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2014
Authors: George Carter, Sarah Gilmore,
Kristin Hileman, and Peter Hughes
Class: UAP 4356 Environmental
Problem Solving Studio
Instructor: Dr. John Browder
Client: Carol Davis TOB Manager of
Sustainability
Assessment of Green Infrastructure
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Table of Contents Section Page
I. Executive………………………………………………………………… Summary
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II. Introduction………………………………………………………………. 3
2.1 Global ………………………………………………………………….. Significance
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2.2 What is Green………………………………………………………….. Infrastructure
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2.3 Green Infrastructure in………………………………………………. Blacksburg
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III. Goals and Objectives…………………………………………………….. 5
IV. Methodology……………………………………………………………… 5
4.1 Defining Green………………………………………………………… Infrastructure
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4.2 Map Layer……………………………………………………………… Collection
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4.3 Map Creation and the Exclusion……………………………………. of Virginia Tech
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4.4 Map 1.1: Parks Within the TOB…………………………………….. 8
V. Findings…………………………………………………………………… 9
Site 1: Owens Street Park…………………………………………… 9
Site 2: Shenandoah Bike Trail and Park……………………………. 11
Site 3: Wong Park…………………………………………………… 12
Site 4: Blacksburg Municipal Park…………………………………. 13
Site 5: Nellie’s Cave Park…………………………………………... 14
Site 6: Heritage Community Park and Natural Area……………….. 15
Site 7: Deerfield Trail………………………………………………. 16
Site 8: Creek Valley Overlay………………………………………... 17
Map 1.2 Identified Green Infrastructure in Blacksburg…………….. 18
Map 1.3 Residents Within Distance of Identified……………………… Green Infrastructure
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VI. Case Study Analysis of Equivalent STAR Certified…………….. Communities
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North Hampton, Massachusetts………………………………………….. 21
Albany, New York………………………………………………………….. 21
VII. Recommendations…………………………………………………. 22
Table 1.1 Recommended Funding Opportunities……………………… 24
VIII. Conclusions………………………………………………………… 24
IX. Appendices/………………………………………………………… 27
A: Larger Maps………………………………………………………..…... 27
B: Parks Identified as Green Infrastructure…………………………… 33
C: Blacksburg Cemetery……………………………………………......... 34
X. References………………………………………………………….. 34
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Section 1: Executive Summary
Today, many communities recognize the growing need to balance the growth of the community’s economic development with the integrity of the surrounding natural environment. The STAR Community Rating System (STAR) is a tool designed by and for local governments as a guide to implement and assess sustainable growth practices in communities. The STAR program initiative is the nation’s first framework and certification program for local sustainability. The program guidelines serve as a blueprint and as a means of authentication. The Town of Blacksburg (TOB), a small college town in Virginia, is currently utilizing the STAR program in pursuit of ensuring its sustainability. Blacksburg’s vision is a commitment to the protection of the environment, the prevention of pollution, and the adherence to environmental regulations while providing for economic growth and municipal services for its citizens. This research report focuses on the assessment of the TOB in the Green Infrastructure (GI) section of the STAR guide. The assessment was performed through ArcMap creation and on site field work. The findings provide not only a detailed assessment and catalog of current green infrastructure and community practices; but, the project also includes recommendations and techniques to improve the green infrastructure of Blacksburg, VA. In conclusion the report states that the TOB has achieved the physical requirements for GI and with the implementation of the policy recommendations for GI, the TOB should receive certification for the GI section of the STAR guide.
Section 2: Introduction 2.1 Global Significance
In the decades following World War II, the United States experienced large increases in population growth. During the “Baby Boom” in the years between 1950 and 2000, the population of the United States grew from 150.7 million to 281.5 million and experts predict population to exceed 335 million people by 2025 (Hobbs & Stoops 11; Campbell 3). Between 1900 and 2000, Hobbs and Stoops noted the population density tripled, growing from 26 people per square mile to 80 people per square mile (15). As the population increased, and continues to increase, a corresponding increase occurred with the development of infrastructure to support the expanding needs of the increasing population. Concurrent with this population growth, was the movement from a rural to an urban population density occurred in the United States. Urban development expanded to meet the demands of this population and development continues today to support and meet the needs of the citizens of the United States. As a necessity, infrastructure supports the livelihoods of citizens, manages access to resources and utilities, and provides the foundations for communities and the economy.
Despite early warnings of the harmful effects to the environment and natural resources by environmentalists like Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and Paul R. Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb in the 1960s as well as, Ralph Nader’s activism in the 1970s, real efforts did not occur until the mid-1990s when the United States recognized the competing elements of manmade infrastructure often impeded natural processes and threatened the health of the environment. Decades of mismanaged development, however, have resulted in the degradation of water quality from toxic substances, the loss or fragmentation of habitats, and the diminishing biodiversity. Before 1994, land development practices did not recognize the importance of conservation strategies. Consequently, many municipalities are pursuing initiatives, commonly known as Green Infrastructure (GI), which highlight the importance of considering the natural environment
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and ecological processes in urban development activities. Now the issues municipalities face today are compensating for the previous years of mismanagement. Faced with a higher density of people and spatially less green space, municipalities must find a means to convert the remaining green space into GI, garnishing and preserving the remaining benefits of GI.
2.2 What is Green Infrastructure?
According to Benedict and McMahon, green infrastructure (GI) is a strategically planned and managed network of natural lands, working landscapes, and other open spaces designed to conserve ecosystem values and functions that provides associated benefits to human populations (Benedict & McMahon 5; Amundsen, Allen, & Hoellen 1). In general, the purpose of green infrastructure is to use the indigenous vegetation, soils, and natural processes to manage local water quality, help maintain biodiverse habitats, and create healthier urban environments. Specific to our research at the city and county level, green infrastructure reflects how a network of natural areas provide wildlife habitats, flood protection, localized cooling effect, cleaner air, cleaner water, and often times spaces for human recreation. According to the STAR Guide and for the purpose of our assessment of the green infrastructure for the TOB, green infrastructure is defined as “a network of green infrastructure features that integrate with the built environment to conserve ecosystem functions and provide associated benefits to human population” (219). In contrast to segregated or disputing conservation practices, green infrastructure incorporates conservation values within practices for land development, growth management, and infrastructure planning (Benedict & McMahon 5).
