Government of Kerala Local Self Government Department Comparative Study on Selection of Water Supply Pipe Materials 1 A-3 Cost Estimates - Kollam 1 A-4 Cost Estimates - Kochi 1 A-5

Government of Kerala Local Self Government Department

Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (PPTA 4106 – IND)

FINAL REPORT

VOLUME 6 – TECHNICAL ANALYSIS

MAY 2005

COPYRIGHT: The concepts and information contained in this document are the property of ADB & Government of Kerala. Use or copying of this document in whole or in part without the written permission of either ADB or Government of Kerala constitutes an infringement of copyright.

FINAL REPORT


SECTION A – WATER SUPPLY

TA 4106 –IND: Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project Project Preparation

FR Volume 6 – Technical Analysis SECTION A - PAGE i

FINAL REPORT


Contents Section A. Water Supply 1

A-1 National Water Policies 1 A-2 Least Cost Solutions for Water Supply 1

A.2.1 Introduction 1 A.2.2 Water Supply Components 1

A-3 Basic Design Parameters 1 A-4 Technical Options for Upgrading the Water Supply Status 1

A.4.1 Un-accounted for Water (UFW) Analysis and Water Supply Optimization 1 A.4.2 Water Treatment Plant and Pumping Machinery Improvements 1 A.4.3 Transmission Main Improvements 1 A.4.4 Strengthening of the Existing Distribution System 1

A-5 Water Supply System Operation and Maintenance 1 A.5.1 Introduction 1 A.5.2 Scope of Required Operation and Maintenance of Water Supply System 1 A.5.3 Costs of Operation and Maintenance 1 A.5.4 Summary 1

A-6 Leakage Detection, Reduction and Remedial Measures 1 A-7 Project Design Costs 1

Annex A Water Supply 1

A-1 Comparative Study on Different Types of Water Sources 1 A-2 Comparative Study on Selection of Water Supply Pipe Materials 1 A-3 Cost Estimates - Kollam 1 A-4 Cost Estimates - Kochi 1 A-5 Cost Estimates - Thrissur 1


FR Volume 6 – Technical Analysis SECTION A - PAGE ii

List of Tables

Table A-1: Annual Rainfall Characteristics 1

Table A-2: Design Period of Water Supply Components 1

Table A-3: Institutional Needs 1

Table A-4: Water Quality Requirements 1

Table A-5: Kollam UFW Analysis - No Water Production Augmentation only Rehabilitation 1

Table A-6: Kochi UFW Analysis - No Water Production Augmentation 1

Table A-7: Kochi UFW Analysis - With Water Production Augmentation (KWA but not KSUDP) 1

Table A-8: Thrissur UFW Analysis - No Water Production Augmentation 1

Table A-9: Thrissur UFW Analysis - With Water Production Augmentation (Not KSUDP) 1

Table A-10: Typical O&M Staff Pattern for Water Treatment Plant of up to 150 MLD supply 1

Table A-11: Staff Requirements for Water Treatment Plant Laboratory 1

Table A-12: Water Billing Staff Requirement 1


FR Volume 6 – Technical Analysis SECTION A - PAGE iii

List of Figures Figure A-1 Kollam Schematic Diagram Showing Existing and Proposed Water Supply

System Pg 28

Figure A-2 Kochi Schematic Distribution Pattern of Existing Waster Supply System Pg 29 Figure A-3 Thrissur Schematic Diagram Showing Existing and Proposed Water Supply

System Pg 30


FR Volume 6 – Technical Analysis SECTION A - PAGE iv

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ADB Asian Development Bank ADS Area Development Society BIS Bureau of Indian Standards BOD Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand BOT Build Operate Transfer BOO Build Own Operate BOOT Build Own Operate and Transfer CBO Community Based Organisation CDS Community Development Society COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization DFID Department for International Development DPC District Planning Committee DSC Design and Supervision Consultancy DWCUA Development of Women and Children in Urban Areas EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EDII Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India FAB Fludised Aerobic Bed GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographical Information System GoI Government of India GWA Ground Water Authority HRD Human Resources Development HUDCO Housing and Urban Development Corporation IEE Initial Environmental Examination IKM Information Kerala Mission IMA Indian Medical Association IMR Infant Mortality Rate IT Information Technology JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation KocMC Kochi Municipal Corporation KolMC Kollam Municipal Corporation KozMC Kozhikode Municipal Corporation KSEB Kerala State Electricity Board KSPCB Kerala State Pollution Control Board KSRTC Kerala State Road Transport Corporation KSUDP Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project KUDFC Kerala Urban Development Finance Corporation KUDP Kerala Urban Development Project KWA Kerala Water Authority LFS Land Fill Site Lpcd Litre Per Capita Per Day LSGD Local Self Government Department MFI Micro Finance Institutions MGP Modernising Government Programme MIS Management Information System


FR Volume 6 – Technical Analysis SECTION A - PAGE v

MLD Million Litre Per day MNES Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources MSL Mean Sea Level MSW Municipal Solid Waste NABARD National Agricultural Bank for Rural Development NATPAC National Transportation Planning and Research Centre NGO Non Government Organization NH National Highways NHG Neighborhood Group NRY Nehru Rojgar Yojna NRCD National River Conservation Directorate NRCP National River Conservation Plan NSDP National Slum Development Program O&M Operation and Maintenance PIU Project Implementation Unit PMO Project Management Office PPP Public Private Partnership PPTA Project Preparation Technical Assistance PSP Private Sector Participation PWD Public Works Department RIS Repayment Information System SC/ST Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe SHG Self Help Groups SJSRY Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojna STP Sewage Treatment Plant SWM Solid Waste Management TCPO Town and Country Planning Organization ThMC Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation TMC Thrissur Municipal Corporation TPPFL Twin Pit Pour Flush Latrine TRIDA Thiruvananthapuram Development Authority TSS Total Suspended Solids TUDP Trivandrum Urban Development Project UFW Unaccounted Water ULB Urban Local Body UASB Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket USEP Urban Self Employment Program UBSP Urban Services for the Poor VAMBAY Valmiki Ambedkar Awaz Yojna WTP Water Treatment Plant


FR Volume 6 – Technical Analysis SECTION A - PAGE 1

Section A. Water Supply

A-1 National Water Policies

Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and national asset. Planning and development of water resources must therefore be governed by national perspectives. The Government of India accordingly formulated a national water policy in 1987 prioritizing water allocation in the planning and operation of systems in the following order:

Drinking

Irrigation

Hydropower

Navigation

Industrial & other uses

These priorities can, however, be suitably modified for any particular area with reference to its area specific considerations. According to the national water policy adequate drinking water facilities should be provided to the entire population both in urban and rural areas by 1991 and all irrigation and multipurpose projects should invariably include a drinking water component wherever there is no alternative source of drinking water and also, the drinking water needs of human beings and animals should be the first priority on any available water.

According to the constitution of India, the states can enact any legislation on water supply, irrigation, canal, drainage, embankments, water storage and water power concerning the state excepting the regulation and development of interstate rivers and river valleys. The national parliament has no legislative competence in the matter.

In order to provide for use and control on water of all rivers and streams flowing in natural channels and of all lakes by the state, a model Canal Irrigation and Drainage Bill has been formulated by the Union Government to amend and consolidate the existing laws relating to irrigation and drainage and assessment and levy of water rates.

Although the existing irrigation Acts or any other Acts do not define the ownership of such surface or ground water which is considered as belonging to the owners of the land, in view of importance of ground water in water supply and irrigation, the government is to extend control over it and to provide for the methodical regulation for its use in conjunction with use of surface water. Accordingly the national water policy has directed that exploration of ground water should be so regulated as not to exceed the recharging possibilities. In this context, the policy also directs for development of ground water recharge projects for augmenting the available supplies.

The Union Government has prepared a model Ground Water (Control & Regulation) Bill to control and regulate the development therewith and issued the same to the states.



The salient features of the Bill are as under:

Ground water has been defined as the water, which exists below the surface of the ground at any particular location.

Ground Water Authority (GWA) shall be constituted by the state government.

The state government, on a report received from the GWA may declare the areas as notified areas, where extraction and use of ground water will be regulated in the public interest.

