INTRODUCTION: Nature of environment

Ecology was traditionally defined as the 'study of organisms in relation to environment' the environment was considered a sort of inert stage in which the actors that is the organism played the game of natural selection. Perceptions today have changed, wherein we now are cognizant of the fact that the 'stage' and the 'actors' interact with each other constantly so that not only do organisms relate to the physical environment but they also change the environment, Not only are they shaped by the environment they live in but also shape it, thus when the first cynano-bacteria started putting oxygen in the environ they paved the way for the first aerobic organisms. Today everything outside a person affecting him is considered as Environment.

FIG 1.1

Environment refers to the physical & social conditions in which people live, especially as it influences their feelings & development. Environment can be defined as the complex set of physical, chemical, biological factors & social factors in which a living organism or community exists. This includes factors which operate like air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans & interrelationships. The totality of surrounding conditions & circumstances affect growth & development, atmosphere & ambience, happiness & quality of life. This results into survival, growth, development & quality of life in general. The social environment of an individual refers to his culture, family life, people, institutions & others with whom the person interacts. Children need a "happy home" environment. A well planned modern factory needs to offer a pleasant working environment. People need to survive; hence they need clean water, air and unpolluted space. Therefore, we can create certain beautiful environmental conditions and we need to preserve the natural environmental conditions. The scientific study of the patterns of relations of plants, animals & people to each other & their surroundings refer to Ecology. In addition to the physical sciences (including energetic, biogeochemical cycling and earth sciences in general), now more than ever we have to consider humans and the social sciences as part of the environment. So now we have a new discipline of ecology that is a three way interface (Snow 1959). A new Culture would need to emerge to close the communication gap between Science and Humanities which was getting larger as science and humanities were getting more and more reductionistic, fragmented and specialized Ecology has emerged as a discipline increasing the scale of study to whole systems landscapes and up to ecosphere.

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What we are learning from nature about youth to maturity or quantitative to qualitative growth patterns, food chain energetic, feedback cybernetics, carrying capacity, evolution of competition to mutualism, diversity, networks and other ecosystem -level processes can help us build these culture bridges. In summary science and technology alone will not prevent global environmental deterioration because the problems and the solutions involve people and the non science disciplines especially Psychology, economics, law, education, political science and the social sciences.

Landscape ecologists Zev Neveh (1982 ) gave the term 'techno-ecosystems' These utilize powerful energy sources (fossil as well as atomic and involve technology money and cities which have few if any parallels in nature. If the urban-industrial society is to survive in our finite world, it is important that techno-ecosystems coexist with natural ecosystems in a more positive, mutual manner than is now the case.

Prior to the industrial revolution humans were parts of rather than apart from nature. We were hunters and gatherer omnivores acting as top predators in the food web. Early agricultural practices like those still used in small family farms in the pre-industrial parts of the world, were compatible with natural ecosystems. Indeed they often enriched the landscape in addition to providing food. The basic natural ecosystem model however is no longer adequate to take account of modern human activities that include: replacement of the less concentrated sunlight-based energy sources with fossil fuels; mushrooming growth of cities; rapidly expanding industrial agriculture and especially the increasing use of a money based market economics as a basis for decision making, Thus we need to think and act in terms of new models that relate the two interdependent systems.

Reward- feedback refers to a process such as what parasites and predators and herbivores do to enhance the survival of their food supplies. e.g. when grazers such as grasshoppers antelopes or cows eat grass their saliva contains growth hormones that stimulate the grass to put up new shoots (Dyer et al 1993 95) We need to increase the reward feedback flow from techno ecosystems to natural ecosystems To accomplish reward feedback we need to 'reconstruct' economics to include life supporting goods and service (natural capital) as suggested by economists and ecologists (Lovins and Hawkins)

Environment generally means everything outside a person. The term 'Ecology' has its roots in the Greek word 'Oakes' which mean s household or living place. It came into use in the later of the 19th century in the works of zoologists and botanists to describe the study of ways in which organisms live their environment. Later two branches of ecology were distinguished. These are 'Auteology' and 'Synecology'. Autecology's is defined as being the study of individual organism in their interaction with their environment and synecology is defined as being the study of the relationship between the organisms engaged together within the given unit of environment (Encyclopedia of Social Science).

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UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY

Ecology is the branch of science which studies the interactions between organisms & their environment. As discussed earlier, this interaction is with physical habitat, climate, geology & other aspects of surroundings. The environment of an organism includes both its physical habitat, which is described as the sum total of all local factors like climate and geology, as well as other organisms which share its habitat. The term "oekologie" was coined in 1866 by the German Biologist Ernst Haeckel, from the Greek word meaning "household".