2.3 Green Infrastructure in Blacksburg
The TOB is a Virginia college town located in the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains and known nationally for its connection to Virginia Tech. Similar to most municipalities, Blacksburg’s comprehensive plan emphasizes on the continued growth of the local economy, and in pushing the community toward sustainable growth and development. Recognition by Business Week in 2011 as "The Best Place to Raise Your Kids" and by Southern Living Readers’ Choice Winner as "The Best College Town in the South" demonstrates the town’s success towards achieving these ends. However, room for improvement remains.
The achievement of the STAR rating provides the next step in distinguishing Blacksburg as a sustainable community. To achieve the STAR rating, Blacksburg must meet multiple standards in various areas including green infrastructure. At the town level, the implementation of green infrastructure projects ensures a responsible approach to fostering expansion of urban growth while not compromising the integrity of the existing ecosystems that provide essential natural processes. According to the STAR Technical Guide, to achieve the green infrastructure criteria, Blacksburg would need to achieve two of the three following characteristics: (1) Localized cooling through tree canopy cover, green roofs, or green walls; (2) Water management through wetlands, stream buffers, and permeable surfaces; and (3) Wildlife habitats and recreational space for humans (222). By achieving these green infrastructure standards, Blacksburg will improve the health of the local environment, consequently improving the health of its human and wildlife population. Economically, the green infrastructure should provide a cost-efficient management system for the community’s natural resources while the grey infrastructure requires high construction, maintenance, and repair costs plus introduces pollutants into source waters. Green infrastructure maintains and integrity and the environment as well as serving as recreational and educational opportunities for the citizens of Blacksburg,
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Section 3: Goals and Objectives
The objective of this research is to perform a basic assessment of the current state of green infrastructure in the TOB based on the standards established by the STAR Technical Guide. To achieve a STAR rating for green infrastructure, a town must achieve a minimum of 20 points via community level Outcomes and Local Action to represent the monitoring and upgrade of the community’s existing green infrastructures.
Community level Outcomes include the demonstration of the physical existence, public access, and amount of green infrastructures in the town, and a total of 14 points can be obtained through achieving Outcome 1 and Outcome 2. Outcome 1, entitled Designated Green Infrastructure, is achieved through demonstrating that 35% of the jurisdiction’s land is GI according to our definition, described in Section 4. Objective 2, entitled Green Infrastructure Distribution, is achieved through demonstrating that 85% of the population lives within a ½ walking distance GI projects according to our definition.
Local Actions involve demonstrating that the town government and community are taking an active role in implementing policy for future GI projects and initiatives. This section consists of 9 different opportunities for Local Actions to be developed in a jurisdiction, and a total of 14 points can be obtained. Benedict and McMahon highlight the need for community buy-in of developing green infrastructure and the long term planning and maintenance inherent in achieving success (6). Establishing a basic green infrastructure assessment provides the TOB the opportunity to identify current strengths as well as gaps in their community and to define next steps for the community decision-making process in achieving, developing, and maintaining their green infrastructure. By highlighting areas for further research, the community can develop strategies to increase the green infrastructure and the community’s sustainability.
Section 4: Methodology
4.1 Defining Green Infrastructure
In order to create an inventory of GI in the TOB, our team began by defining the term ‘green infrastructure’ using the STAR Technical Guide. Our official definition of ‘green infrastructure,’ which we used to develop our initial inventory and our additional recommendations, aligns with the definition provided by the STAR Technical Guide in the Natural Resources section: an interconnected system of natural areas and open space that conserves ecosystem values, helps sustain clean air and water, and provides benefits to people and wildlife (p. 283, STAR Community Rating Technical Guide). Stemming from this definition, the STAR Technical Guide also provided three criteria for classifying various GI project in municipalities. In order to assess projects around the town, we integrated these criteria into our classification and decided that a project would be considered a GI project if it met two of the three criteria, defined below:
1. Localized cooling through tree canopy cover: An existence of individual tree stands that provide canopy cover and enables communities to experience a natural cooling that can mediate thermal pollution experienced from phenomenon such as the Heat Island effect. The heat island effect, as defined by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), describes, “built up areas that are hotter than nearby rural areas…Heat islands can affect communities by increasing summertime peak energy demand, air conditioning costs, air pollution and green gas emissions, heat-related illness and mortality, and water quality” (“Heat Island Effect”)
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2. Water management: The existence of a built environment, which includes natural wetland areas, riparian zones, and permeable surfaces, provides communities with the opportunity to experience natural improvement of water quality through stormwater management, groundwater recharge, pollution control, and ecosystem services.
3. Recreation through parks and/or greenways: As expressed by the STAR Technical Guide, parks and greenways offer people healthy options for alternative transportation, as well as an opportunity for physical activity, stress reduction, and a desirable public realm that improves urban vitality (STAR Technical Guide).
4.2 Map Layer Collection
In order to begin fieldwork, our team began by looking into the creation of maps through the use of ArcMap software. Our creation of maps began by collecting various GI-related map layers from John Eustis and Tommy Oravetz at the New River Land Trust and the TOB Geographic Information System (GIS) coordinator, Katherine Smith. The New River Land Trust provided maps on the impaired waters, conservation easements, corridors and previous green infrastructure data developed by the New River Valley Green Infrastructure Initiative. The TOB provided a thorough system of map layers including data on the public bike trails, parks, Creek Valley Overlay, open space, resident addresses and the Virginia Tech property. The following provides an overview of each map layer that was utilized in our map creation:
● Address: This map included data for each address in Blacksburg, which is relevant for relating resident locations to proximity of green infrastructure projects.
● Bike Trails: This map layer included data on the existing bike trail system in Blacksburg, which is important for determining recreational areas with alternative transportation and physical activity advantages.
● Conservation Easements: This map layers provides information on the conservation easements present throughout the town, which is important for recognizing open space and existing tree canopy cover.
● Creek Valley Overlay: This map layer identifies the Creek Valley Overlay designation, which includes extended buffers areas around natural streams that are important for improving water quality and providing habitat.
