Ground SchoolPrivate Pilot Airplane

Crosswinds Flight School

17 years of age Able to read, write and converse in English Obtain at least a 3rd class medical certificate Receive and log ground training from an

authorized instructor or complete a home study course

Pass a knowledge test scoring 70% or better

Requirements for private pilot

Accumulate at least 40 hours of flight timeAt least 20 hours from an authorized flight

instructor, including at least : 3 hr. cross-country 3 hr. at night including

o 1 cross-country flight over 100 NM total distanceo 10 takeoff and landings to a full stop

3 hr. instrument training3 hr. in airplanes in preparation for the practical

test within 60 days prior

Requirements cont.

10 hr. solo flight time5 hr. of solo cross country flights1 solo cross-county of at least 150 NM total

distance, with full-stop landings at a minimum of 3 points and with one segment consisting of at least a 50 NM leg between the takeoff and landing locations

3 solo takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control tower.

Solo Requirements

Obtain a logbook sign-off by your CFI for:Preflight preparation/proceduresAirport/seaport base operationsTakeoffs, landings, and go-aroundsPerformance maneuversGround reference maneuversNavigationSlow flight and stallsBasic instrument maneuversEmergency operationsNight operationsPost flight proceduresSuccessfully complete a practical flight test with

FAA

Requirements cont.

Aircraft Training Airports Aerodynamics Airplane Stability, Load Factors, and Wake

Day 1

Dispatch procedures Use of checklists Certificates and Documents Location and Use Aircraft Preflight Aeronautical Decision Making and Judgment Recovery Procedures Engine Controls Flight Controls Emergency Equipment & survival gear Aircraft Servicing Fuel grades

Aircraft Training

Scheduling Aircraft key control procedures Aircraft and airport security/access

procedures Handling of aircraft and discrepancies found

during preflight including re-dispatch in a new aircraft, if appropriate

Dispatch procedures

The foundation of pilot standardization and cockpit safety

Use of checklists

Preflight inspectionBefore engine startEngine startingBefore taxiBefore takeoffAfter takeoff

CruiseDescentBefore landingAfter landingEngine shutdown/ securingemergency

A airworthiness certificateR registrationR radio license (not required in US) O operation limitations – may be any combination of FAA –approved airplane Flight manual and/or pilot’s operating handbook, placards, instrument markingsW weight and balance info

Certificates and documents location and use

Follow the checklist!

Aircraft preflight

Decisions with time constraints immediate action 1. Aviate2. Navigate 3. communicate Decisions without time constraints1. Aviate2. Gather information3. Consider alternative action

Aeronautical decision making and judgment

Antiauthority - resents supervision, does not like

to be bound by schedules or habits, prefers to do

things when they feel ready Impulsivity - the inclination of an individual to initiate behavior without adequate forethought

as to the consequences of their actions Invulnerability – resistant to harm and impact Macho - trying to cover up their complex Resignation – believes they can’t do it and gives in

Hazardous attitudes

Ground handling after flight – fueling Securing the aircraft Locking and securing keys Paperwork after flight Notification of aircraft discrepancies Return of aircraft to the way it was found

Recovery procedures

Primer – if engine is coldMaster switch – battery/alternator

Throttle – pump 3 times Ignition – turn to start

Engine controls

AileronsRudderElevator

Flight controls

ELT – required Water Food First aid kit Aviation fire extinguisher Cell phone Flotation device – if over water Emergency strobe/flash light – batteries Blanket/hat/coat/gloves – cold weather gear

Emergency equipment andsurvival gear

Money or credit card for fuel/oil Make sure you are able to self-service

Aircraft servicing

Low-lead 100- octane ( 100LL ) Dyed blue Distinctive AVGAS odor

Jet-A Clear or straw colored Kerosene scent and oily to touch

Automotive gas –MOGAS (appropriate aircraft)

Fuel grades

Wind Direction Indicators Airport, Runway, and Taxiway Signs Airport, Runway, and Taxiway Markings Airport, Runway, and Taxiway Lighting Radio Calls and Checks CTAF Obtaining Airport Advisories

