34

Your Heritage When you go to sleep tonight,you may take for granted that government officialswill not break in to perform an unreasonable searchof your house. The security provided by governmentand the protection from government are a heritageof the period you will study in Chapter 2.

To learn more about the federal government and its origins, view the

Democracy in Action Chapter 2 video lesson:

The Creation of the Federal Government

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web siteat gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter2—Overview to preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:27 AM Page 34

Every year thousands of foreign and Amer-ican tourists flock to Virginia to visit theremains of Jamestown, the first perma-nent English settlement in North America.

Crumbling foundations and the ruins of the oldchurch tower mark the site of the originalJamestown, founded in 1607. The decaying brickand mortar offer a striking contrast to the endur-ing principles of self-government inherited fromthe English colonists. This legacy of self-govern-ment enables Americans today to voice their opin-ions without fear of reprisal, to choose theirleaders, and to take an active role in shaping thenation and communities in which they live.

An English Political HeritageDuring the 1600s people from many re-gions, such as Spain, France, Germany,

Sweden, and West Africa, came to North America.Most colonists, however, came from England. Itwas the English who established and governed theoriginal thirteen colonies along the Atlantic coast.

The English colonists brought ideas aboutgovernment that had been developing in Englandfor centuries. They also noticed that some ofthese ideas were embodied by existing governingsystems in North America, such as the IroquoisLeague, a union of five Native American groups.At the heart of the English system were two prin-ciples of government. These principles—limitedgovernment and representative government—greatly influenced the development of the United States.

Limited Government By the time the firstcolonists reached North America, the idea thatgovernment was not all-powerful had becomean accepted part of the English system. The ideafirst appeared in the Magna Carta,1 or Great

The Colonial PeriodS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Law and OrderJAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA, 1611

New governor Sir Thomas

Dale, recently arrived

from England, has an-

nounced a sweeping set of

laws for the colony. Called the

“Laws Divine, Morall, and

Martial,” the new rules are

likely to change life here.

Each resident will be assigned

specific duties. Refusal to co-

operate will be dealt with se-

verely. First offenders will be forced to lie down with

neck and heels together for one night. Repeat viola-

tors will be whipped. A third offense will result in

enslavement aboard a convict ship for a period of

one year. Authorities expect the new laws to bring

order and prosperity to the colony.

Sir Thomas Dale

35

Reader’s Guide

Key Termslimited government, representative government,separation of powers

Find Out ■ What events of the early American colonial expe-

rience led colonists to believe they would haverepresentative government?

■ In what ways were the American colonies demo-cratic? In what ways were they not democratic?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy What elements of the English political heritage helped develop represen-tative governments in the American colonies?

The Signing of the Declaration of Independence (detail) by John Trumbull, 1824▲

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Magna Carta, page 802.

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:27 AM Page 35

Charter, that King John was forced to sign in 1215.The Magna Carta provided the basis for the principleof limited government, in which the power of themonarch, or government, was limited, not absolute.Later generations interpreted this document asproviding protection against unjust punishment andthe loss of life, liberty, and property except accordingto law. The charter also stated that certain taxes couldnot be levied without popular consent.

The rights in the Magna Carta originally appliedonly to the nobility. Over time, however, opponentsof absolute monarchy used the precedent set bythis document to gain more political liberties andsupport for the idea of constitutional government.

Petition of Right While Parliament main-tained some influence, strong monarchs dominat-ed England for centuries. In 1625 Charles I tookthe throne. He dissolved Parliament, lodged troopsin private homes, and placed some areas undermartial law. When he called Parliament back intosession in 1628, the representatives forced the kingto sign the Petition of Right, severely limiting theking’s power. No longer could the Englishmonarch collect taxes without Parliament’s

consent, imprison people without just cause,house troops in private homes without the per-mission of the owner, or declare martial law unlessthe country was at war.

English Bill of Rights In 1688 Parliament re-moved James II from the throne and crownedWilliam III and Mary II. This peaceful transfer ofpower was called the Glorious Revolution. Williamand Mary swore an oath to govern England ac-cording to the “statutes in Parliament agreed upon,and the laws and customs of the same.” Parliamentalso passed the English Bill of Rights, a documentthat would later be very important to the Ameri-can colonies.

The English Bill of Rights set clear limits onwhat a ruler could and could not do. It appliedto the American colonists—who were Englishsubjects—as well as to the people in England.Incorporating elements from the Magna Carta, thekey ideas of the English Bill of Rights included:(1) Monarchs do not have absolute authority. Theyrule with the consent of the people’s representa-tives in Parliament. (2) The monarch must have Parliament’s consent to suspend laws, levy taxes, or

36 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

One reason for the War for In-dependence was that Britainwas depriving the colonists,

who were British citizens, of repre-sentation. By being represented insome of the various organizationsin your community, you can provideinput to these organizations from astudent’s perspective. Organiza-tions such as crime patrols, com-munity development groups, youthassociations, environmentalgroups, and volunteer organizationshold regular committee meetingsthat make decisions that affectyou. What can you do to be repre-sented in these organizations?

Activity1. Call your chamber of commerce

or local government offices andask for a listing of such organiza-tions mentioned.

2. After you have decided on anissue and a committee that in-terests you, ask to become apart of the committee. You aremore likely to serve as a studentadviser than as a voting mem-ber. As an adviser, though, youwill still have the ability to influ-ence decisions and to provideideas for the future plans of thecommittee.

3. Attend meetings and ask ques-tions when there are issues thatyou do not understand. Providesuggestions for getting thingsdone.

Being Represented

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

Participating in their community

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:28 AM Page 36

Locke reasoned that in a state ofnature (before governments were formed), allpeople were born free, equal, and independent. Hebelieved that the laws of nature, or “natural law,”provided rights to life, liberty, and property. Lockeargued that if a government failed to protect thesenatural rights, the people could change that gov-ernment (social contract theory).

Such political philosophy was revolutionaryin an age when monarchs still claimed they hadGod-given absolute powers. Locke, Voltaire, andRousseau denied that people were born with an obligation to obey their rulers. Rather, in his “Second Treatise of Government,” Locke insisted that:

maintain an army. (3) The monarchcannot interfere with parliamentaryelections and debates. (4) The peoplehave a right to petition the govern-ment and to have a fair and speedytrial by a jury of their peers. (5) Thepeople should not be subject to crueland unusual punishments or to ex-cessive fines and bail.

The colonists in North Americashared a belief in these rights with thepeople of England. In fact, a majorcause of the American Revolutionwas that the colonists felt they werebeing deprived of these basic rights.

Representative GovernmentThe colonists had a firm belief inrepresentative government, a gov-ernment in which people elect dele-gates to make laws and conductgovernment. The English Parliamentwas a representative assembly withthe power to enact laws. It consistedof an upper chamber and a lowerchamber. The upper chamber, calledthe House of Lords, included mem-bers of the aristocracy. The lowerchamber, called the House of Com-mons, included commoners—most-ly merchants or property ownerselected by other property owners.American legislatures grew out of theEnglish practice of representation.

New Political Ideas The ideas and writingsof seventeenth-century English philosophers deeplyinfluenced the American colonists. John Locke,Voltaire, and Jean Jacques Rousseau believed thatpeople should contract among themselves to formgovernments to protect their natural rights.Locke spelled out his political ideas in Two Treatisesof Government,1 first published in 1690. Hiswritings were widely read and discussed in both Europe and America. Colonial leaders such asBenjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and JamesMadison regarded these ideas as political truth.

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 37

The House of Burgesses was the first elected lawmakingbody in the English colonies. The royal governor of Jamestown,Sir George Yeardley, allowed the men ofthe colony to elect representatives to theassembly.

This report of the Virginia General Assembly contains a partial list of the22 men who hoped to be elected toserve as burgesses. The burgessesmade local laws for the colony.

Growth of Democracy What aspects of the English govern-ment influenced the creation of the House of Burgesses?

▲

▲

Beginnings of Representative Government in America

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Two Treatises of Government, page 806.

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:28 AM Page 37

Government, then, was legi-timate only as long as people continued to consent to it. TheDeclaration of Independence, theConstitution, and the ideas behindthe French Revolution all reflectedthis philosophy.