Ecology is the science of relationships between organisms and their environments. This branch of Social Sciences is concerned with studying the relationships between human groups and their physical and social environments, is called human ecology. The study of detrimental effects of modern civilization on the environment, with a view towards prevention or reversal through conservation is also a part of human ecology. Importance of understanding ecology is crucial to man's future. An understanding of ecology provides the basis for substantial use of natural resources, for the conservation of habitats and species, and for the prediction of effects of man's activities on natural environment. The science of ecology is thus concerned with relationships between living organisms: plants, animals, microorganisms and their environment. Ecologists study the way in which organisms, populations, communities and ecosystems function and in doing so draw on many other areas of knowledge. Ecology is thus a challenging and diverse subject. Ecology and applied ecology cover a wide range of aspects, including animal ecology, vegetation ecology, environmental science, soil science and microbial ecology. An ecologist works in very many different environments, natural and managed from tropics to the Arctic and from estuaries to mountain tops to man made social environments.

Ecology is also defined as being the study of the spatial and temporal relation of human being affected by the selective, distributive and accommodative forces of the environment, (Kenzia 1924). Hawely (1950) defined ecology as 'A study of the form and development of the human community.

The quality of environment is the degree of the positive impact of the environment balanced off against the degree of the negative impact of the environment on a given individual. When a community or a nation sets about to improve its quality of life it is highly probable that they will target environmental factors. Indicators of the quality of life and environmental quality as suggested by UNESCO (1976) are the following:

• Fire protection. • Comfort of home. • Electric service. • Privacy in your home. • Relation with fellow workers. • Postal service. • Garbage-collection. • Mechanical helpers in your family.

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• Telephone services. • Public-water system. • Relation with neighbors. • Gas service. • Freedom to live where you want. • Sewage disposal service. • Availability of food around your living place. • Convenience for getting to important places. • Noise level in the home setting. • Beauty of your home. • Security of your home. • Topography of land around. • Product available to the community. • Medical care in your locality. • Police protection. • Quality of water used by the household. • Natural outdoor recreation. • Variety of wild life in community. • Cleanliness of air around. • Overall weather. • Public information media. • Level of crowding in your residential neighborhood. • Transportation over long distance. • Level of traffic congestion. • Job-opportunities. • Quality of water for recreation. • Product quality and variety. • Relations among group in the community. • Freedom to move from class to class. • Freedom to move form on job to another. • Public services-gas, sewage etc sec 7,12,10,14 etc. • Unspoiled natures. • Man made environment. • Physical condition of environment at school. • Isolation of your community. • Physical condition of environment where you work. • Amount of open space around. • Access to parks. • Control of dogs and other pets. • Cost of living.

Taking these as components of environment and ecology this web based course attempts to present a multidisciplinary system approach. The concepts are drawn from all subjects relevant to explain the environment scenario. Appropriate Technology, Psychology, Sociology,

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Economics, Management, and Philosophy, Values and Ethics are some subjects from where concepts and concerns are drawn (Fig 1.2). The course also presents methodological approaches, training, ideologies, globalization, ecological behavior and knowledge management relating them to environment and ecology. Details of the course outline are as presented in the next section.

ENVIRONMENT: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE Environment as a concept is this multidisciplinary involving a number of disciplines.

Fig 1.2 More discussion on this is presented in section four of this module.

Micro level and Macro level Environment:

Micro level environment refers to social, psychological, ethical and motivation process involved in the impact assessment of environment. Examples are human, likes and dislikes, stress and enjoyment, privacy, effect of crowding, ambience, etc. These factors are included in this group of environmental analysis. Macro level factors include pollution, greenhouse effect, temperature, large space crowding etc. the next chapter deals with these aspects in greater details.

Man made and Natural Environment:

Environment could also be understood as man made environment and natural environment. Engineering science and architecture contribute immensely to design of environment, environment development which are largely man-made. Natural environment on the other hand refers to forest, climate, water resources etc. In this process user, human interface, economic ethical, social, political, and governance aspects become inevitable aspects of environment

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analysis. In order to have high quality environment and quality of life, it is inevitable to look into environment protection and environmental crisis.

Environmental Protection:

Environment means our surroundings. The concept is relative to whatever object that is surrounding us. Einstein once remarked, "The environment is everything that is not me" (Singh, 1995). Environmental protection means protection of the nature and surroundings. Environmental protection is not new in the Indian Context. Love of nature is not a new phenomenon. It existed even from the beginning of human life and its mention is available in pre-historic phase too. Man cannot survive without nature. As a result it is the duty of man to protect nature and thus environment.