Any person desiring to sink a well in the notified areas on personal or community basis, for any purpose other than exclusively domestic use, shall have to obtain prior permission of GWA to proceed with any activity in connection with sinking of the well.

In granting or refusing the permit the GWA shall have regard to:

a) The purpose or purposes for which the water is to be used;

b) The existence of other competitive users;

c) The availability of water, and

d) Any other relevant factor.

Every user of groundwater in the notified area, shall apply to the GWA for the grant of a certificate of registration recognizing the existing use in such form and in such manner as may be prescribed.

No person shall himself or by any person on his behalf carry on the business of sinking a well or any other activity connected with the sinking of a well in any notified area except under and in accordance with a license granted in this behalf.

Any person desiring to carry on the business of sinking wells in the notified area may make an application to the GWA for the purpose.

The GWA or any person authorized by it in writing in this behalf shall have power to enter on to any property with the right to investigate and make any measurements concerning the land or the water located on the surface or underground, inspect the well, sunk or being sunk, take specimen of such solids or other materials or of water extracted from such wells, and obtain such information and record as may be required.

Any user of ground water who contravenes or fails to comply with any of the provisions of the Act will be penalized and /or punished according to the provisions of the Act.

A-2 Least Cost Solutions for Water Supply

A.2.1 Introduction

The least cost solution for water and sewerage schemes is generally dependent on following considerations:



For water supply, the first consideration is the selection of water source. For economic reasons the source should be as near as possible to the consumers, but will be subject to a balance between the sustainable quantity and quality of source against treatment requirements.

All schemes will use appropriate materials and technology for conveyance and treatment in terms of long-term quality assurance with least operation and maintenance (O&M) cost.

Land requirement and least resettlement / compensatory impact for implementation of the scheme.

Least environmental impact.

A.2.2 Water Supply Components

Water Supply Scheme comprises three major components, which decide the project viability:

1) Water source 2) Treatment technology 3) Transmission & distribution system

Water Source

Rain is the origin of all water sources. Rainwater may be harvested directly before it reaches the ground or tapped while flows over the surface as surface water source or extracted from below the ground as ground water after it has percolates down. Ground water is generally a cheaper source for small towns or rural water supply schemes, their requirement being small, but for city municipal systems groundwater is often over exploited beyond sustainable limits resulting in surface sources being the alternative solution. A ten point techno-economic assessment is made of merits and demerits of different types of water source in the context of adoption for large municipal supply is presented in Annex A.1. The observations for adopting these sources on city specific basis are described below.

Rain Water Source

This source is the most economical for small communities as it is in the purest form and requires minimal or no treatment. However, unless the intensity and duration of rainfall are adequate and dispersed throughout the year large storage facilities are required. The project cities are located in the semi-tropical of India and experience intense rainfall for extended durations during the monsoon periods. While water harvesting cannot be realistically considered as a main source for supply, in urban areas water collected from large roof areas can be used for groundwater recharge, if careful attention is taken to prevent contamination. Rainwater harvesting within the project cities is therefore not considered as an alternative water source for major investment, except for small communities outside the range of the piped water supply system and where groundwater may be saline, such as coastal areas around Kochi. Average annual rainfall data for the project cities is in Table A-1.

Table A-1: Annual Rainfall Characteristics

City Rainfall (mm / annum) Monsoon Period

Thiruvananthapuram 1,803 May – July (SW Monsoon) & October (NE Monsoon) Kollam 2,779 May – July (SW Monsoon) & October (NE Monsoon) Kochi 2,900 May – July (SW Monsoon) & October (NE Monsoon) Thrissur 3,159 June – August (SW Monsoon) & October (NE Monsoon) Kozhikode 3,100 June – August (SW Monsoon) & October (NE Monsoon)



Surface Water Source

Surface water source can be a flowing river or natural water body, such as lakes and ponds, or artificially created reservoir by constructing dam on the river. Surface water sources are often found to be appropriate for large municipal water supply schemes due to the large flow required or quantity of storage to allow for seasonal variations in rainfall and consumption. However, for the least-cost solution the raw water abstraction point needs to be examined carefully and the most appropriate technology for treatment chosen. In coastal areas sea water can also be used although the cost of desalination, to make the water fit for drinking, is usually beyond affordable limits. This is not an option for the project cities.

Ground Water Source

Rainwater percolating into ground and reaching permeable layers in the saturation zone constitutes to the ground water source. As such, wherever the rainfall is low ground water recharge is less. Indiscriminate pumping of ground water under such circumstances results in depletion of the water table. The water as it seeps down comes in contact with organic and inorganic substances during its passage through the ground and acquires chemical characteristics, which determine the suitability of the ground water for human consumption. Ground water is generally harder than surface water and may contain elements harmful for health. Sometimes ground water is found with bacteriological contamination mainly from unscientific solid waste management, broken sewers, poor sanitation, etc. In spite of these, the treatment cost of ground water is generally less than that of surface water.

Ground water is one of the most valuable natural resources, which determines ecology. The Ground Water Estimate Committee of India has recommended to keep 15% of total ground water resources identified for drinking and industrial purposes for committed base flow and to account for unrecoverable losses. It is therefore important to control and monitor ground water extraction to ensure that it is not beyond its natural recharging capacity.

There is no assessment of ground water potential made for the project towns. However, three of the five project towns (Kollam, Kochi and Kozhikode) are situated in on the coast and due to indiscriminate abstraction of ground water without consideration of its potential, the ground water has become saline in many areas.

In view of above considerations it is prima facie recommended to conserve ground water and use alternative surface sources, which fortunately are available. Although the Project is focused on rehabilitation rather than augmentation to provide an improved service, the authorities should make an assessment of ground water potential in order to protect the fragile acquifers from over exploition in areas outside the cities not covered by the piped water supply.

Water Treatment

Although the Project does not include water supply augmentation a short review of water treatment choices is provided. In addition to processing raw water through aeration, sedimentation, flocculation, etc. depending on its quality, water filtration for the municipal water supply normally uses granular media down flow slow sand or rapid sand filters.



Slow sand filters can provide a single step treatment for water of low turbidity (<20 NTU) and are cost effective when adequate land, labor and filter sand are readily available at low cost, chemical and equipment are difficult to procure and skilled labor for operation & maintenance are not available locally. With low filtration rate (0.1 m/hr.) slow sand filters require large areas of land, which is not always possible to provide close to urban areas. Whereas, rapid sand filters require much smaller area due to provision of high filtration rate 4.8-6 m/hr. (increasing to 10 m/hr in improved designs) and hence popular in most of the urban water supply schemes. Further the land cost being high in the urban vicinity, one has to go far out of the city for having the slow sand filtration plant, while it is always desirable to site water treatment plant close to the users to avoid loss in residual disinfecting chlorine at the delivery point.

Energy cost plays the major role in the economization of a water supply scheme. Most of the energy requirement is in pumping of raw and clear water, some in the pre-filtration activities and the least in the filtration process. Having all processing activities based on the same raw water quality, the operation & maintenance cost of rapid sand filtration is marginally higher than in slow sand filtration.

Transmission and Distribution of Water

Pipelines are usually the major investment required in a water supply project. Therefore, pipe materials have to be selected judiciously not only for durability and hydraulic characteristics but also from the cost of installation and maintenance to ensure required function and performance throughout the design period.

The major factors influencing selection of pipe material are:-

Hydraulic Smoothness (C value) Structural strength for external loads Strength to sustain internal pressure Ease in handling, transportation and storage Capacity to withstand damage in handling and

maintenance Resistance to internal corrosion Resistance to external corrosion Resistance to heat / sunlight Resistance to rodent attack Sustainability in black cotton soil Reliability and effective joints Capability to absorb surge pressure

Ease in maintenance and repair Use experience Durability (Sustainable trouble free

maintenance) Consumer satisfaction Resistance to tampering by anti-social

elements Economy Availability of specials and replacements Availability of skilled personnel for

installation & maintenance Behavior of pipeline – likelihood of

interruptions due to leakage, bursting, etc. and time for repairs



In the process of least cost solution following types of pipe materials have been examined with respect to above influencing factors:

Cast Iron (CI) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

Pre-stressed Cement Concrete (PSC) Galvanized Iron (GI) Ductile Iron Cement Lined (DI) Mild Steel Cement Lined (MSCL)

From the preceding list the following are selected on the basis of proven experience.