Government in the Colonies

The English founded thir-teen colonies along the east-

ern coast of North America between1607 and 1733. From these coloniesthe present system of Americangovernment evolved. Each Englishcolony had its own governmentconsisting of a governor, a legisla-ture, and a court system. Neverthe-less, the British believed that allcolonists owed allegiance to themonarch. For many years thecolonists agreed.

Democracy grew rapidly in allthe colonies, but it did not yet existin its current form. Women and en-slaved persons could not vote, andevery colony had some type ofproperty qualification for voting.Nine of the thirteen colonies had anofficial or established church, andmany colonists remained intolerantof religious dissent. In Puritan townmeetings, for example, voting wasoriginally reserved for members ofthe community church.

Despite such shortcomings, thecolonial governments did in factestablish practices that became akey part of the nation’s system of

government. Chief among these practices were(1) a written constitution that guaranteed basicliberties and limited the power of government;(2) a legislature of elected representatives; and (3)the separation of powers between the governor(the chief executive) and the legislature. Todaythe United States government embodies each ofthese practices.

38 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Virginia, settled in 1607, was the first English colony in America. Georgia was the last, in 1733. How were the governments of these colonies similar?

Critical Thinking

Jamestown

NORTHCAROLINA

SOUTHCAROLINA

GEORGIA

Hartford

Philadelphia

PENNSYLVANIA

VIRGINIA

NEWYORK

NEWJERSEY

DELAWARE

CONNECTICUT

MARYLAND

Plymouth

NEWHAMPSHIRE

RHODEISLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

AtlanticOcean

200 kilometers0

200 miles0

New EnglandColonies

MiddleColonies

SouthernColonies

N

Mayflower Compact, 1620

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1639

Declaration of Independence, 1776

U.S. Constitution, 1789

House of Burgesses, 1619

The Thirteen ColoniesThe Thirteen Colonies

“ Freedom of [people] under government isto have a standing rule to live by . . . madeby the legislative power vested in it; a lib-erty to follow [one’s] own will in all things,when the rule prescribes not, and not to be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, un-known, arbitrary will of another. . . .”—John Locke, 1690

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:29 AM Page 38

Written Constitutions A key feature of thecolonial period was government according to awritten plan. The Mayflower Compact1 that thePilgrims signed in 1620 stands as the first exampleof many colonial plans for self-government.

Forty-one men, representing all the Pilgrimfamilies, drew up the Mayflower Compact in thetiny cabin of their ship, the Mayflower, anchoredoff the New England coast. The Pilgrim leaders re-alized they needed rules to govern themselves ifthey were to survive in the new land. Through theMayflower Compact, they agreed to:

“Solemnly and mutually in the Presence ofGod and one of another, covenant [pledge]and combine ourselves together into aBody Politick, for our better Ordering andPreservation and Furtherance of the Endsaforesaid. . . .”—The Mayflower Compact, 1620

The Pilgrims also agreed to choose their ownleaders and to make their own laws, which theywould design for their own benefit.

Beginning in 1629, new Puritanimmigrants settled nearby. Massachu-setts Bay added many towns to theoriginal Plymouth settlement. In 1636the colony adopted the Great Funda-mentals, the first basic system of lawsin the English colonies.

In 1639 Puritans who had left theMassachusetts Bay Colony to colonizeConnecticut drew up America’s firstformal constitution, or charter, calledthe Fundamental Orders of Con-necticut.2 This document laid out aplan for government that gave the peo-ple the right to elect the governor, judges,and representatives to make laws.

Soon after, other English coloniesbegan drawing up their own charters.These documents established a systemof limited government and rule by lawin each of the colonies.

Colonial Legislatures Representative assem-blies also became firmly established in the colonies.The Virginia House of Burgesses, the first legisla-ture in America, was established in 1619, only 12years after the settlement of Jamestown. Farthernorth, the colonists’ religious beliefs played animportant role in the development of representa-tive assemblies. In England, the king appointed the leaders of the Church of England. Puritansrejected this idea. They believed that the membersof each congregation should choose their ownministers and leaders. Many Puritans migrated toAmerica to gain the freedom to organize theirchurches as they chose. As Puritan congrega-tions gained experience in electing their churchleaders and local town officials, they came tobelieve that church members should also elect the colony’s government. In 1636 Puritans inMassachusetts forced their leaders to reorganizethe government so that each town elected two rep-resentatives to the General Court, the colony’s leg-islative assembly. By the mid-1700s most coloniallegislatures had been operating for more than 100

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 39

Political Processes Tompkins H. Matteson painted Signingthe Compact on Board the Mayflower. In the compact thePilgrims pledged to obey the laws passed “for the general goodof the colony.” Why did the colonists feel they needed to draw up the Mayflower Compact?

Forming a Government

See the following footnoted materials in theReference Handbook:1. Mayflower Compact, page 804. 2. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut,

page 805.

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:29 AM Page 39

years. As a result, representative government wasan established tradition in America well before thecolonists declared their independence from GreatBritain in 1776.

These legislatures dominated colonial govern-ment. The rapidly growing colonies constantlyneeded new laws to cope with new circumstances.

For example, they had to control the distributionof land and construct public buildings and facili-ties such as roads, ferries, and wharves. Thecolonies also had to establish new towns, schools,and civil and criminal courts.

Colonial legislatures were examples of theconsent of the governed because a large number ofqualified men voted. Although there were proper-ty qualifications for voting, land was abundant andmost colonists could afford property.

Separation of Powers Colonial charters divided the power of government. The governor,the king’s agent in the colonies, had executivepower. Colonial legislatures had the power to pass laws, and colonial courts heard cases. Thisprinciple of separation of powers was widelypopularized in Charles-Louis Montesquieu’s TheSpirit of Laws and was later vital to the UnitedStates Constitution. Though colonial legislaturesand courts could be reviewed by a committee ofthe king’s Privy Council, the colonies practicedconsiderable self-government.

Colonial legislatures became the politicaltraining grounds for the leaders who later wouldwrite the Constitution. Many of these leaders wereactive in politics and had served in colonial legisla-tures. Thus, the combination of their English her-itage and colonial experience in representativeself-government made them leaders in what onehistorian called “the seedtime of the republic.”

Growth of Democracy Review the key ideas of the English Bill of Rights outlined on pages36 and 37. Write an essay explaining whichrights granted in the English Bill of Rights arethe most important today. Include reasons for your opinion.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to

the one below, list three practices that were established by colonial governments and becamea key part of the nation’s system of government.

2. Define limited government, representative government, separation of powers.

3. Identify Magna Carta, Petition of Right, English Bill of Rights, Mayflower Compact, Great Fundamentals.

4. Analyze John Locke’s natural law argument as itapplies to the social contract theory.

Critical Thinking5. Identifying Central Issues The idea of limited

government, first established by the MagnaCarta, is an important principle of American government. Why must government be limited?

Sect ion 1 Assessment

40 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Sect ion 1 Assessment

Key Practices of American Government

Best Bird The bald eagle became ournational bird in 1782. What did this raptorhave going for it? The bird is native to theUnited States, and to the Founders itsymbolized courage, strength, freedom, andimmortality. Benjamin Franklin,however, disagreed with the other Founders. He thought the bald eagle was too aggressive and preferred the turkey. After a six-year debate, Franklin was outvoted, which no doubt ruffled his feathers.

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:29 AM Page 40

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 41

toto

SHOULD SONG LYRICS BEPROTECTED BY THE FIRSTAMENDMENT?

PROTECTED AND UNPROTECTED SPEECH

The Supreme Court has generally agreed thatthe right of free speech should be balanced againstthe needs of society. Therefore, some forms ofspeech are not given constitutional protection.Defamatory speech, obscene speech, as well asseditious speech, or speech that provokes acts ofviolence fall outside First Amendment protection.

SOCIAL CONCERNS VS. ARTISTIC EXPRESSION

Parent groups, community leaders, and policeorganizations are voicing their disapproval of somekinds of music. They argue that lyrics condoningmurder and degrading women give listeners the im-pression that this behavior is acceptable in our soci-ety. Critics point to examples of violence and druguse associated with the performers as evidencethat this type of music affects behavior.