Environmental crisis:

Environmental crisis is global phenomenon. More recently there has been major concern over the environment protection and environmental development. The rapid economic development, Technological and scientific advancements have increased their impact on the natural environment. They have added to the environmental degradation and ecological imbalances. Increasing damage to the environment and ecological imbalance has created a fear in the minds of people in both developing and developed countries. In this direction the Stockholm Conference in 1972 is significant which emphasized on dealing with the aspects of environment. After the conference all the countries made environmental protection enactments on various aspects form time to time.

UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY

Evolution of Environmental concerns over time:

Very little is known about pre-historic civilizations and environment issue. Only the last 200 years have been discussed in different sources. During the middle ages there have been eminent people who have developed our sciences, arts and literature. Archimedes, Newton, Dalton, Alexander G Bell, Einstein, Charles Gaguan, Monet, Mozart, Beethoven, Shakespeare, Thomas Hardy, Ernest Hemmingway, Sigmund Freud and many others. They have all emphasized on environmental issues related to mankind. Contemporary technology, the arts, music and literature have evolved from their work.

The concept of environmental jurisprudence in India is not new. The age-old environmental jurisprudence in Indian civilization - to live in harmony with nature is almost forgotten. Worshipping nature as deity and recognizing earth as mother shows a kind of conservation ethics that comes to us through our history, culture, religion and Vedic philosophy. In order to

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understand the concept of environmental jurisprudence in Indian society we can discuss this aspect in different periods. They are Ancient Period, and Pre-Historic time, Historic Period, British Period, and Post Independence Era. Environment in Ancient and Prehistoric time:

Protection of environment was prevalent in our ancient Indian society. The concept of environment was best explained by the word Paryavarana, meaning something that envelops us. Some Indian literature of olden times especially mentioned about worship of plants, trees, mother earth, sky, air, water, and animals. As a philosophy of life it has been considered as the duty of the mankind to protect the nature. Atharva Veda considers Earth to be the mother and the other creations are its offspring's. Man has thus, no right to destroy the valuable creation of God. Respect for nature, environmental harmony and conservation through trees, animals, hills, mountains and rivers are worshipped as symbols of gods and goddesses, representing nature has been emphasized in ancient scriptures like Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis, Puranas, Mahabharata, Geeta, Bible & the Holy Quran, Gurugranth Sahib and mythological literature. These are full of revelations of the idea of harmony with nature and respect of nature. Fig 1.3 presents a……

Sages, Saints and great thinkers and teachers of India lived in forest as a result people dared not destroy the forest, Protection of nature was considered to be the duty of every one. Rig Veda. Manu Smriti, Charak Samhita have emphasized on the purity of water and healing and medicinal value of water. Because of this a system of Maryada (code of conduct) developed in Indian society to keep the water clean and wholesome (Shashtri, 2002).

Hindu society, in Vedic era was conscious of adverse pollution effects of indiscriminate destruction of plants and forests. They gave respect and consideration for the natural world including animals and birds. Yajurva Veda emphasizes the relationship with nature and animals; it should not be that of dominion and subjugation but of mutual respect and kindness (Tiwari, 1989)

Most of the mythologies have adequately conveyed the importance of environment in pre historic time too. The religions all over the world have so much to say about the relationship between human life and nature. The world is green and beautiful, and human beings as his stewards to protect it. One can observe that most of the religious texts i.e. from Islam, Christianity. Sikh, Buddha, Jainism and Hindu emphasize on the importance of environment in some way or the other.

All the religious texts preach about the importance of natural world. In Islam there is close harmony between man and nature. The Holy Quran declares that Allah created heaven and earth. From clouds he released water. On earth he made rivers and raised mountains. As per Islam every thing is created from water, thus there is significance of purity of water. Mankind is the trustee of the nature, whereas the other living creatures are considered to be the beneficiaries. Destruction of nature is the destruction of life. Christians are baptized in water as a sign of purification. It also gave importance for the protection and preservation of natural environment.

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In Sikh religion also the concern for environment is evidence from the fact that it considers every creature to be the incarnation of God and hence conservation and preservation are essential principles. Ancient jurisprudence in relation to the environment had close proximity with prehistoric era. Gautam Buddha the greatest rationalist, humanist and environmentalist of the era derived enlightenment while meditating under the Bodhi tree. The basic tenets of Buddhism are simplicity and ahinsa or non-violence. The principles of simplicity teach us that man should not overexploit the natural resources. Buddhism preaches the norms of respect of ecology. It believes in non separable relationship of man with trees and forests. In Buddhism the tree is a potential source of food and shelter for man and animals. Buddha preached compassion towards every living creature (Desai. 1998).