Airports

Wind direction indicators

Traffic pattern indicators

Airport signs – color is key

Red- mandatoryBlack/yellow letters – positionYellow/black letters - directional

Airport, runway, andtaxiway signs

Airport signage

Airport, runway, andtaxiway markings

Phonetic alphabet

Use the 5 W’sWho are you calling – “Crosskeys traffic”Who are you – “Cessna 14H”Where are you – “Departing/downwind/final/clear”What your intentions are - “For 27/9”Who are you calling – for clarification –

“Crosskeys”

Radio calls and checks

For airports without a control towerMay be a:◦UNICOM◦Multicom◦FSS◦Tower frequency (when closed) and is

identified in appropriate aeronautical publications.

CTAF-common traffic advisory frequency

UNICOM – a nongovernmental communications facility which may provide information at

certain airports. Multicom – a mobile service not open to public Correspondence used to provide

communications essential to conduct the activities being performed by or directed from private aircraft.

CTAF continued

1-800 WX-briefFSS – Air traffic facilities which provide Pilot briefings En route communication VFR search and rescue services Assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergencies Relay ATC clearances Originate Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS) Broadcast aviation wx and NAS (National air service)

information Receive and process flight plans Monitor NAVAIDs

Flight service station

In addition, at selected locations, FSSs provide

En route Flight Advisory Service (Flight watch)

Flight Watch is the common name in the United States for

an Enroute Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) dedicated to providing weather to and collecting it from pilots operating at lower altitudes (mostly general aviation). Take weather observations Issue airport advisories Advise customs and immigrations of trans-

boarder flights

Flight service station continued

Local airport advisory is provided by flight service stations or the military at airports not serviced by an operating control tower

◦ Provides information to arriving and departing aircraft concerning wind direction and speed, favored runway, altimeter setting, pertinent know traffic, pertinent know field conditions, airport taxi routes and traffic patters, and authorized instrument approaches.

◦ This information is advisory only – not an ATC clearance

Obtaining airport advisories

Other airport advisories common at non-tower airports may be obtained over the CTAF from other aircraft in the pattern or through the UNICOM.

Pilots landing at non-tower airports should monitor the CTAF at least 10-20 miles out to hear other traffic in the pattern.

If unable, request an airport advisory 5-10 miles out.

Check wind sock.

Obtaining airport advisories

Runway Incursions Use of Aircraft Lighting during Taxi and

Traffic Pattern Operations Collision avoidance Scanning for Traffic Traffic Pattern Operations Practice Area Operations

Airports continued

Never taxi onto any runway without first looking for landing traffic.

Always monitor the CTAF and/or the appropriate ATC frequencies while operating on the surface of an airport.

Runway incursions

General – see and avoid In distress – has the right of way above all Converging – the aircraft to the right

or the least maneuverable (glider, balloon, airship) or an aircraft towing another aircraft.

Head-on – each alters to the right Overtaking – the aircraft being overtaken, the

overtaking aircraft alters course to the right. Landing – aircraft on final, or the lower

aircraft.

Right-of-way rules

Engine running - beacon Taxiing – navigation, position, anti-

collision Crossing runway – all exterior lights Taxi to takeoff – all lights that silhouette Takeoff – landing light on when cleared Day or night – landing light should be

left on until well clear of the pattern and turned

on well before reaching the pattern.

Use of lighting during taxi andtraffic pattern operations

Look outside the aircraft Use the radio to announce intentions Determine relative altitude of other

aircrafts. Take appropriate action – (right-of-way) Multiple threats – climb, descend, turn Collision course – appear to not be moving High hazard areas – airports, VORs Cockpit management – proper flight

planning ATC support – request flight following

Collision avoidance

Eyes can observe an approximate 200 degree arc at a glance but only a small part of the

eye can focus in on a point.

Use a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements, 10 degrees at a time for 1 minute each.