Take on the role of a concerned parent of ateenager. You could influence your congressionalrepresentative to vote for more controls over musi-cal content, or for more freedom of expression inthe music industry.

KEY ISSUES✔Does society’s need to maintain order outweighthe right for artistic expression, if the art promotes

violence or defames a portion of our population?✔Are there dangers in limiting artistic expression?

Debate Allow time for students on both sides of theissue to prepare speeches to be presented to theclass. Debate the issue in class.

Vote Make your own personal decision. As a class,vote on the issue and record the results.

Debating the IssueDebating the Issue

DO YOU THINK SONG LYRICS SHOULD BE PROTECTED BY THEFIRST AMENDMENT DESPITE THEIR CONTENT?

Some radiostations havevoluntarilystopped playingthe most contro-versial music.Congressionalhearings havebeen held to listen to recommendations that range from puttingparent advisory labels on music to establishing arating system like the one used for movies. Somerecord companies are now producing two versionsof songs with offensive lyrics—a “radio” version anda “street” version.

Many people, however, are reluctant to ask for government involvement for fear of treading onFirst Amendment rights. Although the music maybe unacceptable to them, they do not think itshould be subject to censorship.

Some people claim that rock music glamorizes destructive behavior. Critics of rockmusic say that it encourages violence. Some people want to protect minors from

being exposed to the messages these types of songs convey.

034-041 CH02S1-860053 12/1/04 1:29 AM Page 41

Until the mid-1700s Great Britain had al-lowed its colonies across the Atlantic todevelop politically on their own. By the1760s, however, things had begun to

change dramatically as the British government felta need to tighten its control over the colonies.

The Colonies on Their OwnAs British subjects, the colonists in NorthAmerica owed allegiance to the monarch

and the British government. As with other parts ofthe British empire, the colonies were supposed toserve as a source of raw materials and a market forBritish goods. Thus, in the eyes of the Britishcrown, the American colonies existed for the eco-nomic benefit of Great Britain.

In practice, during the 150 years following thesettling of Jamestown in 1607, the colonies inAmerica did pretty much as they pleased. Thecolonies were more than 3,000 miles (5,556 km)from Great Britain. Orders from the monarchtook two months or more to cross the Atlantic. Inaddition, only the colonial legislatures were actu-ally in a position to deal with the everyday prob-lems facing the colonies. As a result, the colonistsgrew accustomed to governing themselvesthrough their representatives.

Until the mid-1700s the British governmentwas generally satisfied with this arrangement. TheBritish needed the colonists’ loyalty to counterthe threat of the French in Canada. The colonistsremained loyal in return for a large measure ofself-rule and protection from the French.

Britain Tightens Control Two eventsdrastically changed the easy relationship be-tween the colonies and Britain. First, the Frenchand Indian War, fought between 1754 and1763, solidified Britain’s hold on the continent.Second, George III, who became king in 1760,had different ideas about how the coloniesshould be governed.

Uniting for IndependenceS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

British Battle MilitiasBOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, APRIL 1775

Aforce ordered to de-

stroy the supplies of

self-styled patriot militias

and to arrest two of their

leaders met armed resis-

tance outside the city early

today. About 700 British

troops scattered some 70

militia members, called

Minute Men, who had

gathered in the town of

Lexington. The troops then

marched on to Concord. Later, fighting broke out

with another militia unit at North Concord Bridge.

As the troops returned to Boston, they came under

attack from more militia groups before reaching the

safety of the city. Losses totaled 73 dead and 174

wounded. Rebel casualties were set at 95.

Drum used at Lexington

42 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsrevenue, embargo

Find Out■ What factors caused the British to allow the

colonists to operate with little interference between 1607 and 1763?

■ Why were the colonists and the British unable to compromise and settle their differences?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy How did the colonial experience during the dispute with Britain help shape American ideals of constitutionaldemocracy?

042-047 CH02S2-860053 12/1/04 1:30 AM Page 42

The French and Indian War started as a strug-gle between the French and British over lands inwestern Pennsylvania and Ohio. By 1756 severalother European countries had become involved aswell. Great Britain eventually won the war in 1763and gained complete control of the eastern third ofthe continent.

The defeat of France in America meant theAmerican colonists no longer needed the British toprotect them from the French. The war, however,left the British government with a large war debtthat the British expected the colonies to help repay.

Taxing the Colonies When he took thethrone, George III was determined to deal morefirmly with the American colonies. To help pay forthe war, the king and his ministers levied taxes ontea, sugar, glass, paper, and other products. TheStamp Act of 1765 imposed the first direct tax onthe colonists. It required them to pay a tax on legaldocuments, pamphlets, newspapers, and even dice

and playing cards. Parliament also passed laws tocontrol colonial trade in ways that benefited GreatBritain but not the colonies.

Britain’s revenue—the money a governmentcollects from taxes or other sources—from thecolonies increased. Colonial resentment, however,grew along with the revenues. Political protestsbegan to spread throughout the colonies.Colonists refused to buy British goods. This moveled to the repeal of the Stamp Act, but the Britishpassed other tax laws to replace it. In 1773 a groupof colonists, dressed as Mohawk, dumped 342chests of British tea into Boston Harbor. Thisprotest against further taxes on tea became knownas the Boston Tea Party.

In retaliation Parliament passed the CoerciveActs, which the colonists called the IntolerableActs. One of these acts closed Boston Harbor.Another withdrew the right of the Massachusettscolony to govern itself. By the early 1770s, eventsclearly showed that revolution was not far off.

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 43

The Signers ofthe Declaration

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference “With a firm relianceon the protection ofdivine Providence,

we mutually pledge to each otherour lives, our fortunes, and oursacred honor.” With these finalwords, the signers of the Declara-tion of Independence launchedtheir nation’s bid for freedom. Formany who signed the Declaration,achieving that goal came at greatpersonal cost.

Four of the signers—EdwardRutledge, George Walton, ArthurMiddleton, and ThomasHeyward—were taken prisonerwhile fighting in South Carolinaand held for nearly a year. RichardStockton of New Jersey was takenprisoner, beaten, and held for sev-eral years. His health ruined, hedied soon after being released.

The New York home of signerFrancis Lewis was plundered, andhis wife was taken prisoner. Badly

mistreated, she died less than twoyears after her release. WilliamFloyd of New York was forced toflee with his family after theBritish occupied his home. Heremained a refugee for sevenyears, living on the charity offriends. Altogether, the homes of14 signers were invaded, theirproperty destroyed, and theirfamilies forced to flee.

Carter Braxton of Virginia lostthe merchant ships he owned toBritish naval attacks. RobertMorris of Pennsylvania used alarge portion of his own wealth tokeep American troops in the field.

Although only Robert Stocktonappears to have lost his life as adirect result of the war, it is clearthat all of the signers were willingto risk everything in support ofthe Revolutionary War. Withouttheir courage, independencecould not have been achieved.

042-047 CH02S2-860053 12/1/04 1:30 AM Page 43

Colonial UnityBefore the mid-1770s most coloniststhought of themselves as British subjects. At

the same time, each of the colonies developedlargely on its own. Thus, most colonists alsothought of themselves as Virginians or New York-ers or Georgians. Indeed, early attempts to bringthe colonies together had failed.

Responding to French attacks on the frontier,in 1754 Benjamin Franklin had proposed an inno-vative plan for uniting the colonies—the AlbanyPlan of Union. The colonies rejected the plan,however, because it gave too much power to an as-sembly made up of representatives from all thir-teen colonies.

By the 1760s the harsh new British policiesspurred an American sense of community. A grow-ing number of colonists began to think of them-selves as Americans united by their hostility toBritish authority. At the same time, colonial lead-ers began to take political action against what theyfelt was British oppression.

Taking Action In 1765 nine colonies sent dele-gates to a meeting in New York called the StampAct Congress. This was the first meeting organizedby the colonies to protest King George’s actions.Delegates to the Congress sent a petition to theking, arguing that only colonial legislatures could

impose direct taxes such as theStamp Tax.

By 1773 organizations calledcommittees of correspon-dence were urging resistanceto the British. These commit-tees consisted of colonistswho wanted to keep in touchwith one another as events unfolded. Samuel Adams es-tablished the first committeein Boston. The idea spreadquickly, and within a fewmonths, Massachusetts alonehad more than 80 such com-mittees. Virginia and othercolonies soon joined in thiscommunication network.