For gravity water distribution mains

a) Upto 250 mm dia : PVC or MDPE: (in pipes of above 250 mm dia, the structural strength to withstand external pressure deteriorates and are not cost effective over other kinds of pipe.

b) Above 250 mm upto 900 mm dia : DI : (Pipes below 250 mm dia is costlier than PVC or MDPE and above 900 mm dia costlier and weaker than PSC).

c) Above 900 mm dia : PSC : (most economical and durable than of other materials).

Unfortuneately, there have been very bad experiences of Premo concrete pipes manaufactured in Kerala, which were extensiviely used in past KWA projects and which failed within a few years due to poor joints and reinforcement corrosion. Thus, particular care must be taken to ensure proper testing and quality control in the production, handling and laying of non-flexible pipes.

Under the on-going JBIC aided Kerala Water Supply Project the use of MDPE welded jointed pipelines are being successfully installed and can also be considered KSUDP.

For Pumping Main

a) Upto 900 mm dia : DI: (above 900 mm dia structurally weak to withstand external and internal pressure. Also production and handling cost of DI pipes above 900 mm dia are more uneconomical than MSCL and so not readily available in the market).

b) Above 900 mm dia : MSCL (cost effective among other materials and structurally most suitable to withstand external and internal pressure).

A 10 point techno-economic assessment for the selection of water transmission and distribution pipes of different materials is presented in Annex A.2.

A-3 Basic Design Parameters

In identifying the physical components of the water supply components, the following basic design parameters and levels of service are considered:

Coverage

In KSUDP it is envisaged to cover the cities with piped water supply to the extent of at least 95% of the population leaving 5% located in and around green belt areas or areas unconnected by proper roads from the main city, where extending pipeline will be uneconomical.



Design Period

The recommended design period for an urban water supply scheme is generally 30 years for major civil works of permanent nature and 15/20 years for renewable mechanical and electrical works. However, considering urgency in the need for implementation vis-à-vis limitation in the affordability of the beneficiaries the design period for water quantity augmentation is kept for 10 years from commencement of the services. With a reasonable project completion time of 5 years the services are expected to commence in 2011 and the capacity of future augmentation requirement is designed for the demand of 2031.

It is further envisaged that the permanent structures like filter house, chemical house, pump house, intake well, etc. can be designed for longer period as these do not vary significantly with the change in design period. Space for additional functional units can be kept in these structures to install as and when required without affecting the overall size of the structure. Similarly, the transmission and distribution pipelines can also be made of use for longer period without change in the diameter but with permissible increase in the velocity. Considering the above philosophy although the capacity of water production is designed to fulfill the demand of 2021 the different structure that may cover the design period to sustain desired performance are shown in Table A-2.

Table A-2: Design Period of Water Supply Components

Sl. No.

Components Design Period

(Years)

Design Period

Till

1 Intake Well in the river or reservoir 30 2041

2 Intake Channel / pipe 30 2041

3 Raw water / Clear water rising / gravity main 30 2041

Water treatment plant:

4 Aerator – Cascade type 10 2021

5 Raw water channel 10 2021

6 Clarifloculator 10 2021

7 Filter beds 10 2021

8 Clear water reservoir 10 2021

9 Filter House Building 30 2041

10 Raw Water Pump House Building 30 2041

11 Clear Water Pump House Building 30 2041

12 Intermediate Pump House Building 10 2021

13 Raw water pumping units & electricals 10 2021

14 Clear Water pumping units & electricals 10 2021

15 Service reservoirs / Break pressure tank 10 2021

16 Feeder mains 30 2041

17 Distribution mains 30 2041



Per Capita Supply Rate

For hygienic living the CPHEEO recommends that to ensure a scientific city sewerage system in a town of more than 0.2 million population, the most reasonable norm of per capita supply rate of water is in the range of 135 liter per day which includes consumption other than drinking like cooking, bathing, utensil/cloth washing, etc. as well as a proportion of non-domestic uses. This minimum rate of supply may however be increased for cities of large population to include special industrial and institutional demands. The supply rate may however be limited to 70 liter per capita per day where sewerage system is not envisaged.

Institutional Needs

The water need of institutions in a large town where apart from additional supply, significant outside people visit/ reside for business, education, health cure, entertainment, etc. should be included judicially partly or fully in calculation of total water supply demand. For small towns however this additional demand can be accommodated within the normal per capita supply itself. Of the three project cities under consideration for water supply improvements under the Project, only Kochi merits for inclusion of the additional institutional need of water within a reasonable limit. The general norm of institutional demand is given in Table A-3.

Table A-3: Institutional Needs

Sl. No.

Institutions Recommended Water Supply Rate

1 Hospital (No. of beds exceeding 100) 450 litre / bed/ day

2 Hospital (No. of beds not exceeding 100) 340 litre / bed/ day

3 Hotels 180 litre / bed/ day

4 Restaurant 70 litre / seat/ day

5 Railway Stations 70 litre / head/ day

6 Bus Stations 70 litre / head/ day

7 Day School / Colleges 45 litre / head / day

8 Offices 45 litre / head / day

9 Factories 45 litre / head / day

10 Cinema Halls 15 litre / head / day Source: CPHEEO

Fire Fighting Needs

A fire fighting demand of water is generally included in water supply scheme of large cities. The Code also suggests a reserve supply of 1/3 for fire fighting requirement in the service reservoirs and balance to keep in some static reservoirs located in strategic points. This aspect is examined and discussed with the municipal authorities and considering the financial constraints of the beneficiaries requiring a cost effective scheme additional quantity of water for fire fighting purpose is avoided. It is however recommended to construct the service reservoirs with additional capacity, which can be maintained throughout the year by gradual filling in sufficiently longer period without affecting the normal supply. Some ground reservoirs may also be constructed at required locations by the



municipal authority in course of time and filled up slowly for the purpose of fire fighting. Further, there are many tanks and water bodies in all the cities, water from which can be used in the occasion of fire incidence.

Duration of Supply

The intermittent supply results damage of the pipeline due to water hammering and contamination of water from polluted sources around the distribution lines. It also results in large wastage of water by the consumers on psychological ground; once by storing and then throwing out the unused water to collect fresh supply. In view of above round the clock supply is recommended by improving the distribution system and water management in addition to augmentation in the quantity.

Supply Pressure

The water pressure can be improved by plugging illegal connections and redesigning the distribution network for a loop system. A minimum pressure of 7 meter (up to 2 storied building) may be maintained in the network. For buildings above 7 meter water may be supplied in a ground sump constructed by the owner from where it may be pumped to the roof tank at the owner’s cost.

Water Quality

It is envisaged that the detailed design of water treatment plants shall be made with respect to the quality of raw water used for the particular plants to treat and finally supply in the distribution system as per recommended standard set by World Health Organization supported by CPHEEO. It is presumed that supply of chemicals and there proper dosing shall be monitored by competent hands along with control on inventory so that needed chemicals are procured sufficiently in advance. A quality control manual should be prepared and followed by the operation hands systematically.

The quality of water supplied by the municipal corporations in the city distribution system shall broadly depict following characteristics:

Clear, palatable and free from undesirable taste or odor;

Free from pathogenic organism;

Of reasonable temperature;

Non corrosive and non toxic;

Non scale forming; and

Free from any mineral that may cause health hazard.

To achieve these characteristics the physical, chemical, radiological and bacteriological properties of the treated water in the distribution system are considered to be as presented in Table A-4.

Industrial Needs

The water needs for small industries (other than factories) are generally covered within the per capita supply rate. The needs of bigger industries are specific and different on the basis of their nature or produced commodity.



Table A-4: Water Quality Requirements

Sl. No.

