Ground Ladders - John Mittendorf

7/28/2019 Ground Ladders - John Mittendorf

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Ground Ladders

Part I

By John Mittendorf

Although ground ladder operations can be one of the most effective and versatile firefighting tools that are often used to support and enhance efficient fireground operations,reduced staffing levels have often reduced their implementation to a consideration aftermore important operations (i.e., fire attack, ventilation, search and rescue, forcible entry,etc.) are completed. However, in the science of firefighting, effective firegroundoperations are often dependent on the timely and adequate placement of ladders tofacilitate other fireground operations. The importance of ladders at structure fires cannotbe overemphasized.

LADDER SELECTION

Ladder selection consists of two interrelated considerations as follows:

Initial Purchase

Before any ladder is spotted and placed to a structure (objective), the needs of a particulararea and type of ladders necessary for appropriate applications must be thoroughlyanalyzed and wisely purchased. Remember, the initial purchase of ground ladders (whichnormally coincides with the purchase of new apparatus) will often effect firegroundoperations (and considerations) 15 to 20 years later. With this thought in mind, let's

briefly consider compliment, type, and construction:

Compliment

As an initial starting point, NFPA 1904 (1991 edition) recommends that truck companiescarry a minimum of 115-feet of ground ladders. This basic compliment will provide theability to access attics from the interior of structures, enhance ventilation-overhauloperations on peaked roofs, and provide access to the roofs of two and some three storybuildings (with a minimum of two ladders to the roofs of two story buildings. However,note this compliment is marginal when applied to three story buildings. Therefore, theneeds of an area (served by a truck company) may alter or add to the basic NFPA

compliment. As an example, consider the following two examples:

1. Sixteen-foot straight ladders require less personnel and are easier to implementthan 24-foot extension ladders to the roofs of most single-story, single-familydwellings (remember, there are more single family dwelling type structures thanany other structure). Again, the presence of numerous single-family dwellingsmight require the addition of a 16-foot straight ladder in addition to a 24-footextension ladder.


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2. Four story structures that are not accessible by an aerial device may require a 40to 50-foot extension ladder in addition to a 24 and 35-foot extension ladder.

Type of Ladders

When comparing extension ladders to straight ladders:

1. An extension ladder can be adjusted to a specific length and also be used as areplacement for shorter ladders (i.e., a 35-foot ladder can replace 28, 24, 20, and16-foot ladders).

2. Extension ladders can require additional personnel to compensate for theadditional weight and necessity of extension operations as compared to straightladders of comparable length (i.e., a 24-foot metal extension ladder weighs 110 to142 lbs and requires 2 personnel for implementation. A 24-foot metal straightladder weighs 62-76 lbs and can be raised by one person. Straight ladders arenormally lighter than extension ladders and can require less personnel (and time)

for implementation.3. More straight ladders must be purchased to equal the adjustable lengthcombinations of an extension ladder. Additional ladders will also require morespace on apparatus.

4. Minimal space constraints can place an emphasis on purchasing several extensionladders to provide the capability of additional shorter ladders. However, theaddition ofselectedstraight ladders (in addition to extension ladders) can increaseflexibility and require less personnel for implementation.

Construction

Currently, ground ladders are constructed from wood, metal, and fiberglass. The mostcommon ladders are constructed from aluminum. The next most common ladders areconstructed from wood, and the least common ladders are constructed from fiberglass.These ladders are summarized as follows:

Metal

1. Good conductor of heat, cold, and electricity.2. Least expensive and easily repairable.3. Extensive choice of sizes and configurations.4. Can suddenly fail when exposed to heat or flame over 200-degrees (loss of

annealing).

Wood

1. Higher cost than aluminum or fiberglass.2. Can be exposed to heat and flame and retain strength.3. Good durability.4. May require refinishing of damaged finish, depending on frequency of use.


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Fiberglass

1. Not a willing conductor of electricity, heat, and cold.2. Moderate cost.3. May chip and crack with impact forces.

4. May suddenly crack and fail when overloaded.5. Can burn when exposed to flame.

As aluminum, wood, and fiberglass ladders are constructed to meet the same standards(NFPA 1931), selection is often a combination of personal preference and tradition.