Jainism condemns sacrifice of animals to the sacred fire. It disapproved captivity. Whipping, overloading or depriving animals of adequate food and drink. Jainism is also based on the principle, which is in close harmony with nature and helps in protecting and preserving the nature. Mahavira Swami proclaimed a profound ecological truth saying that one who neglects or disregards the existence earth, air, tire, water and vegetation, he himself disregards his own existence". Lord Mahaveer thus explained that man has no existence exclusive of nature.

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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS : A bit of history

The Maurya's period

During historical period before Maurya's regime there was no precise idea of environmental conservation. Maurya period was perhaps the most glorious chapter in the Indian history for environmental protection. The concern for environmental protection in India can be traced back to the period between 321 and 300 B.C. Kautilya in his Arthashastra exhaustively dealt with the question of environmental protection. He dealt in detail and meticulously explicated the various rules for the protection and up gradation of environment. Rules made by Kautilya made it mandatory for the rulers to protect forest and animals. They also prohibited killing or injuring animals and birds. Service penalty was prescribed for the offenders. Arthashastra also prescribed punishments for causing pollution and uncivil sanitation. In historic period most of the temples or shrines were situated in remote places in forests and mountains. This originated from the belief that God has nearness with nature. Therefore, people have not dared to interfere with the surroundings of temple or shrines. This promoted the conservation of forests and wildlife in many places. Environmental protection existed during Mauryan period and continued till the end of Gupta Empire in 673 A.D. Other Hindu Kings also prohibited Killing of animals and destruction of forest (Thapar, 1973)

King Ashoka's state

King Ashoka expressed his view about the welfare of creatures in his State. He gave orders for planting of trees by the roadside for the benefit of travellers. He also issued 'Adnvapatra' (command of the king) to preserve forests and natural water resources. He prescribed various pecuniary punishments for killings animals that include even ants, squirrels, parrots, pigeon, lizards and rats. (Thakur, 1999) During the Moghul period environmental conservation emphasized more on aesthetic parameters. They were great lovers of nature spending their time in the lap of natural environment. They also made significant contribution by establishing magnificent gardens, fruit orchards and parks and foliage at different places. To some extent Akbar's religion of complete tolerance deals with concern for protection for birds and beasts. Different regimes had different rules, but they have shown their common concern for the preservation and enrichment of the environment. In the course of time, however human beings did not distil the obvious logic in various mythological commands and this resulted into a gradually drifting loss of concern for nature and the environment. The British Period

During the British period the phenomenon did not appear having earlier concerns. The British and their rule in India showed some destruction of natural resources too. The early British rulers in India were totally indifferent to the needs of forest conservation. It was observed that there was fierce onslaught on Indian forest. This onslaught was due to increasing demands for business and military purposes. Royal Navy, ship building, supply of teak and sandalwood for exports and

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trade purpose and some programs such as development of railway networks (Guha, 1989) were given precedence at the cost of the environment.

However on a positive note apart from forest enactments the British government also made attempts to regulate various kinds of pollution in India that is water, air and wild life.

Some of the Acts were as under: The Shore Nuisance (Bombay & Kolaba) Act of 1853 was one of the earliest laws concerning water pollution. The Oriental Gas Company Act, 1857, to regulate pollution produced by Oriental Gas Company by imposing fines (Rosencranz, 1991). The next most important enactment was The Indian Penal Code, 1860. This Penal Code prescribes punishments in various kinds of pollution like nuisance, adulteration of food, drink and drugs, water and air pollution. But the penalties prescribed were not sufficient in the present society. The Indian Easement Act, 1882 protected the riparian owner against unreasonable pollution by upstream user. The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897, penalized the killing of fish by poisoning water by using explosives. The earliest enactments during British rule to control air pollution were the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905 and Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act. 1912.

In the field of wildlife protection the early legislation was limited to specific areas and particular species. In 1873, Madras enacted the first wildlife statute for the protection of wild elephants. The Elephants Preservation Act of 1876 (Central enactment). The Forest Act of 1878 and Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912 were legislations that introduced regulatory measures on hunting.

The first comprehensive law for the protection of wildlife and its habitat was the Hailey National Park Act of 1936, which established the Hailey National Park in the State of Uttar Pradesh. The British for the proper utilization of land and to consolidate land holding enacted the Consolidation of Holding Act 1920 (Singh, 1991). However, the objective of environment policy during this period was different i.e. was not directed at the conservation of the nature but it was directed at exploitation of common resources with a primary objective of earning revenue.