The First Continental Congress The In-tolerable Acts prompted Virginia and Massachu-setts to call a general meeting of the colonies.Delegates from all the colonies except Georgia metin Philadelphia on September 5, 1774, for the FirstContinental Congress. Key colonial leaders such asPatrick Henry, Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee,and George Washington attended.

The delegates debated what to do about the re-lationship with Great Britain. They finally im-posed an embargo, an agreement prohibitingtrade, on Britain, and agreed not to use Britishgoods. They also proposed a meeting the followingyear if Britain did not change its policies.

Events then moved quickly. The British adopt-ed stronger measures. “The New England govern-ments are in a state of rebellion,” George III firmlyannounced. “Blows must decide whether they areto be subject to this country or independent.”

The first blow fell early on the morning ofApril 19, 1775. British Redcoats clashed with colo-nial minutemen at Lexington and Concord inMassachusetts. This clash, later called the “shotheard ’round the world,” was the first battle of theRevolutionary War.

The Second Continental Congress With-in three weeks, delegates from all thirteen coloniesgathered in Philadelphia for the Second Continen-tal Congress. This Congress assumed the powers ofa central government. It chose John Hancock as

44 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Civic Rights New British lawscaused discontent among colonistswho believed their civic rights werebeing denied. Which civic rightsdo you think Britain denied thecolonists?

George III’s crown—a symbol of authority

Teapot—a symbol of resistance

Growing Distrust

042-047 CH02S2-860053 12/1/04 1:31 AM Page 44

president, voted to organize an army and navy andto issue money, and made George Washingtoncommander of a newly organizing ContinentalArmy.

Although it had no constitutional authority,the Second Continental Congress served as the act-ing government of the colonies throughout thewar. It purchased supplies, negotiated treaties, andrallied support for the colonists’ cause.

IndependenceAs the Congress set to work, the indepen-dence movement was growing rapidly. A

brilliant pamphlet titled Common Sense, written by

Thomas Paine, influenced many colonists. Paine, aonetime British corset-maker, argued that monar-chy was a corrupt form of government and thatGeorge III was an enemy to liberty:

“First, the powers of governing still remain-ing in the hands of the king, he will have anegative over the whole legislation on thiscontinent. And as he has shown himselfsuch an inveterate enemy to liberty anddiscovered such a thirst for arbitrarypower, is he, or is he not, a proper personto say to these colonies, ‘You shall make nolaws but what I please!’”—Thomas Paine

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 45

The desire to operate a government independent of outside influence is common around the world. Which nations have gained their independence since 1950?

Independence Days Independence Days Around the WorldAround the WorldIndependence Days Around the World

Critical Thinking

Source: CIA, The World Factbook 2002 (Washington, D.C.: 2002).

Indonesia August 17, 1945

IsraelMay 14, 1948

South Africa May 31, 1910

Brazil September 7, 1822

Peru July 28, 1821

Chile September 18, 1810

United States July 4, 1776

Dominican Republic February 27, 1844

Ireland December 6, 1921

Ukraine August 24, 1991

CubaDecember 10, 1898

MexicoSeptember 16, 1810Nicaragua

September 15, 1821

Nigeria October 1, 1960

Libya December 24, 1951

Vietnam September 2, 1945

India August 15, 1947

NORTH AMERICA

EUROPE

AFRICA

CENTRAL AMERICA

SOUTH AMERICA

ASIA

MIDDLE EAST

COMPARING GovernmentsCOMPARING Governments

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The views of patriotSamuel Adams also influencedthe colonists. Adams asked, “Isnot America already independent? Why not thendeclare it?” In June 1776, more than a year afterfighting had begun in the colonies, Richard HenryLee of Virginia did just that. Lee introduced a res-olution in the Continental Congress “[t]hat theseUnited Colonies are, and of right ought to be, freeand independent states.”

The Declaration of Independence AfterLee’s resolution, the Congress promptly named acommittee composed of John Adams, BenjaminFranklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston, andRoger Sherman to prepare a written declarationof independence. The committee asked ThomasJefferson, a Virginia planter known for his writingskills, to write the draft. On June 28 the committeesubmitted the edited draft to the Congress.

On July 2, 1776, the Congress approvedLee’s resolution. The colonies had officially brokenwith Great Britain. The Congress then turnedits attention to Jefferson’s draft. After considerabledebate, a few passages were removed and someeditorial changes were made. On July 4 the Con-gress approved the final draft of the Declaration ofIndependence. John Hancock, the president of the

Congress, was thefirst to sign thedocument, which

eventually held the signatures of all 56 delegates. Astatement of the reasons for independence, thedocument’s actual title was “The unanimous Dec-laration of the thirteen united States of America.”

Key Parts of the Declaration The AmericanDeclaration of Independence1 is one of the mostfamous documents in history. In writing the docu-ment Jefferson drew together the ideas of thinkerssuch as Locke and others to set out the colonies’reasons for proclaiming their freedom. The pur-pose of the Declaration was to justify the revolu-tion and to put forth the founding principles of thenew nation. Jefferson later wrote:

“I did not consider it any part of my chargeto invent new ideas, but to place beforemankind the common sense of the subjectin terms so plain and firm as to commandtheir assent. . . . It was intended to be anexpression of the American mind.”—Thomas Jefferson

46 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Growth of Democracy InPulling Down the Statue of GeorgeIII, William Walcutt depicted Ameri-cans celebrating their indepen-dence by tearing down the statueof King George III in New York onJuly 9, 1776. The statue was latermelted down into bullets to beused against the king’s troops.Why was the Declaration of Independence revolutionary?

Ready for Independence

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Declaration of Independence, pages 770–773.

Lap desk Jefferson usedto draft the Declarationof Independence

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The revolutionary document stirred the heartsof the American people. No government at the timehad been founded on the principles of human lib-erty and consent of the governed. The Declarationwon praise the world over and influenced theFrench Revolution of 1789. Over the years manynations, particularly in Latin America, have used itas a model in their own efforts to gain freedom.

The Declaration has three parts. It begins witha statement of purpose and basic human rights:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident,that all men are created equal, that theyare endowed by their Creator with certainunalienable Rights, that among these areLife, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.That to secure these rights, Governmentsare instituted among Men, deriving theirjust powers from the consent of the governed. . . .”The middle section of the Declaration lists

specific complaints against George III. Each itemdescribes a violation of the colonists’ political, civil,and economic liberties. These paragraphs were de-signed to justify the break with Great Britain.

The conclusion states the colonists’ determi-nation to separate from Great Britain. Their effortsto reach a peaceful solution to their problems hadfailed, leaving them no choice but to declare theirfreedom.

The First State Constitutions The Decla-ration of Independence recognized the changestaking place in the colonies. One of the most im-portant of these was the transformation of thecolonies into states subject to no higher authority.Thus, the states saw themselves as “states” in thesense in which this term is used in Chapter 1.

About two months before the Declaration ofIndependence, the Second Continental Congresshad instructed each of the colonies to form “suchgovernments as shall . . . best conduce [lead] to thehappiness and safety of their constituents.” By theend of 1776, 10 states had adopted written consti-tutions. Within a few years every former colonyhad a new constitution or had converted the oldcolonial charters into state constitutions.

Most of the new constitutions contained a billof rights defining the personal liberties of citizens.All recognized the people as the sole source ofauthority in a limited government with only thosepowers given by the people.

Sect ion 2 AssessmentSect ion 2 AssessmentSect ion 2 AssessmentSect ion 2 Assessment

Growth of Democracy The right of people tocomplain to the government is one of the fun-damental American rights. Identify a recentgovernment action or policy with which you dis-agree. Decide on a protest method that wouldbe an effective way for you to express yourfeelings about the issue. Support your methodin the form of a letter to the editor.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to the

one below, identify the series of events that ledthe colonies to declare their independence.

2. Define revenue, embargo.3. Identify Stamp Act, Intolerable Acts, Albany Plan

of Union.4. What actions did George III take to make the

Americans pay for the French and Indian War?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing Information Why did Jefferson’s

principles and ideas in the Declaration ofIndependence support separation from England?