Characteristics

Now, let's combine the aforementioned considerations with the distinctcharacteristics ofcost, weight, maintenance, and safety that should also be considered before selecting aground ladder:

Cost

Wood ladders are the most expensive and aluminum ladders are the least expensive (i.e.,for a 20-foot extension ladder, wood is approximately $1,600, fiberglass is approximately$750, and aluminum is approximately $680).

Weight

The common perception that aluminum ladders are lighter in weight than currentlyavailable wood (tapered truss) and fiberglass ladders should be re-evaluated when

reviewing the following chart that has been assembled from manufacturers' catalogs:

Ladders Wood Metal Fiberglass

16' straight 52# 56# 37#

20' straight 65# 65# 50#

12' extension 34# 29-48# 45-69#

24' extension 110# 75-142# 99-133#

10' roof 30# 24-40# 30#

16' roof 48# 44-56# 42-46#


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Maintenance

The maintenance of any ladder is affected by frequency of use and adherence to NFPA1932, which recommends all ground ladders be visually inspected at least once eachmonth, after each usage, and:

To restore the surface finish, an occasional application of a good automotive pastewax shall be used on aluminum and fiberglass ladders

The varnish finish shall be inspected at least every six months and redone at leastannually, or sooner, if damage to the finish is noted, to preserve the wood andvarnish finish ofwooden ladders.

Therefore, as the frequency of use increases, so does the necessary maintenance of anyladder, regardless of construction. In any case, most ground ladders do not receiveadequate maintenance regardless of the type of ladder and frequency of use.

Safety

When selecting a ladder, safety considerations should be carefully evaluated. Therefore,when comparing metal, wood, and fiberglass ladders, remember that metal is a willingconductor of electricity, whereas wood and fiberglass are not. Consider the followingfacts:

1. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), ninefirefighters were killed between 1977 and 1988 due to electrocution involvingmetal ground ladders (not including the number of non-fatal injuries attributed tothese ladders).

2. According to the United States Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC):

Commission accident data consistently identifies metal ground ladders as aproduct commonly associated with electrocutions.

When accurate depth perception is required, the human visual system is limited inits ability in estimating the clearance distance from ladders to power lines asviewed against the sky. When an object (power line) is seen against the sky, thehuman eye only sees a dark line against the sky. Unless a person is close enoughto see some details on an objects surface, it is almost impossible to accuratelyestimate its distance. Therefore, visual judgment cannot be depended on solely forestimating critical clearance distances of objects in the sky (such as power lines

and ground ladders). Since people are task oriented; they will tend to move an extension ladder while it

is still extended to avoid interrupting the task sequence. Therefore, this conditionincreases the possibility of contacting power lines with an extension ladder. Mostelectrocutions associated with metal ladders involved extension ladders.

The average electrical service lines (120/240-volts) to a single-family dwellingare commonly insulated with a material rated at 600 volts. However, age andexposure to the extremes of weather contribute to brittleness and cracking of the


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insulation material which degrade dielectric strength and the ability to preventelectrocution. Therefore, power line coverings are not designed, or, in the case ofservice drop lines, not adequately maintained to be a reliable protection against anabrasive contact by a ladder.

In the private sector, the telecommunications industry has significantly reducedelectrocution hazards by simply requiring exclusive use of either wood or fiberglassladders (both of which are inherently non conductive), and the National Electrical SafetyCode prohibits the use of metal ladders or metal longitudinal supports along woodenladders in the vicinity of electrical conductors. Interestingly, the United States fire servicemay be the only agency in the United States that allows the use of metal ladders withvirtually no restrictions.

Therefore, in the interest of safety and the fact that metal ladders are not the lightestladder, why are metal ladders utilized in the fire service? Answer: Cost!