● Ecological Corridors: This layer shows the corridors and nodes that are sufficient enough to support healthy habitat for wildlife, including the provisions of dense tree canopy and associated water quality benefits.
● Green Infrastructure: This map layer includes information on existing green infrastructure within Montgomery County developed by the New River Valley Green Infrastructure Initiative.
● Neighborhoods: This map layer includes data for the different neighborhood sections within all of Blacksburg, which is important for determining resident locations relative to green infrastructure assets and for determining an official boundary for the town.
● Open Space: This map includes areas within Blacksburg that remain undeveloped and which represent potential areas for future green infrastructure projects.
● Parks: This map layer represents areas in Blacksburg that already meet our requirement for recreational spaces.
● Virginia Tech Area: This map layer was used to identify Virginia Tech property, which is comprised of areas that will be excluded from our green infrastructure analysis.
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4.3 Map Creation and the Exclusion of Virginia Tech: Using ArcMap, our group was able to upload all data layers to the program and work with them using various tools. Our base layer for Blacksburg was the data layer Neighborhoods, with the addition of Virginia Tech Area layer, both of which allowed us to visualize the layout of Blacksburg and its boundaries.
Our analysis of GI within the TOB is exclusive to the town, so we excluded Virginia in our analysis with the use of the Erase tool on ArcMap, even though Virginia Tech is rich in GI projects around campus. Projects on campus include rain gardens, detention ponds, stream bank stability installations, vegetated buffers, and many other best management practices that help to improve stormwater management and water quality on campus. Virginia Tech is also rich in tree canopy coverage, and has been recognized by the Arbor Foundation for many years for its Tree Campus USA status. In addition, the campus is abundant with recreational opportunities, from bike trails to athletic courts. All of these attributes of Virginia Tech together make for a campus rich in GI according to our criteria.
Although the inclusion of Virginia Tech’s GI projects would have helped to make Blacksburg’s GI inventory stronger, the exclusion of Virginia Tech is important to create an accurate analysis of GI within the town specifically. Virginia Tech is an institution whose projects are separate from the public projects in the TOB. The inclusion of green infrastructure projects located on Virginia Tech owned lands would skew, our analysis of the existing green infrastructure projects in Blacksburg by inaccurately identifying them as a part of the town.
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4.4 Map 1.1: Parks Within the TOB:
In our creation of maps, we determined that the analysis of park systems would be beneficial as a first move because they already meet one of our GI definition criteria: the existence of recreational opportunities for the public. Having determined this, our group uploaded the TOB Parks layer into the map to create a starting point and reference map for the beginning of our fieldwork. Using this initial map, we were able to edit the Parks data layer through the ArcMap editing tool, which allowed us to delete individual park data that we disqualified from our GI inventory.
Having identified the parks that exist within the town, our group began fieldwork. Fieldwork consisted of traveling to each potential green infrastructure space and determining whether it met two out of three of our green infrastructure criteria. Some sites were quickly determined to contain green infrastructure elements, while others were harder to analyze, and some did not meet our criteria at all.
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Section 5: Findings
Site 1: Owens Street Park Located at 316 Owens Street, Owens Street Park consists of recreational opportunities including a playground and bike trail. This park has naturally advantageous topography, which contributes to its inherent value as green infrastructure. Furthermore, the TOB has also taken active steps to enhance the ecological benefits of this site structurally. Both the natural and engineers aspects of the park’s green infrastructure are described below.
Running through the center of the park is Stroubles Creek, to which the Town has enhanced the existing stream buffer with plantings and water-slowing structures to help trap sediment, debris, and provide bioremediation for potential pollutants. (Photo 1.1). Not only does the park experience water quality improvement from this enhanced stream buffer, but also during heavy rain effects, the park’s topography - a natural depression - doubles as a detention pond for periodic water overflow from the stream (Photo 1.2), which reduces the potential for flooding of the surrounding area. The water accumulating during heavy rain effects is funneled through constructed stormwater weirs (Photo 1.3) and channeled across the road where it continues to flow down Stroubles Creek (Photo 1.4). This 2-acre park was determined to be green infrastructure within the TOB due to meeting two of the three required criteria of a space having recreational opportunity and water quality improvement benefits.
Photo 1.1: Owens Street Park provides recreational
opportunities and water quality improvement benefits. Photo 1.2 During heavy rain effects, Owens Street Park
helps to improve stormwater management by becoming a detention pond.
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Photo 1.3: Excess water that is
trapped in the park during heavy rain effects is funneled through this
weir (one other not pictured) and channeled below the street to the other side, where it continues to
flow down Stroubles Creek.
Photo 1.4: Excess water is funneled through weirs and transferred under the street through the culverts above.
Photo 1.5: Excess water channeled to the other side of the street
continues down Stroubles Creek, pictured above.
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Site 2: Shenandoah Bike Trail and Park
Located at 1501 Seneca Drive, Shenandoah Bike Trail and Park was identified as a potential space consisting of green infrastructure benefits due to initially meeting our recreational criteria (Photos 2.1 and 2.2). Through further analysis, the team determined that in addition to recreational advantages, the park also provides water quality improvements through protective stream buffers (Photo 2.4) and an abundance of tree canopy cover. (Photo 2.5) This 22-acre park was successfully identified as green infrastructure within the TOB through meeting all three of our determined criteria.
Photo 2.1: Shenandoah Bike Trial and Park offers
recreational opportunities through use of two playgrounds on the property.
Photo 2.2: Shenandoah Bike Trail and Park has alternative transportation and physical activity benefits through its bike
trail system
Photo 2.3: Natural stream insect the park and are protected by vegetative
buffers.
Photo 2.4: Vegetated buffers along the park’s streams protect natural waters from neighborhood pollution runoff.
Photo 2.5: An abundance of tree canopy cover overlaps much of the bike trail
offering natural cooler and shade benefits.
