should be able to artic-ulate the weather story in clear and natural language,whether through a written script or for a non-scriptedpresentation. The language used must be descriptiveenough to inspire attention and interest, and yet beabsolutely accurate in building on the scientific base.

(d) Appearance. The trainee should appreciate the need forsuitable grooming towards in an acceptable on-screenappearance. This should be in accordance with therelevant social and cultural norms. The trainee shouldunderstand the need for an appearance which enhancesthe brand values of the NMS and the broadcast

Appendix 1

A TEMPLATE FOR WMO TRAINING COURSES IN

WEATHER PRESENTATION

organisation,and which does not conflict with,or detractfrom, the proper tone of the weather message.

(e) Personality and Presentation Techniques. The traineeshould develop the confidence to express their person-ality in a manner that allows them to deliver the weathermessage with authority. The trainee should develop theability to connect with the viewer or listener, and torecognise and modify any personal behavioural attrib-utes which might detract from the message.

2. Technological Awareness(a) Weather Broadcast Hardware. The trainee should have a

basic understanding of the functions and operation ofhardware commonly used in weather broadcasting;specifically the PC or other computer system employedfor weather graphics, the recording equipment, and thenecessary adjustments of camera and mixers where thisis relevant. The trainee should understand the manner inwhich the visual elements (presenter image, graphics)are brought together and transmitted to the broadcaster.

(b) Weather Broadcast Software. The trainee should developa thorough knowledge of the graphics software on theirsystem; its capabilities and limitations. The traineeshould have an awareness of other software packagesthat might be used to enhance the capabilities of theservice.

(c) Routine Production. Trainees should be able to useroutine production techniques appropriate to theirservice, and understand the requirements of routineproduction, including documentation and instructions.

3. Development of Weather Broadcasts(a) Editorial Policy. The trainee should understand the

concept of editorial policy as applied to weather broad-casts, and should be capable of developing andproposing revision to such a policy in response to chang-ing circumstances; both meteorological and otherwise.

(b) New Graphic Elements. The trainee should be able todesign and incorporate new elements into the graphicsof a presentation, ensuring that they are in accordancewith editorial policy.

4. Relationship with Broadcast Organisations(a) Working in a Production Environment. The trainee

should understand the need for weather broadcasts tobe delivered on time and reliably as required bybroadcaster’s schedules. The trainee should appreciate the importance of developing and main-taining good relationships with editorial andproduction staff.

(b) Negotiating Editorial Policy. The trainee should have aclear view of the editorial issues pertaining to weatherbroadcasts; in particular the needs and requirements ofthe NMS. This should include an understanding of the"Single Official Voice" policy for public safety warnings.The trainee should develop the negotiating skills neces-sary to engage with representatives of mediaorganisations on editorial policy issues.

(c) Selling the Service. The trainee should understand thenecessity of selling and promoting weather presenta-tion ser vices to media companies including anawareness of competition, an understanding of brand-ing, and an ability to articulate the benefits of goodbroadcast meteorology both within NMSs and tomedia organisations.

(d) Sponsorship Issues.The trainee should appreciate,whereappropriate, the role of commercial sponsorship ofweather broadcasts, and in particular the need for spon-sorship not to obscure or conflict with the weathermessage.

5. Training and Mentoring Skills(a) Evaluation of Presentations. The trainee should be able

to evaluate and produce a critique of their own and otherweather broadcasts, and to communicate this critique toothers in a constructive and positive manner whereappropriate.

(b) Mentoring of Colleagues.The trainee should understandthe framework of competencies and skills, and how thisapplies to weather broadcasting. He or she should beable to use this framework to help develop the compe-tencies of other staff.

49Appendix 1 — A Template for WMO training courses in weather Presentation

POSSIBLE COURSE OUTLINES


One-WeekBasic Course:

Day One IntroductionThe Weather StoryScripting / Language

Day Two Personality and Presentation TechniquesScripting / LanguageAppearance

Day Three Working in a Production EnvironmentWeather Broadcast HardwareWeather GraphicsPersonality and Presentation Techniques

Day Four Routine ProductionAll of "Presentation Skills" Editorial Policy

Day Five All of "Presentation Skills"Personality and Presentation Techniques

Two-WeekBasic Course:

Day One IntroductionThe Weather StoryScripting / Language

Day Two Personality and Presentation TechniquesScripting / LanguageAppearance

Day Three Personality and Presentation TechniquesWeather GraphicsScripting / LanguageAppearance

Day Four Working in a Production EnvironmentWeather Broadcast HardwareWeather Broadcast SoftwarePersonality and Presentation Techniques

Day Five Editorial PolicyNegotiating Editorial Policy

Day Six All of "Presentation Skills"

Day Seven Selling the ServiceScripting / Language (radio only)

Day Eight Personality and Presentation TechniquesWeather GraphicsScripting / LanguageAppearance

Day Nine Evaluation of PresentationsAll of "Presentation Skills"

Day Ten Evaluation of PresentationsAll of "Presentation Skills"

51Appendix 1 — A Template for WMO training courses in weather Presentation

This advanced course could be tailored to make it particularly suitable for experienced broadcast meteorologists who couldthen train and mentor less experienced staff, either in their own NMS or at regional training workshops. Such regional work-shops should also provide a forum for the sharing of experience and constructive criticism between neighbouring NMSs onan ongoing basis.