Characteristics Acceptable Cause for Rejection

1 Physical and Chemical 2 Turbidity (NTU) 1 10 3 Colour (on Platinum Cobalt scale) 5 25 4 Taste and Odour Unobjectionable Objectionable 5 PH 7.0 – 8.5 <6.5 or >9.2 6 Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 500 2000 7 Total hardness as CaCo3 (mg/l) 200 600 8 Chlorides as Cl (mg/l) 200 1000 9 Sulphates as SO4 (mg/l) 200 400 10 Fluorides as F (mg/l) 1.0 1.5 11 Nitrates as NO3 (mg/l) 45 45 12 Calcium as Ca (mg/l) 75 200 13 Magnesium as Mg (mg/l) ≤30 150

14 Iron as Fe (mg/l) 0.1 1.0 15 Manganese as Mn (mg/l) 0.05 0.5 16 Copper as Cu (mg/l) 0.05 1.5 17 Aluminium as Al (mg/l) 0.03 0.2 18 Alkalinity (mg/l) 200 600 19 Residual chlorine (mg/l) 0.2 >1.0 20 Zinc as Zn (mg/l) 5.0 15.0 21 Phenolic compound as Phenol (mg/l) 0.001 0.002 22 Anionic detergents as MBAS (mg/l) 0.2 1.0 23 Mineral oil (mg/l) 0.01 0.03 Toxic

24 Arsenic as As (mg/l) 0.01 0.05 25 Cadmium as Cd (mg/l) 0.01 0.01 26 Chromium as hexavalent Cr (mg/l) 0.05 0.05 27 Cyanides as CN (mg/l) 0.05 0.05 28 Lead as Pb (mg/l) 0.05 0.05 29 Selenium as Se (mg/l) 0.01 0.01 30 Mercury as Hg (mg/l) 0.001 0.001 31 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (μg/l) 0.2 0.2

Radio Activity 32 Gross Alpha activity (Bq/l) 0.1 0.1 33 Gross Beta activity (Bq/l) 1.0 1.0 Bacteriological

34 E. Coli Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample 35 Total Coliform bacteria for small supply Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample



A-4 Technical Options for Upgrading the Water Supply Status

In order to provide the quality of service and satisfy the water supply demand within the three project towns, there are two possible ways of achieving this goal. The first involves the augmentation of the existing water supply schemes to provide additional water by providing additional facilities for all the components starting from source development, headworks, treatment and to the town distribution system. The other alternative is to make the existing system more efficient and effective through rehabilitate and strengthening. The first option will take considerable time for construction apart from substantial financial investment. On the contrary by implementing the second option substantial improvement in services can be achieved with moderate investment within a period of one to two years. As mentioned in Volume 1, Main Report, the main issues in all the three towns for poor water supply are related to leaks and failures in the existing system. After detailed field inspection of the various water supply schemes, and the operation problems, it was concluded that by rehabilitation / strengthening of the existing system, and with more effective management, the entire systems would provide a greatly improved service and meet the forecast supply demand. The following were observed:

a) Due to inadequate maintenance, water treatment plants were not functioning effectively, in particular the flow measurement / process monitoring items.

b) Operating efficiency of pumping machinery and equipment was found to be below normal.

c) In all the three towns, the carrying capacity of the transmission main from the water source / treatment plants were very much reduced due to fractures or not even functioning.

d) Uniformly in all the cities major problems were related to old distribution systems with excessive leakage, un-registered / un-metered connections and wastage from public standposts.

The priority, therefore, is to undertake water and power audits of the complete water supply systems with location and condition surveys for hydraulic analysis of the distribution networks to identify in-efficiencies and failures.

The types of intervention will include the assessment of water treatment plant flow measurement / process monitoring equipment for better operational efficiency. Transmission mains and pumping machinery will be rehabilitated or replaced with necessary accessories to meet the rated capacity. Leaks and fractures within the distribution networks will be identified and repaired through a leak detection program. In some areas, pipes will be replaced in appropriate size to meet future demand requirements due to the changing city structure and use.

By adopting an average per capita supply of 135 lpcd, where sewerage is to be installed and 70 lcpd where not as per GoI guidelines, the rehabilitated schemes will ensure that all the project towns will be provided with equitable supply of water for the design period. In respect of Kochi the average per capita supply of 200 lpcd has been adopted considering the population and other KWA requirements.

A.4.1 Un-accounted for Water (UFW) Analysis and Water Supply Optimization

The prime objective of optimizing the water supply system is to make the existing water supply system more cost effective and economical by reducing UFW through the prevention of leaks and



wastage and by reducing the cost of supply by ensuring materials and equipment is operating efficiently.

Un-Accounted for Water

UFW has a number causes. These include:

Process losses – e.g. water used for backwashing filters, tanks and pipe flushing, etc. System leaks – e.g. leaking pipe joints, cracked / damaged pipes, leaking pump glands, etc. Wastage – e.g. public stand posts without taps, household taps left open, storage tanks without

‘ball valves’, etc.

Process losses can account for 5-10% of UFW and often can be reduced by recycling treatment wash water and ensuring that filter media is periodically replaced to provide maximum efficiency. Some water used for flushing and cleaning purposes will always be discarded.

System leaks occur due to poor workmanship or materials from pipe joints, particularly at consumer supply connections. This leakage increases when there are large pressure fluctuations in flow and pressure, as in the project cities due to the daily intermittent supply. In the project cities it is estimated that losses due to pipe leaks may be in the range of 25 to 35%.

However, further water loss is contributed to wastage caused by the intermittent supply, which may be for only 2 or 4 hours per day is some areas. As a result of the poor level of service household and public standpost taps are left open or even removed due to the poor pressure and lack of supply. Wastage in these circumstances can contribute to over 20% of the total water produced.

Production Inefficiency Costs

To achieve the least cost for the supply of water, production costs have to be kept to a minimum. One of the largest costs in the project cities is the cost of pumping water from the source, through treatment and to delivery. The power consumption is dependant upon the efficiency of the pumps and the condition of water transmission and delivery mains. Over time pump impellers become worn and inefficient, and pipes can become pitted or encrusted with deposits leading to increased friction losses resulting in more power, and cost, to transfer the same quantity of water.

System Analysis

Tables A-5 to A-9 provides a detailed analysis of different scenarios for water use and UFW in the 3 project cities where water supply improvements through the Project are proposed over the period 2004 to 2031, including:

a) Without the project; b) With project optimization and network expansion, but no production augmentation; and c) With project optimization, network expansion and production augmentation (for demonstration).

The analysis takes into account technical process and distribution losses, such as pump efficiencies and leaks, as well as non-technical losses due to illegal connections and wastage from standposts. In the analysis consideration is given the how the present poor level of service can be improved and demonstrates how through system optimization a greatly improved and cost effective water supply



can be provided through better maintenance and operational management, without the need for large expenditure in water source and treatment augmentation. The analysis also provides for increasing direct houseconnections and phasing out of public standposts.

Flow Measurement and Network Analysis

Unfortunately, none of the project cities have adequate means of measuring the total quantity of water produced or delivered. Water production rates are usually based on treatment plant or pump ratings and power consumption, irrespective of the pump / equipment efficiency. Few of the water treatment plants have accurate flow measurement devices, which record the actual hourly / daily volume of water produced for delivery. None of the cities have bulk water meters in the transmission and distribution mains, and, while domestic consumer supply is metered, over 50% of the meters are out of operation or simply not read.

The project will have the objective of reducing UFW down to 15% of water produced and to be able to supply water to the consumer at the most economic cost. To achieve this six main activities will be required.

1) Water network mapping and analysis; 2) Installation of bulk and consumer water meters; 3) Water and Power audit; 4) Treatment plant process monitoring and management improvements; 5) Pipeline leak detection and rectification; and 6) Public awareness campaigns for water conservation.

Providing a 24 Hour Supply

Although often criticized as being un-realistic and un-achievable in the Indian city context, the only long-term way of reducing waste and ensuring the most economic price for water through a public piped system is to provide a 24-hour supply. Initially, large volumes of water could be lost through leaks in pipelines that were un-noticeable with the intermittent supply, but now obvious. However, consumers would automatically turn off taps and put in ‘ball-valves’ in water cistern and storage tanks to avoid flooding their houses.

Removal of Public Standposts

A further objective of the project will also be to increase the number of individual metered house connections and reduce the dependency on public standposts. Where standposts have to be maintained due to poor socio-economic conditions, standposts should be metered, with a nominal charge made for water provided. For social equity and responsibility, the water standpost or kiosk could be community operated and maintained.