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Site 3: Wong Park
Located at 303 Wilson Avenue, Wong Park is a public space offering recreational benefits through the existence of a public playground and bike trail (Photo 3.1). In addition to recreational opportunity, the park also offers water quality improvement through the installation of a pervious parking lot (Photo 3.2) and a large riparian area behind its main building (Photo 3.3), the Bennett House. The pervious parking lot allows for management of stormwater through helping water filter through the ground rather than allowing it to completely run over the surface like a regular parking lot. Reducing runoff in this way helps to reduce downstream issues of erosion and the washing of ground pollutants into water systems. The vegetated riparian area located behind the main building protects water systems from the surrounding neighborhoods by catching possibly pollutants (Photo 3.4), and contains an area of depression that is important for detention of water during heavy rain events. This park was determined to be green infrastructure through meeting two of our three set criteria, both recreational and water quality benefits.
Photo 3.1: Wong Park offers recreational opportunity through inclusion of a playground and bike trail.
Photo 3.2: The installation of a pervious parking lot allows for the filtration of water to ground system rather
than an accumulation of runoff seen with impervious parking lots.
Photo 3.1: A vast riparian area behind the building improves water quality and acts as a detention pond
during heavy rain events for stormwater management.
Photo 3.2: Riparian area acts as a buffer between neighborhoods and natural areas, allowing for natural
capture of possible pollutants.
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Site 4: Blacksburg Municipal Park Located on Turner Street and Patrick Henry Drive, Blacksburg Municipal Park spans 35 acres and is one of the largest parks in Blacksburg. The park offers an abundance of recreational opportunities for residents through the playgrounds, Skate Park, and athletic fields. Playgrounds in the park include the Hand-n-Hand Playground and Caboose Playground (Photo 4.1). The athletic fields also are used as alternative areas for events. During our fieldwork, we were able to witness the athletic fields being used to host a dog show for area residents (Photo 4.2).
Photo 4.1 The Hand-n-Hand Playground offers a variety of recreational opportunities for children
Photo 4.2 The athletic fields at the Municipal Park are able to provide alternative activities for residents
In addition to recreational opportunities, tree cover offers localized cooling benefits in the development of tree stands around the park (Photo 4.3). The park also has a tree nursery that sponsors the 2:1 tree replacement ratio in Blacksburg for trees that are lost to development or natural causes around town (Photo 4.4). The tree nursery is also a volunteer service, which allows for educational opportunities and for residents to become personally familiar with the importance of harboring tree nurseries and their benefit in relation to the 2:1 tree replacement ratio. In it’s current state, the Blacksburg Municipal meets all three of our set criteria for GI and has been included in our inventory.
Photo 4.3 Tree stands are being developed that help
with the natural cooling of the surrounding area Photo 4.4 A tree nursery in the park offers trees for a 2:1
replacement ratio in Blacksburg
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Site 5: Nellie’s Cave Park Sitting on ten acres, Nellies Cave provides a combination of both recreation and environmental services. First, there is a public walking trail that loops through the woods (Photo 5.1), offering tree canopy benefits, and around the public playground areas, offering recreation (Photo 5.2). Playgrounds in the park have been built with pervious surfaces, seen in the horseshoe pits and with the mulch covering, both helping reduce water runoff into surrounding areas.
Nellie’s Cave Park also has a small arboretum, which offers educational opportunities through signage describing the trees in the park and the services they provide (Photo 5.3). This educational opportunity for the public is accompanied with a shaded area for natural cooling of the area (Photo 5.4). The arboretum is also located in an area that appears as if it could serve as a detention area during excessive rainfall events due to its topography, which forms a natural depression. This area forming this depression is also heavily vegetated allowing for increase uptake of excess water and trapping of nutrients and sediment.
Overall, the recreational opportunities provided in the park together with the abundant natural cover in the form of trees and vegetation have qualified this park as GI according to our criteria.
Photo 5.1 The nature trail that loops through the park provides recreation,
tree canopy for cooling, and slight infiltration benefits through its pervious
cover.
Photo 5.2 The playground on the park grounds offers recreation and water filtration benefits through its mulch
covering
Photo 5.3 Educational signs raise awareness of tree species and their
ecosystem importance while offering canopy for the park
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Photo 5.4 An abundance of tree cover in the park offers natural cooling benefits
Photo 5.5 Vegetated surfaces in the depression area help trap sediment and other harmful pollutants that may be
carried in runoff
Site 6: Heritage Community Park and Natural Area Located at 2300 Glade Road, Heritage Community Park and Natural Area is 169 acres of natural and recreational area, serving as both Blacksburg’s largest park and a great example of an area meeting our criteria for GI. Consisting mainly of natural cover, Heritage Park has close to no impervious surface area aside from the pathways that give recreational opportunities for residents of Blacksburg (Picture 6.1). Paths throughout the park lead through green spaces and vegetated landscape that is great for water filtration, and various wetland and riparian areas offer flood protection and pollutant traps (Photo 6.2). Along with vegetation, the park consists of a good amount of canopy coverage, offering shady spots that cool off the area and help to provide enhanced habitat for wildlife. Heritage Park meets all three of our criteria, and has been classified as GI in our inventory.
Photo 6.1: Heritage Park provides recreational opportunities for the public through existence of a
bike trail.
Photo 6.2: Wetlands and riparian areas exist along the stream to help with water quality improvement.
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Site 7: Deerfield Trail Located at 1200 Deerfield Drive, Deerfield Trail is primarily a recreational trail that is easy for walking and biking (Figure 7.1), and which is benefitted with scenic views for residents in the area. Along the pathway, visitors can enjoy the informational signage that describes the natural functions of the surrounding area (Figure7.2), and if you look close enough, you can find hidden water quality improvement projects along the trail as well. Just as the beginning of the trail, one can observe the subtle detention pond that is present, fit with a vegetated rain garden (Figure 7.3) and storm drain that leads to the adjacent Tom’s Creek (7.4). Projects such as this help to capture overflow from the creek, filter out possible contaminants, and return water to the creek without disturbance. In addition, the creek is lined with riparian buffer areas fit with grasses, shrubs and trees, helping to both capture pollutants and naturally cool the natural environment. Overall, Deerfield Trail meets all three of our criteria and has been classified as GI in our inventory.
Photo 7.1: Deerfield Trail is primarily a recreational trail fit for easy biking and walking for residents
Photo 7.2: Visitors to the trail can find informational signage meant to educate observers about the functions taking place in the
environment around them.