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 47

Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 2–StudentWeb Activities for an activity about uniting forindependence.

GOVERNMENT

Declaration ofIndependence

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When Richard Henry Lee proposed hisresolution for independence in June1776, he also proposed that a “planfor confederation” be prepared for

the colonies. In 1777 a committee appointed byCongress presented a plan called the Articles ofConfederation.1 The Articles basically continuedthe structure and operation of government as es-tablished under the Second Continental Congress.The states wanted a confederation, or “league offriendship,” among the 13 independent statesrather than a strong national government. ByMarch 1781, all 13 states had ratified, or approved,the Articles of Confederation.

Government Under the ArticlesUnder the Articles, the plan for the centralgovernment was simple. It included a

unicameral, or single-chamber, Congress fromwhich executive positions were chosen. A Com-mittee of the States made up of one delegate fromeach state managed the government when Con-gress was not assembled. There was no federalcourt system. Congress settled disputes amongstates. Each state had one vote in Congress, no mat-ter what its size or population. Every state legisla-ture selected its own representatives to Congress,paid them, and could recall them at any time.

Congress had only those powers expressed inthe Articles. All other powers remained with theindependent states. Congressional powers includ-ed the powers to: (1) make war and peace; (2)send and receive ambassadors; (3) enter intotreaties; (4) raise and equip a navy; (5) maintainan army by requesting troops from the states; (6)appoint senior military officers; (7) fix standardsof weights and measures; (8) regulate Indian af-fairs; (9) establish post offices; and (10) decidecertain disputes among the states.

The Articles of ConfederationS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Congress Flees CapitalPHILADELPHIA, JUNE 1783

Acontingent of unpaid and

unhappy soldiers from the

recently disbanded Continental

Army demonstrated outside the

statehouse this week. The pro-

testers shouted curses and

threats at the Confederation

Congress, which was meeting

inside. Some poked their bayo-

nets through the windows of the

meeting chambers. The legisla-

tors are said to be extreme-

ly frightened. Congress has

asked the state for protec-

tion, but Pennsylvania officials have provided no as-

sistance. At last report the congressmen have left the

city and will reconvene the government at Prince-

ton, New Jersey.

Continental soldier

48 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsratify, unicameral, cede, ordinance

Find Out■ What weakness of the Articles of Confederation

made enforcing the laws of Congress impossible?

■ What evidence shows that financial problemswere the main cause of the call to amend the Articles of Confederation?

Understanding ConceptsFederalism What deficiencies in the Articles ofConfederation made them too weak to ensure thepeace and tranquility of the United States?

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Articles of Confederation, pages 808–811.

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Weaknesses of the ArticlesAlthough the Articles of Confederationgave Congress power, they created a weak

national government. Because each state had nointention of giving up its sovereignty to a centralgovernment, the Articles had weaknesses.

First, Congress did not have the power to levyor collect taxes. It could raise money only by bor-rowing or requesting money from the states. Eachstate had to collect taxes from its citizens and turnthe money over to the national treasury. Congresscould do little, however, if a state refused to pro-vide the money.

Second, Congress did not have the power toregulate trade. Economic disputes among the var-ious states and difficulty in making businessarrangements with other countries resulted.

Third, Congress could not force anyone toobey the laws it passed or to abide by the Articlesof Confederation. Congress could only advise andrequest the states to comply.

Fourth, laws needed the approval of 9 of the 13states. Usually, delegates from only 9 or 10 stateswere in Congress at any time, making it difficult topass laws. Also, each state had only a single vote.The votes of any 5 of the smaller states could blocka measure that 8 of the larger states wanted.

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 49

The Articles of Confederation established a league of cooperation among the 13 states, but the national government had only limited powers and was dependent on the states for revenue, soldiers, and law enforcement. Why was the Confederation Congress often short of money to run the government?

Critical Thinking

To enforce or impede national government policy

To control state militia

To withhold or grant revenues to the national government

To veto amendments to the Articles of Confederation

To regulate foreign and interstate commerce

Sovereign state governments had power …

PENNSYLVANIA

VIRGINIA

SOUTH CAROLINA

GEORGIA

NEWYORK

NEWHAMPSHIRE

RHODE ISLAND

NEW JERSEY

DELAWARE

CONNECTICUT

MARYLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

NORTH CAROLINA

Government Under the Articles of ConfederationGovernment Under the Articles of Confederation

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Fifth, amending, or changing, the Articles re-quired the consent of all states. In practice it was impossible to get all the states to agree onamendments. As a result the Articles were neveramended.

Sixth, the central government did not have anexecutive branch. The Confederation governmentcarried on much of its business, such as sellingwestern lands and establishing a postal system,through congressional committees. Without anexecutive, however, there was no unity in policymaking and no way to coordinate the work of thedifferent committees.

Finally, the government had no national courtsystem. Instead, state courts enforced and interpret-ed national laws. The lack of a court system made itdifficult for the central government to settle dis-putes among the states. A legislator from NorthCarolina addressed the powerlessness of the Con-federation in a speech to his state legislature in 1787:

“The general government ought . . . to possess the means of preserving the peaceand tranquility of the union. . . . The encroachments of some states, on the rightsof others, and of all on those of the confed-eracy, are incontestible [cannot be denied]proofs of the weakness and imperfection of that system.” —William Davie, 1787

AchievementsDespite its weaknesses, the Confederationaccomplished important tasks. The greatest

achievement was the establishment of a fair policyfor the development of the lands west of the Ap-palachians. The individual states ceded, or yield-ed, their claims to these territories to the centralgovernment, providing a focus for national unity.Congress enacted two land ordinances, or laws,that provided for the organization of theseterritories. The Ordinance of 1785 allowed for their survey and division, while the North-west Ordinance of 1787 established the prin-ciple that the territories were to be developed for statehood on an equal basis with the olderstates.

Another important accomplishment was apeace treaty with Great Britain. Under the terms ofthe treaty, signed in 1783, Britain recognizedAmerican independence. Land acquired fromBritain also greatly enlarged the nation’s bound-aries, including all land from the Atlantic coast tothe Mississippi River and from the Great Lakes andCanada to the present-day boundary of Florida.

Congress also set up the departments of For-eign Affairs, War, Marine, and the Treasury, eachunder a single permanent secretary. This develop-ment set a precedent for the creation of cabinet departments under the Constitution of 1787.

Applying for a Passport

Planning a trip overseas? If so, you may needa passport—an official document that grantsa citizen the right to travel to another country.

United States passports are issued by the Depart-ment of State in Washington, D.C.

A passport application can be obtained fromyour post office or from any federal or state court.There is a required fee, and two current, identicalphotos of your full face are needed to help provewho you are. You will also need a document, suchas a birth certificate, to prove that you are a U.S.citizen. Instructions on the application detail thetypes of proof of citizenship that are acceptable.

It is often the casethat several weeks maypass before you receive your passport in the mail,so apply well in advance ofthe trip. Your passport willbe valid for 5 or 10 years,depending on your age.

Investigate Further Search the Internet using theword passport to determine which foreign coun-tries have additional requirements for visitors.

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

50

A United States passport

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To encourage cooperationamong the states, the Arti-cles provided that each stategive “full faith and credit” tothe legal acts of the otherstates and treat one anoth-er’s citizens without dis-crimination. This provision,often ignored, was carried over to the Constitu-tion, under which it could be enforced.

Need for Stronger GovernmentDespite its achievements, the Confedera-tion faced difficulties in dealing with prob-

lems facing the nation. The structure of the centralgovernment could not coordinate the actions ofthe states effectively.

Growing Problems Soon after the war, thestates began to quarrel, mainly over boundary lines and tariffs. New Jersey farmers, for example,had to pay fees to sell their vegetables in New York.Some states even began to deal directly with for-eign nations. Congress could do little about thesematters.

Even worse, the new nation faced seriousmoney problems. By 1787 the government owed$40 million to foreign governments and to Ameri-can soldiers still unpaid after the RevolutionaryWar. Without money, the government could notmaintain an army for defense of the states.

The states also faced growing financial trou-bles. By 1786 an economic depression had leftmany farmers and small merchants angry and indebt.