Ground Ladders

Part 2

Before we continue with Part 2 of "Ground Ladders," let's briefly re-address a commonsubject metal ground ladders vs. wooden ground ladders. I am frequently asked, "Whydo some fire departments still use wooden ladders on the fireground?"Interestingly,thequestion is normally asked within the parameters of"Why don't those fire departmentsupdate their fireground operations and step into the 21st Century?"Metal ground ladders

have typically benefited from three perceptions among firefighters as follows:

Metal ground ladders are cheaper than their wood counterparts. This is a truestatement.

Metal ground ladders require less maintenance than wood ladders. This statementis not true if NFPA 1932 is adhered to.

Metal ground ladders are lighter than tapered truss wood ladders. In reviewingmanufacturer's advertising brochures, this statement is also false.

Therefore, why do some modern fire departments (i.e., Los Angeles City, San Francisco,Bellevue, Washington, etc.) specifically use wood ladders? The answer is (in capital

letters) SAFETY! Most firefighters are unaware that FEMA statistics indicate that metalladders cost the U.S. Fire Service approximately one firefighter per year! However, it isalso noteworthy that personnel who have utilized both types of ladders will readily agreethat tapered truss wood ladders climb with less flex, are easier to use in cold weather,"shoes" will stay planted easier and longer, and are easier to carry due to rounded edgesof the beams. Therefore, the current use of metal ground ladders is not based on ease ofimplementation and safety, it is based on tradition and cost.


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There are many guidelines used in selecting and placing ground ladders into operation.The following is a review ofbasic considerations:

Timely and effective ladder placement should be an initialpriority for two basic reasons:

It lays the groundwork for a timely, coordinated attack on a structure fire. Normally, it is the only time at a structure fire that an officer has the entire

company together and can effectively control and coordinate ladder placementprior to committing company personnel to other fireground operations.

Ladders left on apparatus are not effective on the fireground. In fact, this basic rule canbe expanded to include all types of equipment as follows, "Equipment left on apparatusparked in the street is not usable on the fireground"!

The largest ladder that requires the most personnel should be raised first.

Always use the proper type and length of ladder. If the length or placement is incorrect,replace the ladder or correct the problem. Do not let an inconvenience become afireground compromise or potential safety consideration for the balance of an incident.

When lifting ladders from apparatus or the ground, use the muscles of the legs, arms, andshoulders. Coordination of effort between team members is essential for smoothoperations.

Ground ladders should be properly spotted, shifted, or moved into the correct position forraisingpriorto being raised due to the following considerations :

Ground ladders are most easily and safely maneuvered while on the ground. Once a ground ladder is in a vertical position, additional movement increases the

chances of losing stability, striking wires and other similar obstacles.

When carrying a ladder to an objective and it is necessary to change direction of travelbut it is unnecessary or undesirable to turn a ladder end for end, a simple pivot to reversedirection of ladder personnel can be used.

Normally, the operations necessary to lower ladders are the reverse of those used inraising. Be sure the appropriate area is clear before lowering. Check overhead and groundobstructions. If more than one person is responsible for lowering the ladder, the base

person is responsible for the safety of the operation. Avoid the tendency to work too fastwhen lowering a ladder. Do your ladder SOP's clearly designate a "base person"?

Straight ladders are normally lighter and require less time to place into operation thanextension ladders. Extension ladders offer a variable height factor.

Straight ladders with rungs set in the main beams should be raised with the rungs awayfrom a building, and extension ladders should be raised as follows:


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With the fly away (or on the outside of the main section) from an objective formetal and fiberglass extension ladders.

With the fly between the objective and the main section for truss wood extensionladders with rungs set in the main beams.

On extension ladders, the fly section should be strapped to the main section (beforeclimbing) by placing a strap around the bottom rung of the fly section and the adjacentrung of the main section.

The base of an extension ladder may be shifted toward a building or to either side after itis lowered into an objective. Do not move the base away from an objective unless thesections are strapped together.

When shifting large extension ladders (prior to strapping the fly), one member shallcapture the halyard on the front side of the ladder to prevent the dogs from accidentallyunlocking, resulting in a premature release of the fly section.

Some extension ladders can be separated to make two straight ladders. However, it is notpractical on ladders with a halyard.