Photo 7.3: Projects such as this rain garden help to improve the water quality of the adjacent Tom’s Creek.
Photo 7.4: Water quality improvement projects help to protect Tom’s Creek, which runs adjacent to Deerfield Trail.
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Site 8: Creek Valley Overlay The Creek Valley Overlay consists of the Tom’s Creek, Stroubles Creek, and Slate Branch
waterways. In addition, it contains the surrounding areas that fit any of the following criteria: ● located in the floodplains of the
aforementioned waterways, ● adjacent wetlands, ● areas of twenty-five percent or greater slope
adjacent to the floodplain or within fifty feet of the creek if no floodplain is present,
● and any other land area within fifty feet of the center line of the creek that is not already included in the Creek Valley Overlay based on the above criteria (Blacksburg, Virginia Code of Ordinances)
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Between Tom’s Creek and all of its tributaries, virtually all of Blacksburg is within a half mile of some portion of the overlay. All of these water sources eventually feed into the New River, which is a chief water source for the Town of Blacksburg.
The Overlay provides a number of ecosystem services. The land area adjacent to the creeks provide vegetation that has a buffering effect, preventing sediment and nutrient runoff from entering them
and decreasing water quality. Tree cover accounts for a large portion of this vegetation, which provides temperature regulation by means of a cooling effect for both the stream and the surrounding land area. Finally, many portions of the overlay contain bike trails, providing recreation opportunities for the community. Based on these findings, the Creek Valley Overlay qualifies as green infrastructure as it meets all three of the STAR guide criteria.
The Creek Valley Overlay could become a much more valuable green infrastructure feature for the Town of Blacksburg, but its condition has declined over the past two centuries or so since the founding of Blacksburg. In particular, the Tom’s Creek and Stroubles Creek tributaries have suffered. They have been listed as impaired waterways, as defined by the Clean Water Act, as recently as 2012 (2012 Impaired Waters).
The degradation of the Creek Valley Overlay is due to centuries of agricultural practices,
development, and pollution. With agriculture being such an important aspect of Virginia Tech, it is inevitable that this would impact the surrounding area. The creeks took the bulk of this impact in the form of agricultural and livestock runoff. That, on top of development and urbanization, has caused a massive influx of nutrients and sediments into the area, which led to the eventual impairment of the waterway.
There have been several restoration attempts in the years following Stroubles Creek’s designation as an impaired waterway. A study was conducted on the stream by the Virginia Tech Biological Systems Engineering department, which used its findings create a TMDL implementation plan for the watershed in 2006 (Upper Stroubles Creek Watershed TMDL Implementation Plan). However, in order to maximize Stroubles Creek’s usefulness as green infrastructure, and in turn improve the utility of the Creek Valley Overlay as a whole, this work must continue to progress.
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urce: https://clinchchronicle.wordpress.com/2013/10/
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Map 1.2: Identified Green Infrastructure in Blacksburg
Through our observations and analysis from fieldwork, our group was able to come up with an inventory for the GI projects within the TOB. Using the ArcMap tool Merge, we created a new layer, titled Identified Green Infrastructure, which combines all layers which meet our criteria and qualify as GI in the TOB. This new Identified Green Infrastructure layer includes the Parks layer with our qualified parks, the Creek
Valley Overlay layer, the Ecological Corridors layer, the Green Infrastructure layer, and the Conservation Easements layer. The black dots on the map represent the resident addresses in the TOB, important for evaluating Outcome 1 for the STAR Technical guide
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Outcome 1 Map 1.3: Residents Within Distance of Identified Green Infrastructure
As part of the STAR Technical Guide’s Outcome 1, the next step in our evaluation of GI in Blacksburg was to figure out approximately how many residents were within a half-mile radius of these identified GI projects. This evaluation of resident addresses and their proximity to GI projects was possible through a Search by Location function in the ArcMap program. Using this function, we calculated how many of the residents, identified in the Addresses layer, were within a half-mile distance of the Identified Green Infrastructure layer. Through running this function, ArcMap calculated that approximately 96% of the resident addresses live within a half-mile of GI in Blacksburg. This percentage of the population exceeds the 85% requirement of the STAR Technical Guide, resulting in Blacksburg meeting
the criteria for Outcome 1.
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Outcome 2 The next step in our evaluation of Blacksburg’s ability to meet Outcome 2 was possible through further use of ArcMap. We used a tool in ArcMap called Erase to erase the Virginia Tech area out of the Blacksburg boundary. Using this layer that represented the entire Blacksburg area, we calculated the total acreage of this area through the use of the Statistics tool, which came out to a total of 10.476.44 acres (Map 1.4). Next, we used our Identified Green Infrastructure layer and the Erase tool to again cut the identified GI projects in town out of the total acreage. We used the Statistics tool again to recalculate the acreage without the GI projects, which came out to a total of 8,887.69 acres (Map 1.5). The initial acreage minus the new acreage represents that 1,588.75 acres of the TOB are designated as GI, or 15%.
This percentage does not meet the requirements for Outcome 2 of the STAR program, but is a representation of Blacksburg GI without the inclusion of a tree canopy analysis. Through the Virginia Department of Forestry, we were able to use data from an urban tree canopy analysis done in 2008, which represents that approximately 3,809 acres of Blacksburg have urban tree canopy (Appendix D: Urban Tree Canopy Analysis - Blacksburg, VA). This acreage represents approximately 36% of Blacksburg obtaining an urban tree canopy coverage, canopy that provides natural cooling benefits for the town and water quality improvements through filtration and stabilization of land for decrease erosion potential. This percentage exceeds the 35% requirement for Outcome 2 in the STAR program.
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Section 6: Case Study Analysis of Equivalent STAR Certified Communities
Northampton, Massachusetts
Northampton, MA attained the first 5-STAR community ranking on May 2, 2014 (“Northampton”). Northampton began as a Pilot Community within the STAR network in November of 2012. With 18.9 points out of 20 in the NS-1 category, Northampton is among the highest ranked cities in GI. The primary success of Northampton’s STAR rating and more specifically the GI, was the integration of GI initiatives into the city’s Comprehensive Plan. In 2011, Northampton created the Open Space, Recreation and Multi-Use Trail Plan, a seven year plan with the goal of “continue to work towards maintaining vibrant urban centers and obtaining the benefits of sustainable development, without compromising the City’s valued environmental resources (1)”. As a component of the city’s Comprehensive Plan, the plan highlights steps that can be adopted in the sector of GI to increase upon its STAR rating.
