Groups and Teams

MGMT2008‐OrganisationalBehaviour

Lecture 6: Groups and Teams

Nicole Knight

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Learning Objectives

• To be able to distinguish between groups and teams

• To be able to describe how groups are formed

• To understand the advantages and disadvantages of team working

• To identify factors that promote team effectiveness

• To understand how to create and develop effective teams

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Levels of Analysis

Group Level

Individual Level

Organizational Level

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Components of Organizational Behavior

Understanding organizational behavior

requires studying

Individuals in Organizations

Group and Team Processes

Organizational Processes

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What is a group?

• Shaw (1981) p.11‐12:“Two or more people who meet regularly and

influence one another over a period of time, perceive themselves as a distinct entity distinguishable from others, share common values and strive for common objectives”

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Importance of Groups in Organizations

• Help organizations accomplish important tasks.– Task performance.

• Members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results.

• Help to maintain a high‐quality workforce by satisfying members’ needs.– Members satisfaction.

• Members believe that their participation an experiences are positive and meet important personal needs.

– Team viability.• Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working together on an

ongoing basis.

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Group Types

Formal groups.– Officially designated to serve a specific

organizational purpose.

– May be permanent or temporary.• Permanent work groups are command groups in the

vertical organization structure.

• Temporary work groups are task groups specifically created to solve a problem or perform a a defined task.

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Group Types

Informal groups.

– Emerge without being officially designated by the

organization.

– Types of informal groups.

• Friendship groups.

• Interest groups.

Group typesFormal groups Informal groups

Standing task group

Task group

Organisational benefits1. Creates new ideas2. Implements action plans3. Completes complex tasks4. Socialises new people

Individual benefits1. Confirm identity2. Satisfy need for affiliation3. Reduces feelings of insecurity

Interest group

Reference group

Organisational benefits1. Guidelines for appropriate behaviour2. Confirms social values congruent with

org culture3. Provides a sense of identity

Individual benefits1. Enhance status is group perceived

positively2. Satisfaction of security needs3. Enhanced self‐esteem4. Share group power to influence

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What are the stages ofgroup development?

A group or team passes through five lifecycle stages.– Forming.

– Storming.

– Norming.

– Performing.

– Adjourning.

Tuckman (1965)

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Group structure

• Group roles:– Roles can be functional (help the group) or dysfunctional (help the

individual)

• Task roles – directly help accomplish group goals– Initiating, giving information, seeking information, summarising,

elaboration

• Maintenance roles – establish & maintain good relationships– Encouraging, compromising, setting group standards, providing

feedback

• Personal roles – meet individual needs– Blocking, recognition seeking, dominating, avoiding

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Belbin (1981) – team rolesCompany worker Stable & controlled, practical, methodical, self-disciplined

Shaper Anxious, dominant & extrovert. Tough-minded & impulsive

Plant Dominant, introvert, independent, creative thinker

Monitor-evaluator Stable, introvert, prudent, rational, analytical

Resource investigator

Extrovert, enthusiastic, sociable, popular, networker

Team worker Supportive, understanding, concern for others, team player

Completer-finisher Conscientious, anxious, perfectionist, thorough

Chair Calm, steady, self-confident, optimist

(Specialist) Single-minded, independent, dedicated, provides knowledge when needed 13

Group structure

• Group norms• Formal norms – written rules and procedures

• Informal norms – developed out of group interaction and can be functional or dysfunctional

• Norms:– Performance‐related

– Appearance

– Informal social arrangements– Allocation of resources

• Norms are enforced

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Group structure

• Group cohesiveness• Degree of attractiveness and closeness of interpersonal bonds

between members• Sources of cohesiveness:

– Common, clearly specified and compatible goals– Successful experiences of reaching goals– Small size of the group– Interpersonal attraction between members– Challenge of a common enemy– High status– Cooperation among members– Female composition

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Group vs. individualAdvantages of groups over

individualsDisadvantages of groups compared to individuals

More knowledge and information. A group has more breadth and depth of knowledge

Group members could have competing goals and this can lead to conflict

Diverse viewpoints which allow for different options and creative alternatives

Time consuming to plan and coordinate team member activities

Increased understanding by participating in the problem-solving process

Social pressure to conform

Increased acceptance of the decision by group members as they understand it

Dominance by a few members. Those with high power or assertive

Better implementation and feeling of ownership of the decision

Ambiguous responsibility in who is accountable for the groups decision

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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?