However, to reduce these social problems and make the water optimization more effective, an advance program of public consultation and awareness on water conservation would be required.



Table A-5: Kollam UFW Analysis - No Water Production Augmentation only Rehabilitation

2004 2008 REMARKS 2011 REMARKS 2021 REMARKS 2031 REMARKS 2008 REMARKS 2011 REMARKS 2021 REMARKS(Optn. In 2 yrs.)

City Population 366,266 372,700 377,525 390,549 400,000 372,700 377,525 390,549 Population access to piped water

359,563 365,297 373,308 388,917 399,554 365,221 367,565 382,647

% Popn. 98 98 99 100 100 98 97 98Number of HH connections

23,109 34,664 50% increase in H.Connections.

57,773 150% increase in H.Connections possible.



24,288 Increased by 1% p.a.



% Popn. 30 45 73 90 97 31 32 34No. of stand posts 2,590 2,072 20% reduction

in stand post. 1,000 40% reduction in

stand post.400 94% reduction in

stand post.130 95% reduction in

stand post.2590 no change 2,590 no change 2,590 no change

% Popn. 68 53 25 10 3 67 66 64Household size 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80No. of families / Std. post 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Rated Production MLD 35.50 57.50 57.50 57.50 57.50 35.50 35.50 35.50

Efficiency Losses 15% 5.33 5% 2.875 Replacement / Rehab. Of pumps

3% 1.725 Improved O&M 3% 1.725 3% 1.725 20% 7.1 Reduction in efficiency by 5%

22% 7.81 Reduction in efficiency by 7%

25% 8.875 Minimum acceptable efficiency considering periodic maintenance

Plant Procuction 30.18 54.63 55.78 55.78 55.78 28.4 27.69 26.625Process Losses 5% 1.51 5% 2.73 3% 1.67 Improved O&M 3% 1.67 3% 1.67 5% 1.42 Reduction in

efficiency by 5%

8% 2.22 10% 2.66

Water Production for Dist.

MLD 28.67 51.89 54.10 54.10 54.10 26.98 25.47 23.96

Dist. Technical losses 30% 8.60 15% 7.78 Leak detection and rectification.

15% 8.12 8% 4.33 Improved water management

8% 4.33 No change 31% 8.36 Increase in loss by 2% due to increased leakage

33% 8.41 Increase in loss by 4% due to increased leakage

35% 8.39 Maximum leakage, cosiderading normal leak repair.

Non-Tech Losses 20% 5.73 10% 5.19 Reduction in std psts & illigal conn.

4% 2.16 Redn in illegal con 2% 1.08 Redn in illegal con 2% 1.08 No change 20% 5.40 No change. 20% 5.09 No change. 20% 4.79 No change.

Water Availability MLD 14.33 38.92 43.82 48.69 48.69 13.22 11.97 10.78

Aggregate Total Losses 60% 32% 24% 15% 15% 63% 66% 70%

Domestic water MLD 7.05 29.89 38.85 45.97 46.81 5.93 5.87 5.86Commercial water MLD 0.99 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.29 1.00 1.05 1.10Industrial water MLD 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.09Standpost water MLD 6.22 7.96 3.84 1.54 0.50 6.22 4.97 3.73Total Water Available MLD 14.33 38.92 43.82 48.69 48.69 13.22 11.97 10.78

Per Capita piped water available (overall popn.)

lpcd 39.86 106.54 117.39 125.20 121.86 36.20 32.57 28.18

HH supply (available) lpcd 63.60 179.63 140.11 131.14 120.93 50.85 49.36 43.76

Per capita standpost available

lpcd 25.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 25.00 20.00 15.00

NOTES: 1. Due to poor water supply, majority of households presently use well water for general use and piped supply for cooking / drinking2. Underground sewerage only proposed for central areas during design horizon serving a total population of 185,000

Without ProjectWith Project (Optimisation and Network Expansion)



Table A-6: Kochi UFW Analysis - No Water Production Augmentation



Table A-7: Kochi UFW Analysis - With Water Production Augmentation (KWA but not KSUDP)



Table A-8: Thrissur UFW Analysis - No Water Production Augmentation



Table A-9: Thrissur UFW Analysis - With Water Production Augmentation (Not KSUDP)



A.4.2 Water Treatment Plant and Pumping Machinery Improvements

Due to long neglect of the maintenance of the water treatment plant, most of the vital components (flow measurement and process monitoring) are not working. Further, certain improvements in the civil structures are found necessary, such as leaking roofs and minor cracks in certain civil structures. In order to improve the efficiency of the water treatment plant, the following components require specific attention.

Operating bridges in the Clari-flocculators;

Back wash pumps and related electrical installations;

Replacement of filter appurtenances;

Process management instrumentation;

Leaking pipes and operating valves; and

Replacement of filter under drains.

In Kochi water supply scheme wherein the treatment capacity is more than 100 MLD it is recommended to install electrically operated systems with instrumentation control panel for on-line quality measuring with a remote indication. Flow measuring devices will be of ultrasonic type.

The existing water testing laboratory should be made functional with a qualified water quality scientist.

The present operating efficiency of the pumping machinery including the various electrical installations were found to be poor and no attempts in the past have been made to rectify the problem. Hence under this project it is proposed to install new pumping machinery with necessary electrical installations in order to improve the overall efficiency of the pumping machinery.

A.4.3 Transmission Main Improvements

In any water supply project, the major investments will be towards pipe material. Hence there is a need for judicious selection of pipe material from the point of view of durability, life and overall cost which includes, pipe supply, installation and maintenance cost necessary to ensure satisfactory performance. Various types of pipes are available in the market both metallic as well as non-metallic. In the recent times, due to past experience, there has been a move towards DI pipes for the large transmission mains which have significant advantages over MS/CI pipes. Few positive factors in use of DI pipes are mentioned below.

Can handle much higher pressure due to higher tensile strength;

Resistance against water hammer are high;

DI pipes are reasonably corrosion resistant;

Higher ‘C’ value of 140 is ensured there by reducing the pumping cost;

DI pipes are with push-on flexible joints, which do not leak at high or low pressure; and

As a result, maintenance cost is comparatively low.



In respect of financial investment also, as compared with CI/Steel pipes of same diameter the cost difference is not significant. Hence, considering the overall benefits, it is justified in adoption of DI pipes for the transmission main.

Under this project, for Kollam and Thrissur, it is proposed to adopt DI pipes for the transmission main in place of the old defective concrete mains.

In Thrissur the existing 600 mm CI pipe does not pose any major problem, where as the 700 mm concrete pipe is not functioning effectively with frequent bursts and leakages. About 25 to 30 bursts are recorded in the above main every year and the KWA is incurring an expenditure of Rs.5 lakhs (US$ 12,000) annually. Considering this aspect, it is justified to install a new main of 900 / 700 mm DI pipes to cater for the present and future design demand. The 600 CI main will be retained.

In Kollam, the existing 700 mm concrete main has been abandoned resulting in one of the water treatment plants not being able to operate. Hence it is proposed to lay a new 750 mm DI pipe in place of the existing 700 mm concrete pipe to cater for rated design capacity alongside the existing 750 mm CI transmission main, which will be retained.

In Kochi, the existing transmission mains (1,050 mm CI and 700 mm CI) are more than 40 years old and the carrying capacity is very much reduced due to corrosion. TCS consultants conducted a field test during 1993, which observed the following. T he field test for 1,050 mm and 900 mm diameter mains indicated ‘C’ values between 46 and 65 and between 56 and 72 in different sections for these mains respectively. In order to enhance the carrying capacity of the transmission main, the following options have been considered namely.

By increasing the pumping head;

By laying additional main; and

By rehabilitation of the existing mains.

It is finally concluded that the rehabilitation of the existing main by suitable mortar lining is found to be the most technical feasible solution. Accordingly, it is proposed to adopt mortar lining for the existing CI transmission mains and also for a portion of the distribution system within the Kochi Corporation.

A.4.4 Strengthening of the Existing Distribution System

After evaluating the leakage level in the distribution system, it is proposed to strengthen / replace the system with use of CI/HDPE/PVC pipes as appropriate. In the existing systems frequent bursts / leakages occur with asbestos cement (AC) pipes. Also, due to health concerns over the use of AC pipes for water supply, it is proposed to replace the AC pipes with PVC or MDPE pipes depending on size requirements.