Day One IntroductionThe Weather StoryScripting / LanguagePersonality and Presentation Techniques

Day Two AppearancePersonality and Presentation TechniquesWeather GraphicsNew Graphic Elements

Day Three Routine ProductionEditorial PolicyThe Weather StoryScripting / Language

Day Four Evaluation of PresentationsAll of "Presentation Skills"

Day Five Evaluation of PresentationsAll of "Presentation Skills"

One-WeekRefresher Course:

Day One IntroductionThe Weather StoryScripting / LanguagePersonality and Presentation Techniques

Day Two Weather Broadcast HardwareWeather Broadcast SoftwareWeather GraphicsNew Graphic Elements

Day Three Editorial PolicyNegotiating Editorial PolicySelling the ServiceSponsorship Issues

Day Four Evaluation of PresentationsMentoring of Colleagues

Day Five Evaluation of PresentationsAll of "Presentation Skills"

One weekAdvanced Course /Training the Trainers:

1. Make sure you have a good knowledge of the weathersituation. Good knowledge brings confidence to you andthus to the viewer.

2. You should look presentable; well groomed with smart,neat clothing. This will help you to act professionally.

3. Be organised; check the studio and all equipment inadvance; give yourself time for rehearsal; be timeconscious and focussed.

4. Take charge of the studio! Have a good working rela-tionship with the technicians, and ensure that the studiois set up the way you want it.

5. Tell your story in a clear, concise manner; avoid jargonand use the language of normal speech as much as possi-ble.

6. Don’t try to impress on camera – be natural. You have agood story to tell.You should project a relaxed, lively andfriendly personality.

7. Position yourself so that you can turn easily from thecamera to the charts; keep good eye contact with thecamera except when you are "looking" at the chartsbehind.

8. Don’t speak to quickly; use pauses for emphasis. Useappropriate intonation so that your voice is not too "flat".Mind the pitch of the voice; many men need to pitch alittle higher than normal, while ladies usually need tolower the pitch somewhat.

9. Any technical terms should be explained and, wherepossible, visualised and linked to the weather.

10. Use the Funnel Principle. The full range of informationshould be presented, then funnelled down into theessence of the forecast; a simple message that can beeasily understood and remembered.

Appendix 2

TEN GUIDELINES OF GOOD


1. MOBILE TELEVISION AND MASSTRANSPORTATION

During the last decade, the digitalization of content has hada tremendous impact on the broadcasting landscape aroundthe world. The key advantages of digital video broadcastsystem are:(a) Video and audio signals are coded and compressed

before transmission(b) The transmitted (digital) signal is less susceptible to

ambient interference an comparison to an analoguesignal.Therefore, digital video broadcast is suitable for televi-

sion program reception in moving vehicles such as buses,trains and cars. With the popularity of television mobilesystem in the near future, the latest television weather broad-casts could be transmitted and shown in the various modesof public transport.

Background Information:

There are currently three popular standards for digital tele-vision broadcast: the European Digital Video BroadcastingTerrestrial (DVB-T),American Advanced Television SystemsCommittee (ATSC) standard and the Japanese IntegratedServices Digital Broadcasting Terrestrial (ISDB-T) standard.A major advantage of digital television is the ability to carrymore channels over the same amount of bandwidth. Anothercan be high-definition programming. The first commercialDVB-T broadcasts were performed in UK in late 1998. In2003, Berlin, Germany was the first to completely stop broad-casting analogue television signals. Singapore is now usingDVB-T as the television mobile system for broadcasting onthe public bus network.

2. DIGITAL BROADCAST FOR HANDHELDDEVICES

An emerging digital broadcast technology for handhelddevices is the IP Datacast, which is based on a combinationof the European Digital Video Broadcasting for HandheldDevices (DVB-H) and Internet Protocol technology (IP),and is optimised for mobile content distribution and recep-tion. Basically, this is a technology for transmitting IP packetsover digital broadcast radio channels rather than over theInternet, as is more usual. Therefore, in addition to televi-sion signals, IP Datacast also supports the transmission ofdata and files directly to handheld devices. IP Datacast is amulticast service and, as in radio and television, the broad-cast signal is carried via the broadcast antenna, with anyreceiver in the area of coverage capable of receiving the signal.

The most suitable use of IP Datacast is to deliver data inwhich all have an interest, such as a television newsprogramme or weather broadcast.