Northampton made it essential to involve the community in the Open Space, Recreation and Multi-Use Trail Plan to improve public knowledge about what exists in the community and how it can be used. The community goals in the plan spell out the need for more public awareness regarding open spaces and how these spaces address concerns of the community. In an evaluation of the community, the analysis determined the open space and recreation needs were not met (142). Therefore, Northampton made plans to create more passive recreation, to protect wetlands and endangered habitats, to encourage development sensitive to the environment, to protect future and current parklands, to develop more trails and to focus on a maintenance plan for the GI. Northampton focused on creating a broader concern for the GI that already existed in the community opposed to putting more GI into the city. This provision caters to the “local action” sector section of the STAR points system by developing off of what is already in the community. In this regard, Northampton received full credit for 8 out of 9 local actions.
In addition to local actions, the STAR system awards communities with points attained through outcomes. According to the star guide a city needs to demonstrate that “85% of the population lives within a half-mile walk distance from green infrastructure” to receive full- credit for the Green Infrastructure Distribution category. In the case of Northampton, the Open Space, Recreation and Multi-Use Trail Plan surpasses this statistic by inquiring that “urban and village centers and their dense walkable neighborhoods should be located within 4/10th of a mile of conservation of park land” (156).
Lastly, Northampton includes a management plan for parks and recreation in the Open Space, Recreation and Multi-Use Trail Plan, which will sustain GI and prevent its degradation over time. This management plan includes “mowing grass, trash removal and monitoring agreements (173).” . By creating a management program, Northampton asserts the existing GI in the city will not be lost over time and will provide long-term benefit to the community.
Albany, New York
Albany, New York also entered the STAR program as a Pilot Community in November of 2012. Albany received a 3-STAR certification in June of 2014 with 14.9 out of 20 points in the interest of GI (“Albany”). As a 3-STAR community Albany is “recognized for sustainability leadership” (“Albany”) Although Albany does not rank as highly as Northampton, MA, Albany
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is still just 1 of only 6 communities who to received credit for both actions and outcomes of NS-1: Green Infrastructure.
Due to the amount of rainfall, much of the Green Infrastructure in Albany is focused towards stormwater management and is included in the Storm Water Management Plan (SWMP) for the city. In the SWMP, it suggested GI clinics would be helpful to the community. This includes constructing rain gardens around the city as an education tool for the community to learn more about stormwater management and green infrastructure as a whole. The Elm Avenue Park Rain Garden is an example of this GI. The Rain Garden in Elm Avenue Park is open to the public, to observe a rain garden first-hand. Allowing the public to become aware of their surroundings was essential towards Albany’s success in the STAR program. The three local actions (1, 3 and 4) that Albany received full credit for look to partner with the community making local involvement essential to their success.
Permeable and porous paving is also a prevalent example of GI found around Albany. A specific example of this is the Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center, which uses Flexi-Pave “a porous pavement material made from recycled tires, as a trail surface along the Metamorphosis Maze exhibit and the Native Plant Walkway” (n.p., Venuti). This trail allows for a permeable walkway, which contributes to storm water management. The city also installed Infiltration Basins, such as the Latham Business Park Infiltration Basin, which are used as a storm water management effort.
Overall, Albany plays towards their needs of storm water management. The focus of the city does not span a vast covering of GI. However, the focus on storm water management allows for the Albany community’s success and to attain a high STAR rating.
Section 8: Recommendations
While Blacksburg contains an impressive inventory of GI, there are still sites that do not qualify. However, through recommended actions these sites could be improved to meet the criteria for GI and increase the GI inventory of Blacksburg. An example of this is the Blacksburg Municipal Golf Course. Blacksburg Municipal Golf Course is a substantial section of green space serving as a recreational location first, while providing a wildlife habitat, a source of water filtration, and a cooling tree canopy from the existing tree coverage. However, the land management practices of the course, such as pesticide use and construction disqualify the area from being considered GI (Snow). However, if the golf course was to use best management practices to reduce the environmental harm of the site the Blacksburg Municipal Golf Course could become a GI site in the future. It would be recommended that the Blacksburg Municipal Golf Course and other similar sites that have potential to be defined as GI make the necessary improvements to increase the GI in Blacksburg and allow the town to achieve the highest STAR rating More importantly Blacksburg needs to focus on policy improvements to achieve STAR rating. While the town meets the standards of Outcome 1 and Outcome 2, points can still be obtained from Local Actions, which is where Blacksburg is lacking. First, including specific details about GI in the town’s Comprehensive Plan would establish GI to be viewed as a priority. Local Action 1 states that you can achieve points by “creating a community-wide green infrastructure plan that is integrated with other local plans.” Taking a note from the successes of Northampton, Massachusetts, it is evident inclusion of GI in town plans leads to GI improvements. While the Blacksburg Comprehensive Plan written in 2012 mentions various
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components of GI such as open space, recreational areas, detention ponds, storm water management and greenways, there is no specific mention of GI itself. Devoting a section of the Comprehensive Plan specifically to GI could help push for improvements in this specific area and meet the criteria for local action 1. In addition, the town’s current open space plan comes from the Open Space Planning, an Initiative for Our Future, a document that dates back to 1994. Open space and recreation is an important and prominent component of the GI inventory of Blacksburg. Creating a new open space planning guide such as the Open Space, Recreation and Multi-Use Trail Plan of Northampton could allow for implementing more current approaches in the area of open space. Local Actions 2, 6 and 9 encourage the establishment of programs to ensure long term benefits from the GI that is already developed. These local actions could be fulfilled through management and monitoring programs. The current Comprehensive Plan includes The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) which is “a comprehensive initiative implemented to promote sustainability and environmental awareness, educate employees and residents, and move the community toward actions that will create a more sustainable region” (“Blacksburg Comprehensive Plan”). However, the EMP spans a wide array of environmental and sustainability goals. The areas of focus for the EMP include “Energy Management, Urban Forestry, Transportation, Watershed Integrity, Climate Protection, Waste Reduction and Recycling and Sustainable Buildings” (“Environmental”). By creating a management plan specifically geared towards the existing GI it can be ensured 85% of the population who lives in ½ mile of GI and 35% of protected GI land area remains intact and increases as Blacksburg expands. While Blacksburg has an acceptable amount of GI at the present time, if the GI is not maintained it could degrade and lose any benefit it offers to the Blacksburg community.