In Kochi, strengthening of the distribution system is proposed in the following stages.

a) Internal cement mortar lining for bigger size CI pipes with in the town;



b) Complete replacement of smaller diameter less than 150 mm diameter pipes with CI/HDPE /PVC pipes;

c) Laying additional mains for strengthening the existing system; and

d) Replacement of old corroded GI house service connection pipes.

In addition it is proposed to install bulk flow meters on transmission mains, trunk and local distribution mains.

A-5 Water Supply System Operation and Maintenance

A.5.1 Introduction

The existing water supply systems are not functioning as originally anticipated or designed largely as a consequence of inadequate funding for operation and maintenance rather than lack of skills.

However, to reduce the necessity of similar rehabilitation works being required in the future, and in conjunction with improvements proposed under the project, emphasis needs to be placed on adequate operation and maintenance of the existing and improved water supply facilities. As a guideline for sustainable operation, the scope of required maintenance activities is summarized below.

A.5.2 Scope of Required Operation and Maintenance of Water Supply System

No water supply system however well engineered it may be, can give satisfactory service to the community unless it is properly and effectively maintained. In general the scope of required maintenance of water supply systems broadly includes the following:

Availability of detailed plans/drawings/operational manuals for water works;

Equipment and inventory of stores;

Schedule of daily operations;

Schedule of inspection of machinery;

Duties and activities of various O&M personnel;

Monitoring and records of quality of water; and

Training and skill development.

Apart from the above, routine operation procedures, more detailed operational inspection procedures need to be formulated and strictly followed for the various components of the water supply scheme as detailed below. Tables A-10 to A-12 provides details of staffing requirements for O&M and billing.

Source Monitoring of raw water quantity/quality is maintained throughout the year;

Potential sources of pollution in the catchment area need to be identified and a procedure for monitoring and preventive action put in place; and

All the civil / mechanical items in the raw water intake structures to be properly maintained.



Table A-10: Typical O&M Staff Pattern for Water Treatment Plant of up to 150 MLD supply

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Sl. No

Category of staff Intake works

Raw water pump house

Raw water rising main or Gravity main

Treatment works and clear water

pump house

Clear water rising main

Clear water reservoir

Gravity main Distribution system

1. Superintendent Manager Dy. Exe. Engr. 1

2. Supervisor/Asstt Manager (A.E.E) 1 - 1 4 1 1 1 -

3. Assistant Supervisor/Junior Manager - - - 4 - - - -

4. Operators - 4 - 12+4 _

5. Helpers/Fitters - 4 2 16 2 4 2 (for every 6 kms)

Fitter-1 plus Helper-2 (for every 10-16

Km) 6. Electrician 1 4 7. Mechanic 1 1 8. Electrical Helper 4 4 1 9 Watchman - 4 -_ 4 - 4

Note: 1. The above staffing pattern does not include personnel for billing and accounting for water charges 2. Above staffing pattern includes the operating staff required for one off day in a week for staff. Suitable adjustments may have to be made between personnel in pump house and treatment works. 3. From among the three categories of personnel indicated at Sl 1,2, & 3 at least one should be from the Electrical & Mechanical Engg. Disciplines 4. Separate staff may be provided for sub-stations (on the pattern of respective Electricity Boards) if they are owned and maintained by the water works authority 5. The above categories of staffs are mentioned as per the standard practices adopted based on CPHEO. However depending upon each case the staff strength can be modified. Further, it is recommended that in

case of maintenance of water treatment plants and pumping machinery, the operations can be entrusted to private organization as O & M contract, which will reduce the man power considerably for the local bodies.


FR Volume 6 – Technical Analysis

Table A-11: Staff Requirements for Water Treatment Plant Laboratory

Greater than 7.5 MLD

1) Water Analyst (Chemist) 1 2) Water Analyst (Bacteriologist) 1 3) Water Analyst _ 4) Laboratory Technician 3 5) Typist cum clerk 1 6) Sample takers 3 7) Laboratory cleaners 3

Table A-12: Water Billing Staff Requirement

1. Billing and Collecting

Water charges a) Meter Reader b) Bill Clerk

One for every 500 connections to be read monthly or a minimum of one less than Bill 500 connections (includes leave reserve/shift duty also)

c) Water Rate Collectors One for every 1,500 monthly billed connections d) Water rate Superintendent One for every 6,000 billed connections monthly e) Meter Repairer One for every 80 meters per month to be repaired f) Assistant meter Repairer One for every 80 meters per month to be repaired

Water Treatment Plant

The Person responsible for maintenance of water treatment plants should have complete knowledge of working of various components of the treatment system. Major problems in the treatment units arise because of the fluctuation in quality and quantity of water, improper functioning of several units and mechanical and electrical equipment. The guidelines are proposed to avoid unexpected breakdowns.

Complete set of drawings of the various components of the treatment unit indicating the location and sizes of all pipes and appurtenances. This should be readily available and displayed in the treatment plant;

A systematic routine maintenance schedule for various components of the plant and equipment installed in it, to be prepared and records to be maintained in respect of machinery and lubricants used;

A log book is to be maintained keeping complete record of various units and equipment regarding their cleaning, repairs, breakdown of particular components and the time taken for its repair; and

Analysis of water, jar test records and the quantity of chemicals used should be maintained regularly and methodically.

Transmission main Monitoring of bulk flow meters;

Periodical leak detection surveys to be undertaken based on flow meter results;



A record of breakdowns and leaks observed during maintenance operation to be maintained and properly monitored. Planned steps should then be taken for rectifying the same on a long term basis;

Periodical inspection of various pipe appurtenances such as sluice valves and air valves; and

For routine inspection of the transmission main the access road from the headworks to the town requires proper maintenance.

Maintenance of Pumping Equipment Proper maintenance of pumping machinery needs a trained and skilled staff to follow the

manufacturer’s recommendations for operation and maintenance procedures.

A schedule of preventive maintenance to be prepared in a simple language to be easily understood by the maintenance staff, and implemented. The schedule would include recommendations for checks and remedial action to be observed at different periodicities such as daily, monthly, quarterly, annually etc.

In addition to the above, preventive steps are necessary in the case of trouble shooting electrical equipments such as overheating of motors, overloading of motors, starter/breaker trips, vibration in motors, overheating of cables etc.

Maintenance of Distribution System

The most important issue in the maintenance of distribution systems is the establishment of system maps and records, including valve records. On account of intermittent supply in some areas, the possibility of pollution of empty pipelines cannot be ruled out. Special inspection of pipelines through marshy or high water table areas, crossings through water channels and in the vicinity of drains/sewers should be performed regularly and conditions monitored to avoid cross contamination. The disinfection of new/repaired mains is more complex in these areas, because chlorine must penetrate through the organic matter coating the pipe surface. It is therefore necessary to flush pipelines before disinfection.

Water Meters

Effective maintenance of water meters plays a vital role in the maintenance of distribution systems. Meters indeed deserve careful attention. Skilled staff, fully conversant with the maintenance of meters and necessary workshops are required to overhaul, repair, and test water meters. It is necessary to manage effective maintenance of meters otherwise water revenue will suffer. In respect of the three project towns, more than 50% of water meters are not working properly and the project capital cost includes purchase of numbers of replacement meters.

Considering the central location of Kochi within the state and other aspects, it is suggested to have a central KWA meter workshop at Kochi with necessary trained staff. The above workshop could cater to the demand of Kochi Corporation as well as other local bodies.



A.5.3 Costs of Operation and Maintenance

Costs of operation and maintenance can be divided into the following categories:

Energy cost (WTP, Pumping Stations, depots);

Chemicals cost (WTP);

Costs for replacement pipes, materials and machinery;

Labor costs; and

Costs of plant and equipment (trucks, vehicles, loaders, excavators).

Additional power costs also occur due to the inefficiency of outdated or poorly maintained pumps and mechanical equipment where pump impellors are worn out or bearings not properly greased.