Shays’s Rebellion These economic troublesled to rebellion. Armed groups of farmers forcedseveral courts to close in order to prevent farmforeclosures and the loss of their farms. The menhoped that the state would pass laws allowingthem to keep their farms through the depression.Daniel Shays, a former captain in the Revolu-tionary Army, led a band that closed the Massa-chusetts state supreme court. When their pleasbrought no help from the justices, Shays gathereda force of 1200 men and advanced on the federalarsenal in Springfield.

The Massachusetts militia put down therebellion, but the armed unrest frightened Ameri-can leaders. Henry Knox, later the nation’s firstsecretary of war, echoed the growing number ofAmericans who were ready to agree to a strong na-tional government. In a letter to George Washington,Knox wrote:

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 51

Reaction to RebellionHow do you think Americans viewed thegovernment afterShays’s Rebellion?

Past Government authorities often jaileddebtor farmers or seized their property. Shaysled armed men to capture and close the courts,stopping land confiscations.

Present This marker commemorates Shays’srevolt. The state militia attacked Shays’s menin this field and killed more than 30 of them.

▲

▲

Growing Unrest

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“This dreadful situation has alarmed every man of principle and propertyin New England. [Peoplewake] as from a dreamand ask what has beenthe cause of our delu-sion. What [will] giveus security against theviolence of lawlessmen? Our governmentmust be [strengthened],changed, or altered to secure our lives and property.”—Henry Knox

The Annapolis ConventionThe Constitutional Conventionwas the result of two previousmeetings. George Washington, re-tired and living at his Mount Ver-non estate, was concerned aboutproblems that had arisen between Maryland andhis home state of Virginia. In 1785 he invited representatives from both states to Mount Vernon to discuss differences over their currencies, import duties, and navigation on the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay.The meeting was very successful, inspiring Vir-ginia’s representatives in 1786 to call all states to another meeting—a convention at Annapolis,

Maryland, to discuss commerce. Al-though all states were invited, only

five sent delegates. Among the dele-gates were Alexander Hamilton of New York and James Madison of Virginia, two leaders who favored a stronger national government. With Shays and his followers threatening the

government of Massachu-setts, Hamilton per-

suaded the otherdelegates to call for

another conven-tion in Philadel-phia in May1787. The pur-pose of thismeeting wouldbe to regulatecommerce among

the states and topropose changes

that would make thenational government

more effective.After some hesitation,

the Confederation Congress gave its consent tohold the Philadelphia convention “for the sole andexpress purpose of revising the Articles of Confed-eration.” The stage was now set for what has beencalled the “miracle at Philadelphia.”

DelegatesAlexanderHamilton(above) and JamesMadison(right)

Sect ion 3 AssessmentSect ion 3 Assessment

Federalism The plan for confederation that wasratified in 1781 called for a “league of friend-ship” among 13 independent states. What are some examples of interstate cooperationtoday? Find a recent example of states cooper-ating with one another in issues such as curb-ing air pollution or cleaning up waterways.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to

the one below, list the major weaknesses of government under the Articles of Confederation and its achievements.

2. Define ratify, unicameral, cede, ordinance.3. Identify Northwest Ordinance.4. How was the original government under the

Articles of Confederation organized?5. Describe two financial problems that could not

be resolved under the Articles of Confederation.

Critical Thinking6. Identifying Central Issues What problems did

Shays’s Rebellion reveal?

52 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Articles of ConfederationWeaknesses Achievements

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The Constitutional Convention began itswork on May 25, 1787. All the states ex-cept Rhode Island sent delegates. Thestate legislatures appointed 74 delegates

to the Convention, but only 55 attended. Of these,39 signed the final constitution.

The Convention BeginsThe delegates had great practical experiencein politics. Seven had served as governors of

their states. Thirty-nine had served in the Confed-eration Congress. Many had helped write theirstate constitutions. Eight had signed the Declara-tion of Independence, and six delegates had signedthe Articles of Confederation.

Several men stood out as leaders. The presenceof George Washington ensured that many peoplewould trust the Convention’s work. BenjaminFranklin, world famous as a scientist and diplo-mat, now 81 years old, played an active role in thedebates.

Two other Pennsylvanians also played keyroles. James Wilson often read Franklin’s speech-es and did important work on the details of theConstitution. Gouverneur Morris, an eloquentspeaker and writer, wrote the final draft of theConstitution.

From Virginia came James Madison, a bril-liant advocate of a strong national government.His careful notes are the major source of infor-mation about the Convention’s work. Madisonis often called the Father of the Constitutionbecause he was the author of the basic plan ofgovernment that the Convention eventuallyadopted.

Organization The Convention began byunanimously choosing George Washington topreside over the meetings. It also decided thateach state would have one vote on all questions.A simple majority vote of those states presentwould make decisions. No meetings could be

The Constitutional ConventionS e c t i o n 4S e c t i o n 4

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 53

Massachusetts Approves!BOSTON, FEBRUARY 1788

By a narrow margin,

Massachusetts yester-

day became the sixth state

to approve the proposed

new national constitution.

The vote by the special rati-

fying convention ended

nearly a month of heated

debate on the issue. Last-

minute support by Gover-

nor John Hancock and

well-known radical leader

Sam Adams may have been

the key to the Federalist victory. The Federalists

seem to have won Adams’s endorsement by promis-

ing changes to the proposed constitution. Hancock’s

support is believed to come from the suggestion that

he would become the first president if Virginia failed

to approve the document, making George Washing-

ton ineligible for that office.

John Hancock

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsinterstate commerce, extralegal, anarchy

Find Out■ How did the Connecticut Compromise settle the

most divisive issue among members of the Constitutional Convention?

■ What were the key arguments presented by theFederalists and Anti-Federalists?

Understanding ConceptsCivil Liberties Why do you think many people insisted on a Bill of Rights in the Constitution?

053-061 CH02S4-860053 12/1/04 1:34 AM Page 53

held unless delegates from at least seven of the 13states were present.

The delegates decided to keep the public andpress from attending the sessions. This was a keydecision because it made it possible for the dele-gates to talk freely.

Key Agreements While the delegates original-ly came together to revise the Articles, they eventu-ally agreed to abandon the former government andbegin again. The delegates reached a consensus onmany basic issues. All favored the idea of limitedand representative government. They agreed thatthe powers of the national government should bedivided among legislative, executive, and judicialbranches. They all believed it was necessary tolimit the power of the states to coin money or tointerfere with creditors’ rights. And all of themagreed that they should strengthen the nationalgovernment.

The great debates and compromises of theConvention were not over these fundamentalquestions. Rather, they dealt with how to put theseideas into practice.

Decisions and CompromisesAfter the rules were adopted, the Conven-tion opened with a surprise. It came from

the Virginia delegation who presented a plan for astrong national government.

The Virginia Plan On May 29 Edmund Ran-dolph of Virginia introduced 15 resolutions thatJames Madison had drafted. They came to becalled the Virginia Plan. The plan proposed a gov-ernment based on three principles: (1) a strong na-tional legislature with two chambers, the lower oneto be chosen by the people and the upper chamberto be chosen by the lower. The legislature wouldhave the power to bar any state laws it found un-constitutional; (2) a strong national executive to bechosen by the national legislature; and (3) a na-tional judiciary to be appointed by the legislature.

The introduction of the Virginia Plan was abrilliant political move on the part of the national-ists. By offering a complete plan at the very start,the nationalists set the direction and agenda forthe rest of the Convention. Eventually, and aftermuch discussion by delegates who required a

number of modifications, the Virginia Plan be-came the basis of the new Constitution.

The delegates debated the Virginia Plan formore than two weeks. Delegates from the smallerstates soon realized that the larger, more populousstates would be in control of a strong national gov-ernment under the Virginia Plan. The smallerstates wanted a less powerful government withmore independence for the states.

The New Jersey Plan On June 15 the dele-gates from the small states, led by William Patersonof New Jersey, made a counterproposal. The NewJersey Plan called for government based on keep-ing the major feature of the Articles of Confedera-tion—a unicameral legislature, with one vote foreach state. Congress, however, would be strength-ened by giving it the power to impose taxes andregulate trade. A weak executive consisting of morethan one person would be elected by Congress. Anational judiciary with limited power would beappointed by the executive.