India's Independence and environment scenario:

Once India became independent from the British rule, during the early years of Indian independence there was no precise environmental policy. Government was making enactments from time to time to protect environment as per the needs in the society. Two early post independence laws touched water pollution. Later many other Acts were introduced such as The Factories Act 1948 mentions, about the effective arrangements for waste disposal and empowered. State Government to frame rules to implement these directives. With the River Boards Act of 1956 for the regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valley, the Government was empowered to prevent water pollution under this Act.

Other important enactments regarding environmental protection were Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 deals with protection of animals. The Atomic Energy Act. 1962 was passed to regulate nuclear energy and radioactive elements in India. The Insecticides Act 1968 provides regulation regarding manufacture and distribution of insecticides. There are other statutes that

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have some bearing on environmental pollution, in most cases the environmental concern is incidental to the principal objective of the law. All the statutes are scattered and piecemeal.

During the period of 1970 the Central Government changed its direction from environmental indifference to environmental concern and made different environmental legislations. This period saw the beginning of environmental policy in India. Developments during this decade gave a new dimension and direction to the policy concern in the field of environmental protection.

The year of 1972 marks a distinct event in the history of environmental management in India. It was the year in which a Conference on Human Environment was held at Stockholm at the initiative of United Nations. India being a Member of this Conference influenced the process of environmental management in the following year (Jain & Jain, 1984). To implement the decision taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment the Indian Parliament made tremendous change in the field of environmental management. It was in this decade that environmental protection was accorded a Constitutional status by the Forty Second Constitution Amendment Act, by incorporation of Article. I8A and Article 5 1(A) (g).

Parliament enacted nation wide comprehensives laws; they are The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1974 in the field of wildlife protection and water pollution.

In the early 1980 nation wide forest conservation and air pollution laws were passed. They were the Forest Conservation Act. 1980 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. 1981 for the conservation of forest and control of air pollution. One of the most important environmental legislations that deal with all aspects of environmental pollution was the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. All these comprehensive enactments made by the Parliament tried to protect environment in one way or the other, to deal with various aspects environmental protection and established different authorities to regulate and control the pollution. To some extent they prevented environmental pollution but their efforts are in vain to achieve the objectives. In this matter the judiciary also played a key role in protecting and preserving environment through its judicial pronouncements. This is the way the Indian Parliament became active to make environmental enactments to protect and preserve environment after the Stockholm conference. We will study more on this aspect in Policy Consideration and Environmental laws section in module VII

India has had a philosophy of environmental policy dating back to the ancient Hindu period. Moral injunctions acted as guidelines towards environmental preservation during the ancient period. Religious scriptures have also preached about environmental preservation. Environmental concern is not a new phenomenon in Indian scenario. It was present in India from time immemorial. It was however not practised to its fullest extent. Now and then people followed this concept by their own moral and ethical deeds. Today environment has become a subject itself which is multidisciplinary in focus and there is an urgent need to make the younger generation aware of this phenomenon.

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COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

Components of environment can be analyzed at various levels i.e. At the level of activities, at the level of processes, and at the level of orientations. Some of these issues and examples are discussed below. As discussed in the earlier section in one of the UNESCO reports, the following activities have been suggested as components of environmental quality.

• Fire protection. • Comfort of home. • Electric service. • Privacy in your home. • Relation with fellow workers. • Postal service. • Garbage-collection. • Mechanical helpers in your family. • Telephone services. • Public-water system. • Relation with neighbors. • Gas service. • Freedom to live where you want. • Sewage disposal service. • Availability of food around your living place. • Convenience for getting to important places. • Noise level in the home setting. • Beauty of your home. • Security of your home. • Topography of land around. • Product available to the community. • Medical care in your locality. • Police protection. • Quality of water used by the household. • Natural outdoor recreation. • Variety of wild life in community. • Cleanliness of air around. • Overall weather. • Public information media. • Level of crowding in your residential neighborhood. • Transportation over long distance. • Level of traffic congestion. • Job-opportunities. • Quality of water for recreation. • Product quality and variety. • Relations among group in the community.

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• Freedom to move from class to class. • Freedom to move form on job to another. • Public services-gas, sewage etc. sec 7,12,10,14 etc. • Unspoiled natures. • Man made environment. • Physical condition of environment at school. • Isolation of your community. • Physical condition of environment where you work. • Amount of open space around. • Access to parks. • Control of dogs and other pets. • Cost of living.

Understanding environment involves studying the complex relationships between the people and the typical physical settings in which they conduct their daily lives. Environmental interest in studying human behaviour in the familiar, everyday physical environment where people live and work as well as its relevance to the environment design and social planning has made it especially responsive to the demands of today's world. Environmental studies are an area of social sciences where the focus of investigation is the interrelationship between the physical environment and human behavior and experience of man. Fig 1.4 presents this.

The other perspective of components of environment relates to environmental processes, its multidisciplinary and applied aspects.