Use the whole scanning area even behind each wing

Scanning for traffic

Traffic pattern operations

Review practice area

Clearing turns

Look for traffic

Maintain a safe altitude

Practice area operations

4 Forces of Flight Angle of Attack Airframe (Components) Three Axes of Flight Forces Acting on a Climbing Aircraft Forces Acting on a Descending Aircraft Forces Acting on a Turning Aircraft Effects of Flaps Critical Angle of Attack/Stalls Spin Awareness

Aerodynamics

4 forces of flight

Supporting force for flight in an atmosphere Acts perpendicular to the relative wind Generated through Bernoulli’s Principle and

Newton’s Law

Lift

As a fluid passes through a pipe that narrows or widens, the velocity and pressure of the fluid vary. As the pipe narrows, the fluid flows more quickly. Surprisingly, Bernoulli's Principle tells us that as the fluid flows more quickly through the narrow sections, the pressure actually decreases rather than increases!

http://mitchellscience.com/bernoulli_principle_animation

Bernoulli ‘s Principle

Newton’s 1st Law

Newton 2nd law

Newton’s 3rd law

Newton’s 3rd law

Parts of an airfoil

Considered to act parallel and just about on the longitudinal axis

Produced by movement of the air by propeller or the expansion of air in a turbine

Thrust

Mass X acceleration (gravity)

Always act toward the center on the earth

Considered to act from the center of gravityCG is the point on the aircraft, that if suspended it

would balance.

Weight/Gravity

dragTwo types- parasite & inducedRetarding forceActs parallel to relative wind

During straight & level Lift = Weight Thrust = Drag

Steady state flightUpward and downward forces are equalForward = retarding forces

Drag

Parasite drag – friction

Induced drag-induced by the creation of lift

Induced drag

Drag curve

The acute angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind

At angles less that the critical angle of attack, an increase in the angle of attack will increase lift provided that all other factors are the same

Angle of attack

Angle of attack

3 axes of flight

Airframe construction (components)

FuselageMonocoque – skin carries all of the stressTruss – internal structure with non-load carrying skinSemi-monocoque – inside formers & stringers

WingsProvides all the lift that supports aircraft in flight

EmpennageVertical stabilizer – directional balanceRudder – direction of yawHorizontal stabilizer – longitudinal balanceElevator – controls the pitch

Airframe componets

Rudder - yaw about the vertical axis

Elevator – pitch about the lateral axis

Ailerons – bank (roll) around the longitudinal axis

Primary flight controls

Rudder

Elevator

Ailerons

Trim tabs -for trimming and balancing aircraftTrim tabsServo tabsBalance tabsAnti-servo tabs

Spoilers & dive brakes – increase descent without an increase in airspeed

Wing flaps – increase lift and dragSplitSlottedFowler

Secondary flight controls

Flaps

Retractable vs. fixed

Tricycle vs. conventional (tail wheel)

Landing gear

Forces acting on a climbing aircraft

Vy – best rate most altitude over time

Vx – best angle most altitude over distance

Cruise climbUsed for improved engine cooling and

visibility Steady state climb

Constant rate & airspeed climb

Climbs

P-factor – descending propeller blade produces

more lift and pulls aircraft to the left (yaw) Torque reaction - twisting on engine creates

roll and yaw Spiraling slip stream - twisting air around

fuselage creates roll and yaw Gyroscopic precession – propeller act as a gyroscope

Left turning tendencies – the needfor right rudder at high power

Left turning tendencies

LiftMay be the same as levelComponent acts forward from vertical due to

the line of flight Thrust

Pilots prerogative Weight

Always acts toward the center of the earth Drag

May increase

Best glide -Most distance per unit of altitude

Forces acting on a descending aircraft

Forces on a turning aircraft

Bank the aircraft in order to change the direction of flightRudder yaws but does not create the unbalance

of forces needed to change direction Slip – tail inside Skid – tail outside

Adverse yaw Raised wing creates more lift and more drag.Aircraft tries to turn opposite the turn.

creates added drag

Forces on a turning aircraft

Correct by making Coordinated turns

Horizontal turnsLift vector is tilted

Creates an acceleration

Shallow - 0 to 20 degrees of bank Medium – 20 to 45 degree of bank Steep – more than 45 degree of bankApply coordinated aileron and rudder initially

for the turn, then increase back pressure, once the turn is established pressure on controls can be relaxed

Types of turns

Level/Medium/Steep turns

Constant turns

The raised wing creates more lift than the lowered wind. Especially in steeper turns the lift on the raised wing will continue to increase and will need aileron applied opposite the turn in order to correct.