Paterson argued that the Convention shouldnot deprive the smaller states of the equality theyhad under the Articles. Thus, his plan was designedsimply to amend the Articles. The central govern-ment was to continue as a confederation of sover-eign states. After some discussion the New JerseyPlan was rejected. The delegates returned to con-sidering the Virginia Plan.

As the summer grew hotter, so did the dele-gates’ tempers. Soon the Convention was dead-locked over the question of the representation ofstates in Congress. Should the states be represent-ed on the basis of population (favored by the large-state delegations) or should they be representedequally, regardless of population (favored by thesmall-state delegations)? The debate was bitter,and the Convention was in danger of dissolving.

The Connecticut Compromise Finally, aspecial committee designed a compromise. Calledthe Connecticut Compromise because Roger Sher-man and the delegation from that state played akey role on the committee, this plan was adoptedafter long debate. The compromise suggested thatthe legislative branch have two parts: (1) a Houseof Representatives, with state representation basedon population. All revenue laws—concerningspending and taxes—would begin in this house;

54 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

053-061 CH02S4-860053 12/1/04 1:34 AM Page 54

and (2) a Senate, with two mem-bers from each state. State legisla-tures would elect senators.

The larger states would havean advantage in the House of Rep-resentatives, where representationwas to be based on population.The smaller states would be protect-ed in the Senate, where each statewould have equal representation.

The Three-Fifths Compro-mise A second compromise set-tled a disagreement over how todetermine how many representa-tives each state would have in theHouse. Almost one-third of thepeople in the Southern states wereenslaved African Americans. Thesestates wanted enslaved persons tobe counted the same as free peopleto give the South more representa-tion. At the same time, the Southern states did notwant enslaved persons counted at all for levyingtaxes. Because the North did not have many enslavedpersons, Northern states took the opposite posi-tion. They wanted the enslaved persons countedfor tax purposes but not for representation.

The Three-Fifths Compromise settled thisdeadlock. Three-fifths of the enslaved people were to be counted for both tax purposes and for representation.

Compromise on Commerce and theSlave Trade A third compromise resolved a dis-pute over commerce and the slave trade itself. TheNorthern states wanted the government to havecomplete power over trade with other nations. TheSouthern states depended heavily on agriculturalexports. They feared that business interests in theNorth might have enough votes in Congress to setup trade agreements that would hurt them. Theyalso feared the North might interfere with the slavetrade.

Again, a compromise settled the issue. The del-egates determined that Congress could not ban theslave trade until 1808. At the same time, they gaveCongress the power to regulate both interstatecommerce, or trade among the states, and foreigncommerce. To protect the South’s exports, however,

Congress wasforbidden toimpose ex-port taxes. Asa result, theUnited States is one of the few nations in the worldtoday that does not tax its exports.

The Slavery Question The word slave doesnot appear in the Constitution. Beyond the com-promises just discussed, the Constitution dealtwith slavery only by noting that those escaping tofree states could be returned to the slaveholders(Article IV, Section 2).1 At the time, many North-ern states were beginning to outlaw slavery. Mass-achusetts, Delaware, Connecticut, Pennsylvania,and Rhode Island were all devising ways to elimi-nate the practice of slavery. This effort took time,however, and most Northern states did not com-pletely eliminate slavery until the early 1800s.

Whatever their personal beliefs about slavery,the delegates knew that the Southern states wouldnever accept the Constitution if it interfered withslavery. Thus, in order to create the badly needednew government, the Founders compromised on

Constitutional IdealsBy accepting the Three-Fifths Compromise, theFramers, in essence, con-doned slavery. Leaders, like Thomas Jefferson, (left)accepted slavery as a socialnorm. Isaac Jefferson,(below) was an enslavedworker at Jefferson’s home,Monticello. How does slav-ery clash with the idealsof the Revolution?

The Three-Fifths Compromise

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Constitution, pages 774–799.

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 55

053-061 CH02S4-860053 12/1/04 1:34 AM Page 55

the slavery question. Their refusal to deal withslavery left it to later generations of Americans toresolve this great and terrible issue.

Other Compromises The delegates compro-mised on several other issues to complete the Con-stitution. The debate over how to elect thepresident included the election of the president di-rectly by the people, by Congress, and by state leg-islatures. The present Electoral College system, inwhich each state selects electors to choose the pres-ident, was finally agreed to as a compromise. Sim-ilarly, the president’s four-year term was acompromise between those wanting a longer termand those who feared a long term would give thepresident too much power.

On September 8, 1787, a Committee of Styleand Arrangements began polishing the final draft.By September 17 the document was ready. Thirty-nine delegates stepped forward to sign the Consti-tution. The aging Ben Franklin had to be helped to the table to sign. As others went up to sign, he

remarked that during the long debates he had oftenlooked at the sun painted on the back of GeneralWashington’s chair and wondered whether it wasrising or setting. “[B]ut now at length I have thehappiness to know,” he said, “it is a rising and nota setting Sun.”

Ratifying the ConstitutionFor the new Constitution to become law, 9of the 13 states had to ratify it. The political

debate over ratification lasted until May 29, 1790,when Rhode Island finally voted for approval. TheConstitution, however, actually went into effect onJune 21, 1788, when New Hampshire became theninth state to ratify it.

The Federalists and Anti-FederalistsThe great debate over ratification quickly dividedthe people in the states. Fervent debates broke outin the newspapers. One group, known as the Fed-eralists, favored the Constitution and was led bymany of the Founders. Their support came main-ly from merchants and others in the cities andcoastal regions. The other group, called the Anti-Federalists, opposed the new Constitution. Theydrew support largely from the inland farmers andlaborers, who feared a strong national govern-ment. The lines of support, however, were notclearly drawn, and many city and business peopleagreed with the opponents of the Constitution.

The Anti-Federalists criticized the Constitu-tion for having been drafted in secrecy. Theyclaimed the document was extralegal, not sanc-tioned by law, since the Convention had been au-thorized only to revise the old Articles. Theyfurther argued that the Constitution took impor-tant powers from the states.

The Anti-Federalists’ strongest argument, how-ever, was that the Constitution lacked a Bill ofRights. The Convention had considered includingsuch a bill. However, the delegates decided that theinclusion was not needed because the Constitutiondid not give the government power to violate thepeople’s rights.Anti-Federalists warned that withouta Bill of Rights, a strong national government mighttake away the human rights won in the Revolution.They demanded that the new Constitution clearlyguarantee the people’s freedoms. Patrick Henry wasa strong opponent of the Constitution. He stated:

56 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Rising sun chair, Constitutional Convention

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“The necessity of a Bill ofRights appears to me to begreater in this governmentthan ever it was in any gov-ernment before. . . . All rightsnot expressly and unequivo-cally reserved to the peopleare impliedly and incidental-ly relinquished to rulers. . . .If you intend to reserve yourunalienable rights, you musthave the most express stipu-lation; for . . . if the people do not think it necessary toreserve them, they will supposed to be given up.”—Patrick Henry, 1788

The Federalists, on the otherhand, argued that without a strongnational government, anarchy, orpolitical disorder, would triumph.They claimed that only a strong na-tional government could protect thenew nation from enemies abroadand solve the country’s internalproblems. They also claimed that aBill of Rights was not needed sinceeight states already had such bills intheir state constitutions. To gain thenecessary support, however, theFederalists promised to add a Bill ofRights as the first order of businessunder a new government.

Progress Toward RatificationWith the promise of a Bill of Rights,the tide turned in favor of the Consti-tution. Many small states ratified itquickly because they were pleasedwith equal representation in the newSenate. Although the Constitutionwent into effect when New Hamp-shire ratified it, Virginia and New York had not votedfor approval. In Virginia, George Washington, JamesMadison, and Edmund Randolph helped swing aclose vote on June 25, 1788. In New York, AlexanderHamilton argued the case for six weeks. Finally,on July 26, the Federalists in New York won by only three votes.

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 57

Critical Thinking The Constitution survived strong opposition from a number of the original 13 states. Why were some states hesitant to ratify the Constitution?