In addition, to maintenance, a monitoring program also provides value to the GI in Blacksburg. For instance, periodically updating Geospatial Information System (GIS) inventory of the GI provides the means to track a community’s GI progress. Advancing in the STAR system is dependent upon tracking progress towards the goal of a STAR rating. By updating mapping more often, Blacksburg can see where it is lacking or succeeding, which will target the areas the town needs to focus resources and energies. Upkeep of the GIS inventory could be an opportunity for the town to make use of the student resources around them. Partnering with GIS classes offered at Virginia Tech could offer a constant source to keep up with the changing GI conditions in Blacksburg, while also providing an educational opportunity to student.
Increasing funding for GI projects is also a recommended measure. Local Action 7 can be fulfilled by “an increase in the percentage of funding invested in green infrastructure.” Pursuing funding opportunities, such as grants and partnerships, would allow Blacksburg to benefit from GI projects without taking budget cuts from other projects around town. The EPA and various other organizations offer an abundance of funding opportunities that support GI initiatives. By applying for more funding opportunities more GI projects could be implemented around Blacksburg and would better the city’s current GI statistics. In addition, there are various areas around Blacksburg with the potential to develop into sources of GI. With funding in place, the town could pursue many of these sites for development. By increasing funding, the town could develop also other GI that is not currently found in Blacksburg, such as green roofs, green walls or permeable sidewalks. Various recommended funding opportunities are listed in Table 1.1 below in addition to others that can be found on the EPA website (“Funding Opportunities”).
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Table 1.1 Recommended Funding Opportunities
Opportunity: Contact: Website:
DOI Rivers, Trails, and Conservation Assistance Program
(202) 354-6900 [email protected]
http://www.nps.gov/orgs/rtca/apply.htm
Appalachian Regional Commission Denise Ambrose 804.371.7029 [email protected]
http://www.arc.gov/funding/ARCGrantsandContracts.asp
EPA Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF)
N/A http://water.epa.gov/grants_funding/cwsrf/cwsrf_index.cfm
HUD Sustainable Communities Regional Planning Grants
(202) 708-1112 http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/economic_resilience/sustainable_communities_regional_planning_grants
Section 9: Conclusion
The initial goal of our research was to assess and take an inventory of green infrastructure
within the TOB to determine whether or not the town would meet the criteria for achieving a STAR rating. Based on our findings and assessments of green infrastructure sites throughout Blacksburg, we are confident we have demonstrated that Blacksburg has achieved this goal. However, if given the opportunity to explore this problem again, an expansion of the targeted lands would expand our research and enhance the quality of the assessment. In addition to the assessment of publicly owned, lands expanding the research area to include government-owned lands, which are not in the public domain, provides a viable method to increase the inventory of GI. This would also provide the opportunity to make additional recommendations for the future based on our findings in these areas.
In summation, our findings demonstrate the TOB is successfully fulfilling the STAR guide criteria for green infrastructure. Specifically, 35% of the total land area performs the functions required of green infrastructure and 85% of the population is within a ½ mile walking distance of areas deemed as green infrastructure features. The achievement of these criteria should give Blacksburg all of the points needed in the green infrastructure category of the STAR guide, which is an important component in the overall process of obtaining STAR certification in the TOB.
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Outcomes Objective Result Evidence STAR Points
Achieved
Outcome 1 Represent that 85% of
TOB residents live with ½ mile of GI
96% Mapping with ArcMap 8.4
Outcome 2 Represent that 35% of TOB land area is GI
15% (without
tree canopy
analysis)
36%
(with tree canopy
analysis)
Mapping with
ArcMap, VA Forest Service
N/A
Local Actions (LA)
LA 1
Create a community-wide green infrastructure plan
and integrated with relevant local plans
Recommended Action
No Mention of GI in
Blacksburg Comprehensive
Plan
Not assessed
LA 2
Adopt local design criteria and associated codes that require proactive green
infrastructure practices for new
developments
Recommended Action
GI not included in Blacksburg Environmental Management
Plan
Not assessed
LA 3
Adopt a policy requiring relevant departments be engaged during early reviews of proposed
developments to
ensure that project sites are evaluated for green infrastructure potential
and environmental protections are put in
place prior to construction
Recommended Action Information not available
Not assessed
LA 4
Partner with key community groups and other stakeholders to
ensure that green infrastructure practices are
used
Recommended Action Information not available
Not assessed
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in appropriate settings
LA 5
Create incentive programs to encourage landowners to adopt green infrastructure practices that link to
broader
green infrastructure systems
Recommended Action Information not available
Not assessed
LA6
Establish a green infrastructure monitoring program and regularly report on status of desired outcomes
Recommended Action
GI not included in Blacksburg Environmental Management
Plan
Not assessed
LA 7 Increase the percentage of funding invested in green
infrastructure Recommended Action
See Funding Opportunities
Table
Not assessed
LA 8
Upgrade public spaces and public buildings based upon locally
adopted or recognized best practices in green infrastructure. Where
possible, create demonstration projects to enhance public support
Recommended Action Information not available
Not assessed
LA 9
Provide for ongoing maintenance of green infrastructure at levels required to maintain
evapotranspiring functions
Recommended Action
GI not included in Blacksburg Environmental Management
Plan
Not assessed
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Appendix A – Maps
Map 1.1: Parks within the TOB
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Map 1.2: Identified Green Infrastructure in Blacksburg
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Map 1.3
30
Map 1.4
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Map 1.5:
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Urban Tree Canopy Analysis - Blacksburg, VA
Source: “A Report on the Town of Blacksburg’s Existing and Potential Urban Tree Canop
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Appendix B - Parks Identified as Green Infrastructure
The following is list of the parks that have met our criteria for GI and have been included in Map 1.3: Identified Green Infrastructure in the TOB. All other parks in the TOB that were not included did not meet our criteria for defining GI. Other areas that were evaluated and did not meet our criteria include the Blacksburg Cemetery (Appendix B).