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THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES

Environment is new subject and a complex field of study. Therefore it is important to consider some of the characteristics that describe the what, how and why of the ways environmental processes work. In this section we attempt to explain the adaptation focus, physiological processes, the holistic view, interdisciplinary involvement and applied orientation of the subject matter.

Adaptation focus: The process of adaptation. It is of interest to study how people adapt to the complex demands of the physical environment. For example, how people live in crowded places or overcrowded setting. Robert White (1974) defines adaptation as encompassing all the processes with their environment. This includes most simple ways of dealing with minor environment and irritations to the most complex efforts to cope with major environment changes. These challenges in living system in interaction with the environment are the adaptation processes. The holistic view of the organism and environment is considered along with the active role of living organism in relation to their environment.

Physiological Processes: - The adaptation focus of the environment emphasizes the process that mediates the effect of physical setting on human activity e.g. the effect of classroom noise on student's grades.

Overall view: - Historically, the analysis of the environment was at very small and molecular levels but now the emphasis has shifted from micro to macro level. It is how environment and behavior must be seen as interrelated parts of an indivisible whole.

Fig 1.5

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The positive and adaptive ways in which people cope with environmental challenges suggest active roles. This view looks into how people have varied and creative ways to cope with their environments.

Fig 1.6

The adaptation process model (Fig 1.6) shows how environment effect on behavior is mediated by a number of processes. . It shows that the direction of effect in the environment-behavior relationship is reciprocal i.e. people may act on the environmental conditions while the environment in turn also acts on human behavior. The negative effects of situation such as over- crowding may be reversed through effective coping processes.

Multidisciplinary Orientation: The branches of study here have included not only environment but also other fields such as Sociology, Psychology, Geography, Anthropology, Medicine, Architecture and Planning etc (refer to fig 1.2). The study of human behavior in physical settings requires the works of researchers in many social sciences as well as of architects and planners responsible for the design of human settings. The areas of study include.

The Applied Orientation: The environmental study has orientation towards both the resolution of practical problem and the formulation of new theories. Lewins (1974) action research is a useful model for the intermingling of practical and theoretical needs of the environment.

For example- The study of university housing environment is one research area where theoretical and practical objectives have been successfully combined. Thus one may understand the components of environment at various levels i.e. At the level of activities, at the level of processes and at the level of orientations.

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ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY : A Systems Perspective

In the earlier sections it has been explained that there are many components of the concept and these concerns have always been there ever since the pre-historic time. The fact is that environment and ecology do not stand in isolation. Man. Society and culture are affected and in turn affect these concerns. These could be viewed as the systems analysis. A systems thinking suggest that all subsystems of the main system interact with each other and if one sub system doesn't make impact it affects the total system. The systems analysis could further be studied as a closed system analysis and an open system analysis. Fig below presents a closed system analysis.

Fig 1.7

Similarly, there are ongoing impacts of environment on the quality of life of people, when time moves on. In fact, systems approach, views interactions and interdependence among subsystems are important as individual components. If one of the subsystems malfunctions, it affects the performance of the entire system. Boulding (1956) has pointed out different levels of systems ranging from static structures to cybernetic structures and human systems. He believes that human systems and social systems are most complicated ones and we have yet to discover the rudiments of theoretical models for them. Keeping these analogies and components analysis in mind one could further analyze ecology and environment within a systems perspective.

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Fig 1.8

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ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY : A Multidisciplinary Perspective

Taking these as components of environment and ecology this web based course attempts to present a multidisciplinary system approach. The concepts are drawn from all subjects relevant to explain the environment scenario. Appropriate Technology, Psychology, Sociology, Economics, Management, and Philosophy, Values and Ethics are some subjects from where concepts and concerns are drawn. The course also presents methodological approaches, training, ideologies, globalization, ecological behaviour and knowledge management relating them to environment and ecology.

The 21st century is a century of shorter distances, closer places but one that is plagued by a multitude of problems, man made as well as natural disasters, catalyzed by man made actions. The growing populace with its increased technology use is one that is seemingly empowered to control its actions and yet susceptible to the minutest happenings as were its forefathers. Globalism - refers to an appreciation of the world as a single place or space.(Robertson 1992) and the ways in which people have internalized a basic view of the world as a common domain in which activities or events (natural or man-made)in one part might have profound effects in another, distant one. It is an awareness of large scale knock-on effects.