If deciding between different lengths (20- or 24-foot, 24- or 35-foot, etc.) for laddering anobjective, choose the longer ladder for the following reasons:

The ladder will reach the objective (length). The ladder will be heavier and wider. This improves stability and is easier to

climb (strength and access). Additional extension of the ladder above an objective (visibility).

Ground ladders that need multiple personnel for implementation require a specific personof a ladder team to be responsible for communications (timing and placement of ladder)between team members. This is usually handled by the base person unless otherwisespecified.

The two basic methods of raising ground ladders are the flat and beam raises. Overheadobstructions, limited space and other similar considerations will dictate the type of raisethat should be used.

The required working height of a ladder can be estimated as follows:

Habitational occupancies are approximately 9-feet from floor to floor. Commercial occupancies are approximately 10-feet from floor to floor. The average windowsill height above a floor is approximately 3-feet, allow 4-feet

for window height, and any extension above an objective must be added todetermine the approximate length of ladder.


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The proper climbing angle for a ladder is approximately 70-degrees. This angle allowspersonnel to climb a ladder in an erect posture while comfortably placing their hands onthe rungs of a ladder. To quickly achieve 70-degrees, the base of a ground ladder isnormally placed one-fourth of the working height (vertical distance from grade level toobjective) from the base of a building.

When ascending a ladder, look toward the rungs just above the head. Climb with handsgrasping the center of the rungs, body erect, shoulders at an arm length from the ladder,knees in-line with the body, balls of the feet on the rungs. The legs carry the weight andthe arms maintain balance and stability. Do not reach up to pull with the arms. Ascendbriskly but smoothly, feet and hands working together, taking every rung with the feetand every other rung with the hands. Descending, look toward the rungs just below thehead. Grasp each rung alternating hands. The feet and hands should contact appropriaterungs at the same time to develop a rhythm that is essential to smooth and safe climbing.

Ladders placed for climbing should be positioned with the base of a ladder resting evenly

on both shoes. If a ladder footing is sloped, the unsupported down-slope shoe can besupported with a wedge (i.e., apparatus chock block) to level the ladder and provide "4-point contact."

If possible, a ladder should be placed to the windwardside of an objective. This will keeppersonnel on the upwind side of any contaminants.

There should be a minimum of two ladders to a building. At least two ladders should beplaced to a roof, preferably at opposite ends or at least two sides of a fire so there will bemore than one way off a roof. On large structures, all four corners of a fire buildingshould be laddered.

Ground Ladders

Part 3

This article will conclude our three-part series on ground ladders.

Ladder the strong areas of a building or roof. Always consider the strong areas ofconstruction and the area that will be traversed. Areas such as pilasters, hips, valleys, andridges offer excellent areas to place a ladder. Remember that one of the best areas toplace a ladder is to a corner of a building. The corners of a building are considered a

prime location for ladders for the following reasons:

No horizontal openings. Windows, doors, and vents are not usually found incorners. Placing a ladder over a horizontal opening is inviting the possibility of aburned ladder and losing a means of egress.

Strength. Structural stability is enhanced where two walls and a roof are tiedtogether.


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Location. When ventilation operations are completed, the location of a ladder canbe easily determined by looking at the corners. This is an asset at night, in smokyconditions, or when immediate egress is necessary.

Access. By laddering the corners of a structure, the entrance to a building isgenerally avoided. Therefore, hose lines that are being deployed through

doorways, etc., are not competing for space with ladder operations. Hip roofs. Hips converge at corners. Therefore, when laddering the corner of a

structure with a hip roof, personnel will step off a ladder and onto a hip.

Place initial ladders away or opposite from the location of a fire. This procedure allowspersonnel to start and return to the strongest area (unburned) of a building.

Ladders should extend above a roof or parapet wall enough distance so they are readilyvisible. Ladders placed in windows and on fire escape balconies should only extend one-foot above the sill or rail to prevent blocking access and egress.

When placing a ladder to a window, three options should be evaluated:

If the tip of a ladder is placed just below a window sill, the ladder will not blockthe window opening for personnel who need to enter or exit through the window.Although this operation enhances egress-ingress through a window opening, itshould be remembered that personnel inside the building will not be able toidentify the window with the ladder. This placement is normally preferred formost window operations.