Appendix C - Blacksburg Cemetery
According to Julie Rugg, a member of the Cemetery Research Group at the University of York, cemeteries are demarcated sites of burial with an explicit interior blueprint advantageous to perform what the local community has deemed as an appropriate funeral ritual. Cemeteries are socially important structures for countless societies offering the possibility of, and a context for, memorializing a loved one at a final resting place. Many cultures picture burial grounds as sacred spaces and take steps to protect the sacredness of the grounds from disturbances and disrespectful activities. During the initial field assessment, the team concluded cemeteries failed to qualify as Green Infrastructure based on meeting only one requirement, which is water filtration. Additionally, current burial practices, chemical embalming and burying caskets harm the environment and pose health risks consequences (Harker). Given the impact of both, many in the industry advocate ecologically sound practices classified as conservation burials, which are less energy intensive and more environmentally sound as well as conserving land, creating open space and restoring natural habitats (Harker). Harker maintains conservation burial potential includes reducing burial’s impact on the environment and reconnecting people with nature.
During the assessment, concerns arose regarding what qualifies as recreation. While visiting a cemetery is not a traditional form of recreation, many cultures considered a visit as a leisure or recreational activity. Cemeteries differ widely in the kinds of activities they allow. Arlington National Cemetery permits only walking and bus tours of its famous graves while the Congressional Cemetery in DC permits a wide variety of activities from picnics to sledding (Harnik and Meroll). Ultimately, after further research, The Blacksburg Cemetery design, like many municipal cemeteries, does not function as a recreational area according to our criteria, and has been identified as a non-Green Infrastructure project. Although the graveyards are uncluttered spaces with a profound affinity for water filtration, they lack the characteristics to achieve one of the remaining requirements. The sacredness of the land and expectation to
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demonstrate reverence when inside the boundaries of cemeteries does not create an area fit for human recreation or at least not the conventional forms of recreation. Trees and animals, especially subterranean species like moles, are aggressively discouraged by the majority of cemeteries management practices to include measures to cut down trees to avoid root interferences and eliminate pests to inhibit their movements from disturbing those laid to rest six feet beneath the ground. Cemeteries are not designed as Green Infrastructure and will not be as long as communities continue to place more importance on providing a tranquil, undisturbed finally resting place for loved ones.
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Section 10: References “ Report on the Town of Blacksburg’s Existing and Possible Urban Tree Canopy.” Urban
Forestry. Virginia Department of Forestry, 23 Nov. 2009. Web. 11 Dec. 2014. "Albany, New York." STAR Communities. N.p., n.d. Web. Amundsen, O.W., Allen, W., and Hoellen, K. Green Infrastructure Planning: Recent Advances
and Applications. American Planning Association, Planners Advisory Service Memo, 2009. In STAR Community Rating System Technical Guide, 13 March 2013, NS-1: Green Infrastructure, 222.
Barton, Joe. “How Green is Golf.” Golf Digest, May 2008. Web. Benedict, Mark A. and McMahon, Edward T. Green Infrastructure: Linking Landscapes and
Communities. Washington, D.C., Island Press, 2006.
"Blacksburg Comprehensive Plan." Town of Blacksburg, 2012. Web. “Blacksburg, Virginia Code of Ordinances.” Appendix A, Article III, Division 23- Creek Valley
Overlay. Municode Library. Town of Blacksburg, n.d. Web. 11 Dec. 2014
Campbell, Paul. Current Population Projections: Population Projections Population Reports
States, 1995 – 2025. Census Bureau P25-1131, May 1997. Center for Disease Control. “Trend Tables: Table 22. Life expectancy at birth 65 years of age,
and at 75 years of age, by race and sex: United States, selected years 1900 to 2007. “Environmental Management Plan.” Environmental Sustainability. Town of Blacksburg. Web. "Funding Opportunities." Green Infrastructure. United States Environmental Protection Agency,
2014. Web. 09 Dec. 2014. Health, United States, 2010, 134. Harker, Alexandra. “Landscapes of the Dead: An Argument for Conservation Burial.” Rban
Fringe: Berkley Planning Journal. N.d. Web.
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Harnik, Peter and Merolli, Eric. “Cemeteries Alive: Graveyards are Resurging as Green Spaces
for the Public.” The Trust for Public Land: Conserving Land for the People. December 2010. Web.
"Heat Island Effect." State and Local Climate and Energy Program. United States
Environmental Protection Agency, 31 July 2014. Web. 5 Nov. 2014. <http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/>.
Hobbs, Frank and Stoops, Nicole. U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Special Reports, Series
CENSR-4, Demographic Trends in the 20th Century, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 2002. 7- 45. Web.
"Latham Business Park Infiltration Basin." Department of Environmental Conservation. NY State Department of Environmental Conservation, 2014. Web. "Municipal Park." Town of Blacksburg, VA. Town of Blacksburg, n.d. Web. "Nellies Cave." Town of Blacksburg, VA. Town of Blacksburg, n.d. Web. "Northampton, Massachusetts." STAR Communities. N.p., n.d. Web. Open Space, Recreation & Multi-Use Trail Plan. N.p.: City of Northampton, MA, 2011. Rudd, Julie. “Defining the Place of Burial: What Makes a Cemetery a Cemetery?” Mortality,
2000, 261-274. University of York, University of Minnesota. Web. Snow, James T. “The USGA’s Environmental Strategies: What We’ve Got and What We
Need.”USGA Green Section Record, 1995 May/June, 33(3). Web. STAR Community Rating System Technical Guide, Version 1.0, 1 March 2013, 1-220. Stormwater Management Program. Vol. 2. N.p.: Stormwater Coalition of Albany County, 2014.
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Venuti, Michael. "Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center Porous Pavement." New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation, 07 Nov. 2014. Web. 17 Nov. 2014. http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/76843.html
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