IP Datacast is a rather new broadcasting technology andis still in a trial stage. Several pilot tests have been conductedin Europe with a common aim to extend the reach of videoand audio broadcast into mobile phones.

3. MOBILE INTERNET ACCESS

Mobile Internet access through the use of handhelddevices, like Personal Data Assistants (PDAs) and mobilephones, or directly to a laptop, is becoming more availableand more popular. Two technologies used for mobileInternet access are General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)and 3rd Generation Services (3G). With GPRS, a user mayaccess email and the Internet from a mobile phone, orfrom a laptop or PDA via a mobile phone. The peak datatransfer speeds range from 26kbps to 52kbps dependingon the hardware used and the mobile network operator. Todeliver weather information to users of handheld deviceswith Internet access via GPRS, an NMS would need toprepare a web site of specialised design. Bearing in mindthat GPRS is much slower than a fixed communicationlink, and that the form factor of handheld devices is alsomuch smaller than a normal PC display, the design consid-erations for web pages servicing handheld devices wouldinclude the following:(a) The width of web pages or images should fit within the

screen of most handheld devices (width of 220 pixels isa reasonable size);

(b) Minimize the size of pages or images. For images, selecta suitable colour depth (example, for a 256 colour image,do not use 16bits colour depth)

(c) Avoid using client-side technology in web pages (such asJavascript or Java Applet) and keep away from multime-dia content, as handheld devices have a limitedprocessing power

(d) Web pages should be kept as simple as possible. Avoidusing deep links. 3 levels of hyperlinks are quite suffi-cient.3G is a new communication technology, enabling mobile

Internet access with a high-speed data rate. 3G supports vari-able and high-speed data rates of 384kbps and faster. Suchhigh speed opens up the possibility of delivering weatherinformation in multimedia content (such as video)to mobile or handheld users. Another new possibilityoffered by 3G is location-based weather informationbased on GPS and cellular positioning systems(http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/March2004/6797.htm). Novelapplications of location-based services for PWS include routeforecast and location-based nowcasting products.

Appendix 3

EMERGING COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR

DISSEMINATION OF PWS PRODUCTS


4. XML

Extensible Markup Language (XML) is an open standard fordata exchange of information between computer systemsover the Internet. XML is a meta-language which allows thelanguage to describe itself through the use of XML Schema.XML Schema is itself a XML document that defines the dataformat to be exchanged. The WMO city forecasts currentlyavailable on the WWIS web site are already in XML format.This is to facilitate NMSs in the development of programs toingest weather information into their application systems,for consumption within the NMSs or for distribution to thelocal public.

In the WMO Information System project a standardapproach to describing data is central to the concepts behindthe proposal. Metadata is information that describes data.For climatological data, the metadata would be stationnumber, update frequency, latitude-longitude of the station,observation elements and location of data file. For NWPGRIB dataset, it would include element types, horizontalresolution, number of vertical levels, forecast hours, forecastarea, etc. The CBS Expert Team on Integrated DataManagement proposed and developed a "WMO CommunityCore Metadata" standard for the WWW DATA Managementin 2001. The standard aims to provide a general definition fordirectory searches and exchange that should be applicable toa wide variety of WMO datasets. XML is recommended asproviding for the implementation of the standard, and theWMO Core Metadata XML Schema is also developed.

5. WEB SERVICES

Web service is a kind of distributed computing technologyover the Internet, similar to XML in many respects for data

exchange between computer systems. It is based on theclient-server application model. An example of applicationin PWS product delivery is the provision of world city fore-casts to the international media. The client application of acompany contacts the web service (in the server) providingthe forecast information, and sends a service request askingfor the weather forecast of a specific city. The server wouldreturn the requested forecast through a service response inXML format. Once the client application receives the fore-cast, it can ingest the information into its application systemin accordance with its own needs. For television stations, thecity forecast fetched from the web service can be put into theweather broadcast automatically in order to streamline thewhole production process.

Another application of web service in PWS isthe provision of weather reports at all airports andobservation stations (see, for example, http://www.cape-science.com/webservices/globalweather/index.shtml).

6. FORECAST DELIVERED BY SMS

SMS is well known for its efficiency in the transmission of textmessages, such as severe weather warnings or forecastmessages, to a group of mobile phone users.On-demand PWS product delivery can also beimplemented using SMS. The UK Met Office recentlydeployed a "Forecast by SMS" service (see http://www.metof-fice.gov.uk/services/wxcall/mobile.html). To use this service,mobile phone users simply send "weathercall" (an SMSmessage), appending the name of the town, city or locationfor which the forecast is requested, and the type of forecast(today’s forecast, or a 5-day forecast) to a designated phonenumber. The system will then automatically return an SMSmessage containing the weather forecast to the user.

Documents

Guidelines on weather broadcasting and the use of radio