If a ladder is notsupported at all four corners (i.e., ladder footing is sloped,resulting in a loss of four-point contact), the ladder should be placed on thedownhill side of a window sill with the tip of the ladder just over the sill and

beam touching the downhill side of the window frame. These two factors willprevent a ladder from moving away from the supporting window frame as it isbeing climbed.

If a ladder is placed to the side and above a window sill, it can enhance ingress-egress through a window opening. However, as personnel transfer their weightfrom the ladder to the window sill, the ladder can be inadvertently pushed awayfrom the window, creating a dangerous condition for personnel. Additionally,personnel inside the building will not be able to identify the window with theladder. In no case should a ladder with less than 4-point contact be placed to theside and above a widow sill.

When necessary, ground ladders should be secured to objectives through the use of:

Ladder straps which can be strapped directly to building features (fire escapebalconies, pipes, etc.), or ladder straps and hay hooks.

A rope between the bottom rung and a building feature (pipe, etc.). This will keepthe base of a ladder from moving outward.


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When climbing a ladder, at least one hand should grasp the ladder to provide security andstability. Tools can be carried by straps, slings, or moved with drop cords. If necessary, ahand carrying a tool can provide security and balance by positioning the hand and toolbehind a ladder beam with the wrist cocked against a beam.

While working from a ladder, personnel should not overextend their horizontal reach.Overextension can suddenly overbalance or twist a ladder and cause a ladder to slideagainst an objective. If necessary, reposition the ladder or lock-in to the ladder. This willlimit the reach of personnel. Stability and safety are the key considerations.

Before stepping off a ladder, ensure the stability of the landing area. Although a roof maylook normal, fire may have weakened the underside of a roof so it is not capable ofsupporting additional weight. Stability can be tested by sounding with a rubbish hook,pike pole, axe, or other similar tool.

Once ladders have been spotted to an objective and ascended by personnel, never remove

the ladder(s) unless personnel who have used the ladder are aware of its removal.

Some structures have tall parapets. If a parapet is of excessive height (over 5-feet) and itis necessary to place a ladder to the parapet to access the roof, a roof ladder should beplaced adjacent to the ladder at the top of the parapet to facilitate access and egress fromthe roof to the top of the fascia (and ladder). Hooks should be opened and placed over theparapet to assist footing for personnel using the ladder.

When laddering fire escapes, the top of a ladder should extend a maximum of one-footabove railings. Ladders should be spotted adjacent to fire-escape ladder handrails andstrapped to minimize side loads while personnel are climbing the ladder. Avoid laddering

to areas that may interfere with the use of fire-escape drop ladders. Consider releasingdrop ladders for use by occupants and to keep drop ladders from prematurely releasingduring an incident.

Roof ladders should be used on all pitched or sloped roofs where footing is precarious.Remember that pitched-sloped roofs are always steeperin reality than when viewed fromthe ground.

Roof ladders used for roof ventilation operations should be placed on a roof whereventilation operations are anticipated. Therefore, initially position a ground ladder (ifpossible) near or next to the section of roof to be ventilated (and on the windward side of

the anticipated ventilation operation). This will facilitate placement of a roof ladder onthe appropriate section of roof. This results in a straight path to the ventilation area,personnel will be working on the windward section of roof, and a quick route back to theground.

To complement the use of ground ladders, consider the use of aerial ladders on anystructure equal to or larger that a two-story dwelling.


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When appropriate, first-in truck officers (or other appropriate personnel) should relayadditional ladder requirements to incoming companies (such as the need for additionalladders, proper location, etc.).

Drop bags can be effectively utilized in concert with ground ladders to hoist or lower

tools and hose lines during above groundoperations.

When it is not possible to secure the top of a ladder from which a hose stream must beused, the ladder should be used at aflatter-than-normalangle. The base should also besecured.

Portions of this article are reprinted from Truck Company Operations by JohnMittendorf.

Copyright Firenuggets.com 2002

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Ground Ladders - John Mittendorf