From a systems perspective, group inputs are the foundation for all subsequent group action.Key group inputs are:– Nature of the task.– Goals.– Rewards.– Resources.– Technology.– Membership diversity.– Group size.

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Tasks.

– Technical demands of a task.

• Routineness, difficulty, and information requirements.

– Tasks that are complex in technical demands

require unique solutions and more information

processing.

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Tasks — cont.

– Social demands of a task.

• Relations, ego involvement, and controversies over

ends and means.

– Tasks that are complex in social demands involve

difficulties in reaching agreement on goals or

methods for accomplishing them.

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Goals, rewards, and resources.

– Long‐term performance accomplishments rely on:

• Appropriate goals.

• Well‐designed reward systems.

• Adequate resources.

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Technology.

– Provides the means to get work accomplished.

– The right technology must be available for the

task at hand.

– Work‐flow technology can affect the way group

members interact.

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Membership characteristics.– A group must have the right skills and

competencies available for task performance and problem solving.

• Homogeneous groups may not perform well if they lack the requisite experiences, skills, and competencies.

• Heterogeneous groups may perform well if they effectively utilize a variety of experiences, skills, and competencies.

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Membership characteristics — cont.

– Diversity‐consensus dilemma.

• Increasing diversity among group members makes it

harder for group members to work together, even

though the diversity itself expands the skills and

perspectives available for problem solving.

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Membership characteristics — cont.– FIRO‐B theory.

• Identifies individual differences in how people relate to one another in groups.

• Based on needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection.

• Groups whose members have compatiblecharacteristics are likely to be more effective.

• Groups whose members have incompatiblecharacteristics are likely to be less effective.

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Membership characteristics — cont.– Status.

• A person’s relative rank, prestige, or standing in a group.

– Status congruence.• Occurs when a person’s position within the group is

equivalent in status to positions held outside the group.

• When status incongruence is present, problems will likely occur.

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Group size.– As group size increases, performance and

member satisfaction increase up to a point.• Division of work promotes performance and increased

satisfaction.

• Communication and coordination problems occur, in turn decreasing performance and satisfaction.

– Problem‐solving groups should have 5 to 7 members.

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Group size — cont.– Groups with an odd number of members may be

more effective for resolving disagreements and reaching a speedy decision.

– Groups with an even number of members may be more effective when careful deliberation, consensus building, or complex problem solving is required.

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What are group andintergroup dynamics?

From a systems perspective, the throughputs for a group or team are group dynamics.

Group dynamics concern the forces operating within groups that affect the way members relate to and work with one another.

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What goes on within groups.– Required behaviors.

• Those formally defined and expected by the organization.

– Emergent behaviors.• Those that group members display in addition to what

the organization asks of them.

– Emergent behaviors often supplement and extend required behaviors.

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What goes on within groups.– Member relationships revolve around:

• Activities — the things people do or the actions they take.

• Interactions — interpersonal communications and contacts.

• Sentiments — the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, or values held by group members.

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What goes on between groups.

– Intergroup dynamics.

• The dynamics that take place between two or more

groups.

– Organizations and their members seek to avoid

the negative aspects and achieve the positive

aspects of intergroup dynamics.

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What goes on between groups.– On the negative side, intergroup dynamics may divert

energies as members focus on animosities rather than performance.

– On the positive side, competing groups may:• Work harder.

• Become more focused on key tasks.

• Develop more internal loyalty and satisfaction.

• Achieve creativity in problem solving.

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How do groups make decisions?

How groups make decisions.– Decision by lack of response.

– Decision by authority rule.

– Decision by minority rule.

– Decision by majority rule.

– Decision by consensus.

– Decision by unanimity.