200 kilometers0

200 miles0

AtlanticOcean

MASSACHUSETTSFeb. 6, 1788

NEW HAMPSHIRE

June 21, 1788

NEW YORKJuly 26, 1788

PENNSYLVANIADec. 12, 1787

NEW JERSEYDec. 18, 1787

DELAWAREDec. 7, 1787

MARYLANDApril 28, 1788

VIRGINIAJune 25, 1788

NORTH CAROLINANov. 21, 1789*

SOUTH CAROLINAMay 23, 1788

GEORGIAJan. 2, 1788

RHODE ISLAND

May 29, 1790

CONNECTICUTJan. 9, 1788

N

Ratifying the Constitution Ratifying the Constitution

Ratified after the Constitution became fully effective

Substantially opposed ratification

Strongly supported ratification

Unanimously ratified

*Ratification was originally defeated; date represents second vote.

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Federalist, No. 10, pages 812–814 and

The Federalist, No. 51, pages 815–816.

To help win the battle in New York, Hamilton,Madison, and John Jay published more than 80 es-says defending the new Constitution. Later theywere collected in a book called The Federalist. 1

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Launching a New State With ratification byVirginia and New York, the new governmentbegan, with New York City as the nation’s tempo-rary capital. George Washington was elected presi-dent and John Adams vice president. Voters elected22 senators and 59 representatives, and on March4, 1789, Congress met for the first time in FederalHall in New York. On April 30 Washington took

the oath of office to become the first president ofthe United States.

To fulfill the promises made during the fightfor ratification, James Madison introduced a set ofamendments during the first session of Congress.Congress approved 12 amendments and the statesratified 10 of them in 1791. These first 10 amend-ments became known as the Bill of Rights.

Civil Liberties The Bill of Rights, important inthe ratification of the Constitution, continuesto be a strong foundation of the American po-litical system. Analyze civil liberties issues inthe news. Write a short news article about whythe Bill of Rights is important today.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to the

one at the right, analyzehow the Connecticut Compromise provided fair treatment for both large and small states.

2. Define interstate commerce, extralegal, anarchy.3. Identify Father of the Constitution, Patrick Henry.4. Identify the key issues on which the delegates to

the Constitutional Convention agreed.5. Who were the authors of The Federalist and what

was the purpose for writing it?

Critical Thinking6. Analyzing Information Evaluate the impact of

the Federalists and Anti-Federalists on theConstitution.

Sect ion 4 AssessmentSect ion 4 Assessment

Choosing Sides The woodcutshows the “Ship of State”being paraded by Federalists insupport of the Constitution. Theportrait is of Patrick Henry, anoutspoken Anti-Federalist. Analyze The Federalist,Hamilton’s argument for theConstitution, and the Anti-Federalists’ argument against it.

The Constitutional Debate

58 CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

PatrickHenry

Small states ... Large states ...

Connecticut Compromise

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Interpreting Points of View

Suppose you want to see a new movie, butyour friends’ opinions range from “terrific”to “boring.” People often have different

opinions about the same people, events, orissues because they look at them from differentpoints of view.

Learning the Skill

A point of view results from one’s own beliefsand values. Many factors affect an individual’spoint of view, including age, gender, racial orethnic background, economic class, and religion.To judge the accuracy or the objectivity of an argument, you must first identify the speaker’spoint of view.

To interpret point of view in written material,gather background information on the author thatmight reveal his or her point of view. Identifyaspects of the topic that the author chooses to em-phasize or exclude. Look for emotionally chargedwords such as charming, vicious, heartwarming,and drastic. Also notice metaphors and analogiesthat imply an opinion, such as, “If this budget canwork, then pigs can fly.”

Practicing the Skill

Read the following excerpt from James Madison’s The Federalist, No. 10. Then answer the questions that follow.

From this view of the subject it may be concludedthat a pure democracy, by which I mean a societyconsisting of a small number of citizens, who assembleand administer the government in person, can admitof no cure for the mischiefs of faction.

. . . Hence it is that such democracies have everbeen spectacles of turbulence and contention; have

ever been found incompatible with personal securityor the rights of property; and have in general been asshort in their lives as they have been violent in theirdeaths. . . .

A republic, by which I mean a government inwhich the scheme of representation takes place, opensa different prospect, and promises the cure for whichwe are seeking.1. What subject is Madison addressing? For what

group is he speaking?2. What is Madison’s point of view?3. What emotionally charged words and phrases

reveal Madison’s point of view?

59

Application ActivityApplication ActivityIn a newspaper or magazine, find an

editorial or letter to the editor that expresses a point of view on an issue. Write a paragraphanalyzing the author’s point of view. Compareit to your own and explain why you agree ordisagree with the author.

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Reviewing Key TermsWrite a paragraph that summarizes the key pointsof this chapter. Use all of the following terms.

1. limited government 5. ratify2. cede 6. anarchy3. representative 7. ordinance

government 8. interstate commerce4. revenue

Recalling Facts1. Identify three key ideas found in the English

Bill of Rights.2. According to John Locke, what fundamental

element made government legitimate?3. Describe the practices established by colonial

governments that became a basic part of oursystem of government.

4. What tasks did the Second ContinentalCongress accomplish?

5. Why was the Declaration of Independence a revolutionary document?

6. What achievements were made under the Articles of Confederation?

7. State the position of small states in thedebate over representation in Congress.

8. What issue did the Convention delegatesrefuse to settle in 1787?

Understanding Concepts 1. Growth of Democracy Analyze the impact of the

English political heritage on the United Statesand its importance to the Declaration ofIndependence.

2. Federalism In your opinion, why were the Articles of Confederation an unworkable or unrealistic plan of government?

3. Civil Liberties Why did the Anti-Federalists insist on a Bill of Rights?

Critical Thinking1. Understanding Cause and Effect Use a graphic

organizer like the one below to analyze thecause for each effect listed.

2. Synthesizing Information How do you accountfor the contradiction between the constitutionalacceptance of slavery and the ideals set forthin both the Declaration of Independence andthe Constitution?

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 2Chapter 2

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 2–Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

Cause Effecta strong central governmentcompromises in theConstitution

• The Magna Carta established principle of limited government• The English Bill of Rights limited the powers of the monarch• House of Commons exemplified representative government

English Traditions

• New government balanced need for strong central government with continued state power

• Inclusion of Bill of Rights ensured ratification of newgovernment

New Constitutional Government

• Declaration of Independence formally separated coloniesfrom England

• Articles of Confederation emphasized state governmentsover a strong federal government

Colonial Independence

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Analyzing PrimarySourcesInspired by the American Revo-lution, French Revolutionariesdeclared war on the crown in1789. They created a writtendocument similar to the U.S.Declaration of Independence,specifying the rights for whichFrench citizens were fighting.Read the excerpt and answerthe questions that follow.

“Approved by the National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789

The representatives of the Frenchpeople, organized as a NationalAssembly, believing that the igno-rance, neglect, or contempt of therights of man are the sole cause ofpublic calamities and of the corrup-tion of governments, have deter-mined to set forth in a solemndeclaration the natural, unalienable,and sacred rights of man . . . in orderthat the grievances of the citizens, based hereafter upon sim-ple and incontestable principles, shall tend to the mainte-nance of the constitution and redound to the happiness ofall. Therefore the National Assembly recognizes and proclaims . . .the following rights of man and of the citizen:

Articles:1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. . . .

2. The aim of all political association is the preservationof the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. Theserights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise anyauthority which does not proceed directly from the nation.”

1. How is the preamble to this document similarto the U.S. Declaration of Independence?

2. Why do you think French Revolutionaries usedthe Declaration of Independence as a modelfor their own document?

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 61

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

1. What symbol represents the colonies in this 1779 political cartoon?

2. Who do you think the rider on the horse is?3. What is the message of this cartoon?

Applying Technology SkillsUsing Software Programs Newspaper car-toons were important tools to stir public opinionagainst Great Britain at the time of the Revolution. Use software clip art to create a political cartoonthat might have appeared in a colonial newspaper. The cartoon should illustrate the colonists’ feelingstoward Britain.

Participating in Local GovernmentInvestigate the history of your localgovernment. Visit local governmentoffices to find out about your commu-nity’s origins and early leaders. Describehow the government grew and changed over theyears. Prepare a brochure about the early governments of your community with the class.

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