Today Ecology has moved from the realm of biology to become a stand alone discipline that encompasses all facets of human activity be they economic social or developmental. The word comes from the greek work for oikos, house and logi , -logy). Ecology and environment encompass a number of disciplines. An overview of ecology suggests its multivariate nature. Some of the ecological systems are:

• Community ecology • Ecosystem ecology • Biological ecology & diversity • Geographical ecology • Oceanographic & marine ecology • Ecosystems of the world • Evolutionary ecology • Political ecology

ENVIRONMENT: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE

Environment as a concept is this multidisciplinary involving a number of disciplines as presented earlier in fig 1.2 which is repeated here

Social Science Technology

Economic factors Policy related factors

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Social factors Psychological factors

Environmental analysis also includes the understanding of multiple issues related to disciplines. Some of the examples are:

• Air pollution • Water pollution • Industrial pollution • Social environment • Psychological environment • Biological environment • Ozone depletion • Global climate change • Rise in sea level & other natural changes • Antarctica: a source for resource development • Marine resources • Offshore oil & gas • Manmade habitats etc

This calls for

• Studies of sustainable development • Environmental politics • Environmental audit • Suitable environmental policies & legislation

Therefore, in this section we have visualized an overall perspective of ecology and environment from multidisciplinary angle. The next section presents some of the methodological considerations to analyze these issues.

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Methodological approaches for environment &ecology analysis

Scientific Social Research

It would be difficult to comprehend the nature and content of research without an appreciation of the method we designate as scientific. Research, simply put is an endeavour to discover intellectual and practical answer to problems through the application of scientific methods to knowable universe. The scientific methods increase the likelihood of answering questions related to WHAT, HOW AND WHY in an enquiry. Einstein and Infield state the essence of science in the following words - "Science is the attempt of the human mind to find a connection between the world of ideas and world of phenomena. All the essential ideas in science were born in dramatic conflict between reality and our attempt at understanding the same." This does not mean, however, that science will always come out with an answer….. Thompson observes "The belief that science has explained everything is hopeless misunderstanding." There may be many paths leading to truth, however scientific is entails more understandable and reliable. Meaning of Research therefore is 'A careful, critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles in order to as certain something.

Scientific Social Research

It would be difficult to comprehend the nature and content of research without appreciation of the methods we designate as scientific. According to Scientific Social Research have the following properties: Reliance on empirical evidence Use of relevant concepts Commitment to objectivity Ethical neutrality Predictions based on probability Testing of conclusions through replication

Scientific procedures are path leading to truth. In the next section of the book issues of what, Why, How and whom will be discussed.

The Research Process

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Fig 1.10

There are various measures to study the effects of environment. Earlier strategies were not that sophisticated and reliable, thus mere have been fascinating development in this field.

Research Strategies for Studying Environment & Ecology

1. Co relational studies. 2. Experimental studies in laboratory settings. 3. Small scale fields settings. 4. Diverse research strategies. 5. Case studies. 6. Evaluation studies. 7. Econometric studies. 8. Time series studies.

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1. Correlation studies based census data: It is based on study relationship between density and social pathology as reflected by cause data or over statistical records e.g. mere may be comparison between mortality, mental illness and serious crime in densely populated region and sparsely populated suburbs. 2. Experimental studies: - A more recent research strategy 1960's involves experiment in lab settings. Initial studies were dared on animals in controlled settings the god of this is study is to establish a casual like between crowding and social effects on humans. Later were also done as humans.

3. Study of environment in small-scale setting: - Most recent strategy such as - dormitories stores etc include - survey -questionnaires etc.

Diverse research strategies Each strategy has its strength and weakness.

In some animals studies it is the size of group that is more important man me space available to it also effect of density have inserted with other variables such as species type situation etc.

Other Methodological Considerations

Methodological approaches for environmental studies

There are number of models and approaches to study environment and ecology. Measuring Environmental Values, impact assessment, people's reactions, environmental protection and crisis etc. there are many Economics based approaches issues and approaches. They are

• Market values • Indirect methods • Contingent valuation

Some of the indirect methods are: - Preventive expenditure - Replacement cost technique - Human capital technique - Travel cost method

Other Methods include - Technical coefficient and the value of Human Life

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- Epidemiological studies - Property value and Air pollutants - Survey techniques

Environmental issues are too vital to be left out of economic decision making. Social cost benefit analysis cannot be complete without taking into consideration environmental considerations. In this chapter we discuss various methods that have been suggested for measuring environmental values.

It is not easy to asses the environmental effects of a project. What types of physical environmental effects would a project cause and to what extent, can rarely be answered satisfactorily. There is always an element of uncertainty associated with there effects. Most large investment projects now require environmental impact assessment (EIAs) that estimates the environmental effects of the projects. Often these EIAs churn out estimates of the effects, which are not only incomplete but also, devoid of scientist rigor.