Overbanking tendencies

Extending the flaps increases:Wing camberWing area (some types)Angle of attack of the wing

These changes increase lift and drag (induced and parasite

Allows the pilot to make a steeper approach without increasing airspeed

May provide increased lift required for certain maneuvers

Effect of flaps

An airplane will fly as long as the wing is creating sufficient lift to counteract the load imposed on it

The angle of attack at which a wing stalls regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or weight is known as the critical angle of attack

Critical angle of attack/Stalls

The direct cause of every stall is an excessive angle of attack

The smooth flow of air over the top of the wing is disturbed at this critical angle of attack

The stalling speed of a particular airplane is not a fixed value for all flight situations

A given airplane will always stall at the same angle of attack regardless of airspeed, weight, load factor, or density altitude

The angle is typically from 16-20 degrees, depending on the airplane’s design

Critical angle of attack/Stalls

Angle of attack vs flight path

The critical angle of attack can be exceeded at any attitude or airspeedAt low airspeed, the angle of attack will tend to

be highAbrupt control application and/or higher bank

angles will be involved with exceeding the critical angle of attack at higher airspeeds or lower pitch attitudes

Recovery from a stall requires the pilot to reduce the angle of attack to allow the smooth air over the wing to begin againConsiderable altitude may be lost during recovery

Critical angle of attack/Stalls

A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall that results “autorotation” and the airplane follows a downward corkscrew path

The “autorotation” results from an unequal angle of attack on the airplane’s wingsThe rising wing is less stalled The descending wing has exceeded the critical

angle of attack and is more stalled Spins may occur during stalls with a sideslip

or yaw acting on the airplane at the time of the stall

Spin awareness

Entry - stall Incipient – lasts about 4 to 6 seconds approximately 2 turns Developed – airspeed vertical speed, and rate of rotation are stabilized. Altitude loss approximately 500 feet each 3 second turn Recovery - wings regain lift recovery in about ½

to ¼ turn after anti-spin inputs are applied

4 phases of a spin

Reduce the throttle to idle Position the ailerons to neutral Apply full opposite rudder Apply positive forward movement of the

elevator forward of neutral to break the stall After spin rotation stops, neutralize the

rudder Begin applying back pressure to raise the

nose to level flight

Spin recovery

Spin avoidance and recovery require positive control applications

Intentional spins should only be practiced within the limitations of a properly rigged airplane with a qualified instructor at an altitude allowing recovery prior to descent below 3000ft AGL

Spin avoidance

Static Stability (Positive/Negative) Dynamic Stability (Positive/Negative) Dihedral Effect Ground Effect Wing Tip Vortices Wake Static Stability (Positive/Negative) Dynamic Stability (Positive/Negative) Dihedral Effect Ground Effect Wing Tip Vortices Wake Turbulence and Avoidance Load Factor and Gusts 

Airplane Stability (PIO), Load Factors, and Wake

Stability - the inherent quality of an airplane to correct for conditions that may disturb it from equilibrium

Controllability - the airplane’s capability to respond to a pilot’ control inputs

Maneuverability - the ability of the aircraft to change direction about the three exes and withstand the forces imposed by the maneuver

Stability defined

Positive – when moved out of equilibrium the more likely it is to return to equilibrium

Neutral – when moved out of equilibrium it will tend to stay in the new position

Negative – when moved out of equilibrium the more likely it is to continue in the new direction

Positive/Neutral/Negative

In inherently stable aircraft returns to it’s original position after being disturbed

The location of the center of gravity (CG) determines the longitudinal stability

Too much stability is detrimental to maneuverability

Too little stability can be detrimental to controllability

Relationships to stability

Types of Stability

Stability - the inherent quality of an airplane to correct for conditions that may disturb it from equilibrium

Controllability - the airplane’s capability to respond to a pilot’ control inputs

Maneuverability - the ability of the aircraft to change direction about the three exes and withstand the forces imposed by the maneuver