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Potential advantages of group decision making.– More knowledge and expertise is applied to solve the

problem.

– A greater number of alternatives are examined.

– The final decision is better understood and accepted by all group members.

– More commitment among all group members to make the final decision work.

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Potential disadvantages of group decision making.– Individuals may feel compelled to conform to the

apparent wishes of the group.

– The group’s decision may be dominated by one individual or a small coalition.

– Group decisions usually take longer to make.

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Groupthink.

– The tendency for members of highly cohesive groups to

lose their critical evaluation capabilities.

– Groupthink can lead the group to make poor decisions.

– Group members and leaders should:

• Be sensitive to the occurrence of groupthink.

• Take actions to prevent the occurrence of groupthink.

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How to improve group decision making.

– Brainstorming.

– Nominal group technique.

– Delphi technique.

– Computer‐mediated decision making.

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Brainstorming.– Group members actively generate as many ideas

and alternatives as possible, and they do so relatively quickly and without inhibitions.

– Brainstorming rules.• All criticism is ruled out.• Free‐wheeling is welcomed.• Quantity is wanted.• Piggy‐backing is good.

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Nominal group technique.

– A form of structured group decision making that

enables everyone to participate and have his/her

ideas heard without hostile criticism or

distortions.

– A structured voting procedure is used to prioritize

responses to the nominal question.

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Delphi technique.– Used in situations where group members are unable to

meet face to face.– The process.

• A series of questions is distributed to a panel.• Panel members submit their responses to a decision coordinator.• The decision coordinator summarizes the responses, and sends

the summary along with a follow‐up questionnaire to the panel.• Panel members send in their responses.• The process is repeated until a consensus is reached.

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Computer‐mediated decision making.

– Electronic brainstorming through the use of

special software and personal computers..

– The nominal group and Delphi techniques lend

themselves to computer mediation.

A team

• What is a team?– A group of between 3 and 12 people who:

• Have shared objectives, a shared task

• Need to work inter‐dependently to achieve these objectives/the task

• Have different and defined roles in the team

• Have a team identity

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Differences between group and team

Leadership

Accountability

Performance

Skills

Responsive

Groups Teams

Formal, strong leader

Individual

Sum of individual outputs

Diverse

To demands of management

Shared leadership roles

Shared & individual

Collective & synergy

Complementary

Self‐imposed demands

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Why work in teams?

• As organisations grow in size and become structurally more complex, groups of people are needed who work together in co‐ordinated ways to achieve objectives that contribute to the overall aims, effectiveness and competitiveness of the organisation.

• Team working provides the flexibility needed to respond effectively, appropriately and more quickly than competitors to the constantly changing demands in the organisation’s environment, and provides a mechanism for bringing together the range of expertise, skills and knowledge required to complete complex work tasks.

(Lawler, Mohrman & Ledford, 1992)

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Why work in teams?

• Mohrman et al (1995):– Teams are the best way to enact the strategy of some organisations

– Allows speedy, cost‐effective and high quality products and services– Allows organisations to learn more effectively

– Cross‐functional teams promote quality management

– Innovation is promoted via cross‐fertilisation of ideas– Flat organisations can be monitored and directed more effectively if

the functional unit is the team

– Teams can integrate in ways that individuals cannot and this is important in complex organisations

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Team working & effectiveness

• Applebaum & Blatt (1994):– 12 large scale surveys in the US

– Team based working associated with organisational efficiency and improved quality

• Macy & Izumi (1993):– Meta‐analysis of 131 studies of organisational change

– Team working had the greatest impact on financial performance

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Problems of team working

Social conformity

Satisficing

Groupthink

Lack of communication

skills

Group polarisation

Domination

Personality

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Types of teams

• Katzenbach & Smith (1993):– Teams that recommend things:

• Recommend solutions and formulate action plans. Temporary and disband after making recommendations (Task forces, project groups)

– Teams that make or do things:• Permanent work groups responsible for basic aspects (manufacturing,

sales etc) of the organisation.