Even if the physical effects are assessed with reasonable degree of accuracy and certainty, the next problem one encounters is how to assign economic values to these effects. It is a widely held view that a market economy does not value all aspects of the environment appropriately. Markets and prices may not exist for many of the environmental effects that require valuation. Even if market prices exist, they may be distorted for various reasons. The environmental effects of big projects are very large. In such cases, the project may actually alter prices. For these various reasons indirect methods are used for valuation of the environmental effects. There are a number of techniques developed by economists who attempt to value the environmental effects. Before discussing these various techniques it needs to be noted that total economic value (TEV) of environmental assets consists of use and no-use values. The total economic value has four components:

TEV = Direct use values + Indirect use values + Option value + Existence value

Let us consider the case of tropical forest. Direct values are the resources and services provided directly by the forest such as habitat and food for indigenous people, timber and minor non-timber products. Indirect use values of environmental assets are essentially their ecological functions, which indirectly support economic activity and human welfare. Tropical forests, for example, protect adjacent eco-systems, provide watershed protection, and are store of CO2. An option value is the value placed on an option that allows for use of the environment in the future. The amount individuals would be willing to pay to conserve a tropical forest, or at least some of its uses, for future would be its option value. Existence value of an environmental asset in the value placed on it independent of its any actual or possible future use. It relates to valuation of the resources as a unique asset in itself, an object of intrinsic value. Existence value of tropical forests arises because people simply want them to exist, even if they are never likely to ever see or use then in any way.

Environmental Impact Assessment : includes Environmental Inventory; Environmental Assessment; Environment Impact Statement; Historical Perspective; Environmental Assessment

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Process; Goals of EIA Process need to emphasize methodological issues related to following aspects:

• Air Environment • Water Environment • Noise Environment • Socio-Economic Environment • Cultural Environment • Biological Environment • People's Participation • Case Studies are also important in this regard. Some examples are • Air Pollution Monitoring

Ganga Action Plan

The study of Ganga : The Holy River; Ganga; From Gomukh to Bay of Bengal; Ganga; Its importance, Ganga; Overuse, Abuse and Pollution; What is River Pollution? What are the Principal Sources of Pollution? How to measure the extent of pollution? Concern for the River; Formulation of the Ganga Action Plan; what does the Action Plan seek to do? River Front Facilities; Low Cost Sanitation; Construction of Electric Crematoria, Pollution from Industries; Scientific Content in the Context of Ganga Action Plan;Public Involvement in the Ganga Action Plan; Monitoring of Water Quality; Recycling Sewage; Where we went wrong. What do we need to do? Can people's participation help in this project?

Industrial Pollution: Some Case Studies : Pollution Control Aspects of Fertilizer Industries; Ammonia Plant Effluents; Removal of Carbon; Oil Removal; Hydrogen Sulphide Removal; Nitrogen-Wash Tail Gas; Ammonium Sulphate Plant; Phosphoric Acid Plant; Solid Effluent; Liquid Effluent; Gaseous Effluent; Pollution Control in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Units; Characteristics of Liquid Effluent; Refineries; Petrochemical Industries; Refinery Liquid Waste-Treatment Methods; Implant Measures; Steam Stripping; Oxidation; Removal of Phenols; Biological Treatment; Disposal of Sludge's; Treatment of Liquid Effluents from Petrochemical Industries.

Environmental Audit: Case studies Indian Scenario Advantage of Audit; Environmental Audit.

How to measure the extent of pollution? Concern for the River; Formulation of the Ganga Action Plan; what does the Action Plan seek to do? River Front Facilities; Low Cost Sanitation; Construction of Electric Crematoria, Pollution from Industries; Scientific Content in the Context of Ganga Action Plan;Public Involvement in the Ganga Action Plan; Monitoring of Water Quality; Recycling Sewage; Where we went wrong. What do we need to do? Can people's participation help in this project?

Industrial Pollution: Some Case Studies : Pollution Control Aspects of Fertilizer Industries; Ammonia Plant Effluents; Removal of Carbon; Oil Removal; Hydrogen Sulphide Removal; Nitrogen-Wash Tail Gas; Ammonium Sulphate Plant; Phosphoric Acid Plant; Solid Effluent; Liquid Effluent; Gaseous Effluent; Pollution Control in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical

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Units; Characteristics of Liquid Effluent; Refineries; Petrochemical Industries; Refinery Liquid Waste-Treatment Methods; Implant Measures; Steam Stripping; Oxidation; Removal of Phenols; Biological Treatment; Disposal of Sludge's; Treatment of Liquid Effluents from Petrochemical Industries.

Environmental Audit: Case studies Indian Scenario Advantage of Audit; Environmental Audit.

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