Static stability (positive/negative)

The result over time when reacting to a disturbance from equilibrium

Dynamic stability requires positive static stability as the initial reactionAn aircraft with positive dynamic stability will

tend to return to equilibrium through smaller and smaller oscillations

An aircraft with neutral dynamic stability will tend to continue oscillation with the same magnitude for each oscillation

An aircraft with negative dynamic stability will continue oscillating with the magnitude of each oscillation increasing

Dynamic stability (positive/negative)

Dihedral is the angle at which the wings are slanted upward from the root to the tip

Dihedral’s stabilizing effect is the result of a slight sideslip which occurs when one wing is forced downThe sideslip creates a difference between the

angle of attack on the upper and lower wings with the lower wing having a greater angle of attack (creating more lift) and raises the lowered wing

Dihedral effect

Dihedral effect

By over-controlling/correcting the aircraft the pilot disturbs the inherent stability creating oscillations that increase in magnitude until the aircraft become impossible to control

Pilot induced oscillations (PIO)

The condition of improved performance encountered when the aircraft is near the ground (approximately a wing span)The ground changes the airflow around the

wing and creates a cushion of air This reduces the upwash, downwash, and

wingtip vortices Results in a reduction of induced drag

Ground effect

Upwash / downwash

Good stuffAllows the pilot to reduce wear and tear on the

aircraft and increase acceleration when operating from a soft-field

May be utilized to soften a landing

Bad stuffMay allow the aircraft to takeoff before the

aircraft is ready to continue flying which can result in settling

May cause excessive float on landing

Uses and dangers of ground effect

Wing tip vortices

Wing tip vortices

Wake turbulence & avoidance

Strongest wakeHeavy (larger AOA)Clean (no changes in the wing)Slow (larger AOA)

Jet blastExhaust from a jet can flip a light aircraftStay back 500 ft.

Wake turbulence

Wake turbulence avoidance in flightAvoid 5+ miles behind the aircraftAvoid 1,000ft below the aircraft

Wake turbulence avoidance landingApproach above the larger aircraft’s pathTouchdown beyond the larger aircraft’s

touchdown pointLand prior to the larger aircraft’s rotation pointBe cautious of crosswinds that can make them

drift Wake turbulence avoidance departing

Rotate prior to and climb above the flight pathWait 2-3 minutes if departing for dissipation

Wake turbulence & avoidance

A load is a force which is supported by the wings of the aircraft

the load in straight-and-level unaccelerated flight is the weight of the aircraft and its contents (1 G)

A load factor is a ratio of the total load supported by the wings to the actual weight of the aircraft and its contentsAlso referred to as G’s (gravities)

Climbing or turning will increase the G loadThe load factor in turning flight is determined by

the bank angle

Load factor

Load factor chart

Load factor in a turn

Increase of load factor with increase of bank angle

Increase in weight in turns

In order to maintain level flight during a turn, the wings must produce enough lift to support the weight of the aircraft multiplied by the load factor

The increased angle of attack required to produce the extra lift at any given bank angle will increase the stall speed of the aircraft (multiply the stall speed by the square root of the load factor to determine the higher stall speed)

Stall speed and load factor

Designed to handle without breaking apart

Normal = +2.5 to +3.8/-1.0 to -1.52(weight dependent)

Utility = +4.4/-1.76 Acrobatic = +6.0/-3.0 Transport = +2.5 to +3.8/-1.0

(weight dependent)

Category of aircraft

Va – the maximum speed that the aircraft will stall before a damaging load factor results

or the maximum speed at which full of

abrupt control movements may be used without overstressing the aircraft

Va changes with the weight of the aircraft Va is typically published for max gross

weight (at weights less than max Va is lower)

Va – maneuvering speed

Vertical air currents or gusts may impose an increased load factor on an airplaneThese gusts are felt by the pilot and passengers

as turbulenceThe aircraft’s speed must be kept below Vno

(normal operating range) in any turbulence to prevent damage

It should be kept below Va in severe of greater turbulence to allow an additional safety factor

Vertical gusts/Turbulence