• Self‐managed and/or cross functional

– Teams that run things:• Top managers of an organisation or unit responsible for organisation’s

mission, strategy etc.

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Team effectiveness

INPUTS

_____________

Task

Team composition

Organisational context

Cultural context

PROCESS

_____________

Leadership

Communication

Decision ‐ making

Cohesiveness

Team climate

OUTPUTS

_____________

Performance

Innovation

Well‐being

Viability

West, Borrill & Unsworth (1998)

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TASK

• Task characteristics account for most of the variance in team performance

• Hackman (1990) – 5 characteristics:• Autonomy

• Task variety

• Task significance

• Task identity

• Task feedback

INPUTS

__________

Task

Team composition


Cultural context

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Team composition

• The mix of people within the team can affect effectiveness

• Team diversity:– Task‐related diversity

• Each individual will have relevant and diverse skills that they can contribute

– Relations‐oriented diversity• Attributes inherent within the individual (age,

gender, race)

INPUTS

__________

Task

Team composition


Cultural context

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• How people are rewarded in the team

• Supportive organisational climate

• Extent of competition and politics

• Level of environmental uncertainty

INPUTS

__________

Task

Team composition


Cultural context

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Cultural context• Effect of culture can impact on what team are

seen as• Hofstede’s work:

– power distance = extent that unequal distribution of power is accepted

– uncertainty avoidance = extent to which unambiguous situations are avoided

– individualism‐collectivism = self interest versus work together for the greater good

– masculinity‐femininity = assertive masculine values versus sensitivity and concern

INPUTS

__________

Task

Team composition


Cultural context

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Leadership• Leaders will influence effectiveness of

teams• Transactional:

– Contingent reward & punishment, task‐oriented, interventions to reward required behaviour but punishment for undesired behaviour

• Transformational:– Influencing through charisma and visioning; charisma,

inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration

PROCESS

__________

Leadership

Communication

Decision making

Cohesion

Team climate

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Communication• Communication ensures that the team

survives.

• Need for a facilitator:– Direct discussions at meetings and facilitate the

discussions

• Impact of IT:– Voice messaging and video conferencing and the

impact on team communication

– Do you need face‐to‐face meetings?

PROCESS

__________

Leadership

Communication

Decision making

Cohesion

Team climate

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Decision‐making• Describe the problem:

– Team should recognise if a problem exists and be problem‐minded

• Identifying possible solutions:– Brainstorming ideas to generate solutions should lead to

better decisions

• Evaluating & choosing the best solution:– Evaluate on the basis of task aspects and not on maintaining

group harmony (groupthink)

• Implement the solution:– Allowing employees to participate in the decision‐making

have greater commitment and ownership of the decisions

PROCESS

__________

Leadership

Communication

Decision making

Cohesion

Team climate

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Team climate• Atmosphere within the team and the shared

perceptions of the informal and formal policies, procedures and practices

• Can include: support, respect for rules, goal‐oriented information and innovation

• West (1990) – 4 factors for innovation:– Vision = shared and clear view – Participative safety = safe environment

– Support for innovation

– Task orientation

PROCESS

__________

Leadership

Communication

Decision making

Cohesion

Team climate

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Outputs• Performance

– Externally focused and meeting the needs of those outside and inside the organisation

• Innovation:– Working in teams promotes innovation

• Well‐being:– Working in groups improves the health and satisfaction of

employees

• Viability:– Extent that the group is cohesive, with shared values and

commitment vs. destructive, turnover intention and dissatisfaction

OUTPUTS

__________

Performance

Innovation

Well‐being

Viability

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Developing teams

• Team member selection

• Managing team diversity

• Team‐building

• Team training

• Leadership development

• Work redesign

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References

• Katzenbach, J. R. & Smith, D. K. (1993). The Discipline of Teams. Harvard Business Review, 71, 111‐120.

• West, M. A., & Anderson, N. R. (1996). Innovation in top management teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 680‐693.

• West, M. A., Borrill, C. S., & Unsworth, K. L. (1998). Team effectiveness in organizations. In C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chapter 1.

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Documents

Groups and Teams