For sustainable service and to undertake the scope of maintenance shown, annual operation and maintenance costs need to be in the range of 4% to 5% of asset value, without taking account of energy costs.

A.5.4 Summary

In order to ensure that the water supply system operates effectively, sufficient funds need to be allocated towards maintenance operations in annual budgets, to undertake the scope of maintenance required. If the water supply undertaking is to be sustainable, sufficient revenue needs to be generated from consumer tariffs and other sources to meet these costs, plus the other costs such as debt servicing and depreciation. At present, due to the low water tariff set by the government, the amount of revenue collected from consumers for water supply is only about 30% of that required to cover the cost of water production and distribution.

A-6 Leakage Detection, Reduction and Remedial Measures

No distribution system is absolutely watertight. There are leaks in every distribution system, no matter how well it is built. In the project towns, unaccounted for water (UFW) is as high as 60%. A study conducted by NERI in Kochi reported the physical losses in the system to be as high as 40%. The water losses comprise leakage from service reservoirs, treatment units, water mains, service pipes and fittings inside the consumer premises. Another type of unaccounted for water is due to the theft by unauthorized connections, tampering with water meters and inaccurate or faulty water meters.

Increasing demand for water by the local bodies, the rise in cost of new water supply capacity, and the high cost of production of water have necessitated better control. It is therefore proposed under the project to conduct a scientific leak assessment study, as a basis for proposing the necessary remedial steps for controlling water losses to the optimum level. The following procedures are proposed to carry out this program.

Preliminary Waste Control Operation The town distribution network will be divided into suitable zones. Data collection for each zone

will be carried out, including an updated plan of the distribution system showing the locations and sizes of all distribution pipes with information on materials, diameters, age, isolation valves,



population of the zone, water consumption of the zone, metered or un-metered connections, visible leaks etc. The water distribution plans should accurate to scale and prepared for future GIS use.

A systematic program of leak detection will be conducted. The losses / wastage of water in the study zone will be identified, and steps taken to repair or replace the pipelines or other facilities to ensure the leakage level is brought to the optimum level.

Staff and Equipment

Leak detection in a wastage prevention program is a continuous operation and staff required should be allocated on a permanent basis. Each leak detection unit will be in charge of number of zones, so that each zone could be tested after a period of three years or so. The main equipment required will include:

Sounding rod;

Electronic pipe locator;

Electronic leak detector;

Flow measuring devices; and

Metal detector and other accessories.

Economics

The main objective of conducting a leak reduction and waste prevention program is to keep the cost of supplying water as low as economically reasonable. The main advantages in implementing the program are mentioned below.

Increased availability of water for consumers;

Improvement in pressure in the water supply pipelines;

Saving in energy cost and overall water production cost (including chemicals etc.); and

Expenditure on new water supply capacity can be reduced.

A-7 Project Design Costs

Capital/Rehabilitation cost for the proposed water supply components have been worked out based on the following criteria.

1) For supply of 900/700 mm DI pipes (Transmission main) cost of pipes at the site has been based on the KWA approved rates which include all the tax components;

2) Items such as earthwork excavation, laying, jointing and testing of pipes are estimated about 10% of the cost of the supply of pipes, based on recent local contracts;

3) Supplying and laying CI pipes for the transmission mains component cost have been based on KWA’s approved rates;

4) Rates adopted for cement mortar lining of CI transmission main, in respect of Kochi water supply scheme, are based on TCS’s report for Kochi water supply augmentation scheme;

5) Cost of strengthening/laying new distribution mains (CI/HDPE/PVC) have been adopted as per KWA’s approved rates;



6) Cost of pumping machinery, construction of storage facilities, and road restoration charges the approved rates of KWA have been adopted; and

7) Following items of work namely intake structure, improvements to treatment plant, repairs to the access road only lump sum provision have been made. Assessment has been made with regard to the nature of the repairs to be carried out for various items of works. The above items include all Civil / Mechanical / Instrumentation costs.

The detailed break up of costs of water supply for each project city is given in Annex A.3 to A.5. The schematic diagrams showing existing and proposed water supply system for Kollam, Kochi and Thrissur are given in Figure A-1, Figure A-2 and Figure A-3 respectively.









Annex A Water Supply

A-1 Comparative Study on Different Types of Water Sources Sl. No.

Item Rain Water Ground Water Surface Water

1 Natural storage 0 5 9

2 Abstraction possibility in adequate quantity 2 5 10

3 Artificial storage requirement to fulfil community need 3 6 6

4 Turbidity 9 9 5

5 Hardness 9 2 7

6 Bacteriological contamination 2 9 5

7 Power consumption in transmission 7 4 7

8 Life of sources 9 4 10

9 Seasonal variations of yield 1 4 9

10 Treatment requirement 9 9 4

11 Taste and Odour 9 7 5

12 Toxicity 10 3 9

13 Effect of distribution network 9 2 9

Low figure – Poor

High figure – Good



A-2 Comparative Study on Selection of Water Supply Pipe Materials Type of Pipes Sl.

No. Attribute

AC uPVC MDPE RCC PSC CI GI DI MSCL

1 Hydraulic Smoothness (C value) 10 10 10 10 10 8 7 10 10

2 Structural strength for external loads

3 6 6 7 10 10 10 10 10

3 Strength to sustain internal pressure

5 7 8 7 10 10 10 10 10

4 Ease in handling, transportation and storage

3 10 10 8 8 8 10 7 7

5 Capacity to withstand damage in handling and maintenance

3 10 10 7 7 7 9 10 10

6 Resistance to internal corrosion 8 10 10 8 8 10 7 8 8

7 Resistance to external corrosion 8 10 10 8 8 10 7 8 8

8 Resistance to heat/sunlight 10 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10

9 Resistance to rodent attack 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

10 Sustainability in black cotton soil 4 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10

11 Reliability and effective joints 5 10 10 7 8 8 9 8 8

12 Capable to absorb surge pressure

5 8 8 6 9 10 8 10 10

13 Ease in maintenance and repair 6 9 9 7 7 7 9 8 8

14 Use experience 5 8 5 6 9 10 10 8 10

15 Durability (Sustainable trouble free maintenance)

4 9 9 8 9 10 8 10 10

16 Consumer satisfaction 3 9 9 8 8 10 10 10 10

17 Resistance to tampering by anti-social elements

3 8 8 10 10 10 9 10 10

18 Economy 9 7 6 8 6 4 3 3 4

19 Availability of specials 10 10 10 8 8 10 10 8 7

20 Availability of skilled personnel for installation & maintenance

9 9 7 10 9 10 10 9 9

21 Behaviour of pipeline – likelihood of interruptions due to leakage, bursting, etc. and time for repairs

6 10 10 8 8 10 8 9 9

Recommended size range for:

Rising Main (150 mm-450 mm dia.) X

Rising Main (› 450 mm upto 800 mm dia.) X

Rising Main (› 800 mm upto 1,300 mm dia) X

Rising Main (› 1,300 mm dia) X

Gravity Main (80 mm – 250 mm dia) X

Gravity Main (› 250 mm upto 900 mm dia) X

Gravity Main (› 900 mm ) X



A-3 Cost Estimates - Kollam Sl. No

Item Heads Quantity Amount in Rs. Million

I CAPITAL & REHABILITATION INVESTMENT

A Land Acquisition B Civil Works 1 Head Works 2 Treatment Plant L.S 1 Sub-Total – B 1

C Transmission System (26 km) a) Supply of 750mm diameter DI pipes K9 and specials 26km 275 b) Earth work, Laying, Jointing and Testing of MS pipes in Km 26km 27.5 Sub-Total – C 302.5

D Service & Storage Reservoirs (Rectification of Reservoirs works) 3 Ml 16 E Rehabilitation and Strengthening of the existing Distribution System (60

km) Supply, Laying, Jointing and testing of DI/PVC/MDPE in Km 60km 48

F Miscellaneous Road Restoration Charges L.S 6 Improvements to the existing approach road for the transmission main L.S 3 Construction of two pipe carrying bridges along the transmission main L.S 15 Provision of anchor blocks and other special structures to protect the

transmission main L.S 1 Provision of air valves, scour valves and construction of valve chambers in

Transmission main and Distribution system L.S 1 Assessment of the Leak Detection. L.S 0.6 Rectification to Kavanadu Sump L.S 0.5 Sub-Total – F 27.1

G Electrical and Mechanical Works Alternative raw water source development - Pumpsets - 250HP in Nos. 4 14 At Clear Water - Treatment Plant pump sets - 200 HP in Nos. 2 6 Repair to the existing mechanical items of Treatment Units L.S 1 Improvements to the Electrical Installation L.S 1 Booster Pump Stations in four places in the city - 3 Nos. 50 HP, 3 Nos. 75

HP, 2 Nos. 75 HP and 2 Nos. 30 HP in Horse Power L.S 4.2 Repairs and upgradation of the existing electrical installation at the Booster

station inside the city L.S 1 Installation of bulk flow meters in transmission and primary distribution L.S 0.6 Chlorination arrangement improvements L.S 0.3 Sub-Total – G 28.1

H Vehicle and Other Equipment Flow and process monitoring instrumentation improvements at treatment

works L.S 0.5 Leak detection equipments L.S 0.5 Wireless equipments for communication L.S 0.5 Water management training L.S 0.5 Sub Total – H 2 Grand Total 424



Sl. No


II Annual Operation and Maintenance Expenditures Staff and Establishment L.S 20 Chemical and Consumables L.S 2 Electricity Charges L.S 25 Other Miscellaneous Expenditures (Repairs works, jeep charges,

inspection charges) 5

Total 52

Summary of Costs for Water Supply System and O&M Cost

Kollam Corporation Sl. No.

Item Heads

Rs. Million

1 System Augumentation Headworks and WTP n/a

2 System Augumentation Transmission n/a

3 System Augumentation Reservoirs n/a

4 System Augmentation Distribution System n/a

5 Rehabilitation of Headworks and WTP 24.4

6 Rehabilitation of transmission main 392

6 Rehabilitation of Distribution system 76.3

7 Miscellaneous 1.5

8 Total Capital Investment 494

9 Annual O & M 52 Note: Cost of pipes are based on KWA and market rates. For other items of works namely pipe laying works, cost of pump sets, S.R.rates,

cost are based on K.W.A. rates.



A-4 Cost Estimates - Kochi Sl. No


I CAPITAL & REHABILITATION INVESTMENT A Land Acquisition B Civil Works 1 Head Works a) Improvements and modifications at intake structure LS 2 2 Treatment Plant Modification in water treatment plant LS 1 Sub-Total - B 3

C Transmission System Mortar lining the CI transmission main from headworks to the town.1050

mm diameter /900 mm diameter CI pipes 37 km 82 Provision of anchor blocks and other special structures to protect the

transmission main LS 1 Sub-Total - C 83

D Service & Storage Reservoirs (Rectification of Reservoirs works) Nil E Rehabilitation and Strengthening of the existing Distribution System a) Mortar lining of the feeder mains-Ernakulam town 300 mm CI/1050

mm CI pipeline. 10 km 22 b) Replacement of deteriorated mains-Perumannur-Karuvelipadi

main, 700/600 mm PSC /MS main 1.5 km 1.5 15 c) Strengthening and replacement of distribution mains within the

Corporation limits 180 144 d) Replacement of 60,000 old service connections within the city 60,000 75 e) Provision of air valves , scour valves,and construction of valve

chambers in transmission main and distribution system LS 0.5 f) Assessment of the leak detection and rectification works LS 1 Sub Total E 257.5

F Electrical and Mechanical Works Replacement of pumping machinery at raw water/clear water and

associated E& M works 19 Nos 74 Replacement of pumping machineryand associated E& M works at

distribution system 12 30 Sub Total F 104

G Vehicle and other equipment a) Instrumentation facilities at treatment works site LS 1 b) Leak Detection Equipments LS 0.8 c) Wireless equipments for communication LS 0.8 Sub Total G 2.6

H Miscellaneous a) Technical assistance LS 25 b) Institution Strengthening LS 5 Sub Total H 30 Total 480



Sl. No

Annual Operation and Maintenance Expenditures Quantity Amount in Rs million

a. Staff and Establishment 25

b. Chemicals and Consumables 6

c. Electricity Charges 150

d. Other Miscellaneous Expenditures(Repairs works, Jeep charges,inspection charges 8

Total 189

Water Supply System and O&M Cost

Sl. No

Item Heads Kochi Corporation (Rs. Million)

1 System Augmentation Headworks and WTP

2 System AugmentationTransmission

3 System Augmentation Reservoirs

4 System Augmentation Distribution System

5 Rehabilitation of Head works and WTP 3

6 Rehabilitation of pumping Machinery 104

7 Rehabilitation of Transmission main 83

8 Rehabilitation of Distribution system 257

9 Miscellaneous item 33

10 Total capital Investment 480 Note: The Cost of the Pipes has been arrived at based on the KWA rates. Regarding the labour rates for various items of works have been

derived based on the past sanctioned estimates of KWA. For rest of the items Lumpsum Provisions have been made.



A-5 Cost Estimates - Thrissur Sl. No


I CAPITAL & REHABILITATION INVESTMENT

A Land Acquisition

Sub-Total - A

B Civil Works

1 Head Works - interconnection works to the new treatment plant

2 Treatment Plant

a) Improvements to the existing treatment plant 0.5

3 Transmission System(18.5 km)

a) Supply of DI pipes 900mm/700mm DI K7 pipes and specials 18.5km 164 b) Earth work, Laying, Jointing and Testing of DI pipes in Km 18.5km 16.4 c) Supply of 600mm CI pipes class LA and CI specials in km 10km 101

d) Earthwork laying jointing and testing of CI pipes to Vilvattom sump from the main transmission main for transmitting 15mld of water 10km 10.1

e) Supply of 600mm CI LA class pipes?500mm CI LA class pipes including specials 9km 85.8

f) Earthwork,laying, jointing, and testing of CI pipe to convey water to Olari sump 9km 8.58

4 Service & Storage Reservoirs (Rectification of Reservoirs works) 1ml 5

5 Rehabilitation and Strengthening of the existing Distribution System (75 km) @ Rs.8lakhs/km

Supply, Laying, Jointing and testing of CI/AC/PVC in Km 75km 60

6 Miscellaneous

Road Restoration Charges B.T.charges @ Rs 440/m2 and Rs 228/m2 L.S 7.5

Construction of pipe bridge 5

Railway crossing 5

Provision of anchor blocks and other special structures to protect the transmission main

1

Provision of air valves, scour valves and Construction of valve chambers in Transmission main and Distribution system

0.5

Assessment of the Leak Detection & Rectification works 0.6

Sub-Total – B 470.98



Sl. No


C Electrical and Mechanical Works

1 Installation of Raw water pump sets 5

Sub-Total - C

D Vehicle and Other Equipment

1 Instrumentation facilities at treatment worksite 0.5

2 Leak detection equipments 0.5

3 Wireless equipments for communication 0.5

Sub Total - D

Grand Total 477.48

Total Capital & Rehabilitation Investment

II Annual Operation and Maintenance Expenditures

a. Staff and Establishment 5

b. Chemical and Consumables 3

c. Electricity Charges 12

d. Other Miscellaneous Expenditures (Repairs works, jeep charges, inspection charges) 5

Total 25

Note: The above figures do not include the maintenance charges incurred by the Corporation Authorities.

Water Supply System and O&M Cost

Sl. No

Item Heads Thrissur Corporation (Rs. Million)

1 System Augumentation Transmission

2 System Augumentation Reservoirs 5

3 System Augmentation Distribution System

4 Rehabilitation of Headworks and WTP 0.5

5 Rehabilitation of transmission main 385

6 Rehabilitation of Distribution system 60

7 Miscellaneous 26

8 Total Capital Investment 476.5

9 Annual O & M 25 Note: The Cost of the Pipes has been arrived at based on the KWA rates. Regarding the labour rates for various items of works have been

derived based on the past sanctioned estimates of KWA. For rest of the items Lumpsum Provisions have been made.

Documents

Government of Kerala Local Self Government Department Comparative Study on Selection of Water Supply Pipe Materials 1 A-3 Cost Estimates - Kollam 1 A-4 Cost Estimates - Kochi 1 A-5